http://hydropower.id.doe.gov/turbines/index.

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How Hydropower Works
Hydropower is using water to power machinery or make electricity. Water constantly
moves through a vast global cycle, evaporating from lakes and oceans, forming clouds,
precipitating as rain or snow, then flowing back down to the ocean. The energy of this
water cycle, which is driven by the sun, can be tapped to produce electricity or for
mechanical tasks like grinding grain. Hydropower uses a fuelwaterthat is not reduced
or used up in the process. Because the water cycle is an endless, constantly recharging
system, hydropower is considered a renewable energy.

The Water (Hydrologic) Cycle

When flowing water is captured and turned into electricity, it is called hydroelectric power
or hydropower. There are several types of hydroelectric facilities; they are all powered by
the kinetic energy of flowing water as it moves downstream. Turbines and generators
convert the energy into electricity, which is then fed into the electrical grid to be used in
homes, businesses, and by industry.

Types of Hydropower Turbines

There are two main types of hydro turbines: impulse and reaction. The type of
hydropower turbine selected for a project is based on the height of standing water
referred to as "head"and the flow, or volume of water, at the site. Other deciding
factors include how deep the turbine must be set, efficiency, and cost.
Terms used on this page are defined in the glossary.

Impulse Turbine
The impulse turbine generally uses the velocity of the water to move the runner and
discharges to atmospheric pressure. The water stream hits each bucket on the runner.
There is no suction on the down side of the turbine, and the water flows out the bottom
of the turbine housing after hitting the runner. An impulse turbine is generally suitable for
high head, low flow applications.

Pelton hydropower turbine

Credit: GE Energy

Pelton
A pelton wheel has one or more free jets discharging water into an aerated space
and impinging on the buckets of a runner. Draft tubes are not required for impulse
turbine since the runner must be located above the maximum tailwater to permit
operation at atmospheric pressure.
A Turgo Wheel is a variation on the Pelton and is made exclusively by Gilkes in
England. The Turgo runner is a cast wheel whose shape generally resembles a fan
blade that is closed on the outer edges. The water stream is applied on one side,
goes across the blades and exits on the other side.

Cross-Flow
A cross-flow turbine is drum-shaped and uses an elongated, rectangular-section
nozzle directed against curved vanes on a cylindrically shaped runner. It
resembles a "squirrel cage" blower. The cross-flow turbine allows the water to flow
through the blades twice. The first pass is when the water flows from the outside
of the blades to the inside; the second pass is from the inside back out. A guide
vane at the entrance to the turbine directs the flow to a limited portion of the
runner. The cross-flow was developed to accommodate larger water flows and
lower heads than the Pelton.

Reaction Turbine
A reaction turbine develops power from the combined action of pressure and moving
water. The runner is placed directly in the water stream flowing over the blades rather
than striking each individually. Reaction turbines are generally used for sites with lower
head and higher flows than compared with the impulse turbines.

Propeller hydropower turbine

Credit: GE Energy

Propeller
A propeller turbine generally has a runner with three to six blades in which the
water contacts all of the blades constantly. Picture a boat propeller running in a
pipe. Through the pipe, the pressure is constant; if it isn't, the runner would be
out of balance. The pitch of the blades may be fixed or adjustable. The major
components besides the runner are a scroll case, wicket gates, and a draft tube.
There are several different types of propeller turbines:

Bulb hydropower turbine

Credit: GE Energy

Bulb turbine
The turbine and generator are a sealed unit placed directly in the water
stream.

Straflo
The generator is attached directly to the perimeter of the turbine.

Tube turbine
The penstock bends just before or after the runner, allowing a straight line
connection to the generator.

Kaplan

Kaplan hydropower turbine

Credit: GE Energy

Both the blades and the wicket gates are adjustable, allowing for a wider
range of operation.

Francis

Francis hydropower turbine

Credit: GE Energy

A Francis turbine has a runner with fixed buckets (vanes), usually nine or more.
Water is introduced just above the runner and all around it and then falls through,
causing it to spin. Besides the runner, the other major components are the scroll
case, wicket gates, and draft tube.

Kinetic
Kinetic energy turbines, also called free-flow turbines, generate electricity from
the kinetic energy present in flowing water rather than the potential energy from
the head. The systems may operate in rivers, man-made channels, tidal waters,
or ocean currents. Kinetic systems utilize the water stream's natural pathway.
They do not require the diversion of water through manmade channels, riverbeds,

or pipes, although they might have applications in such conduits. Kinetic systems
do not require large civil works; however, they can use existing structures such as
bridges, tailraces and channels.

Glossary of Hydropower Terms

The glossary of terms defines the components that make up hydro turbines and
hydropower plants. Visit Types of Hydropower Plants to view hydropower plant
illustrations.
Alternating current (AC)
Electric current that reverses direction many times per second.
Ancillary services
Operations provided by hydroelectric plants that ensure stable electricity delivery
and optimize transmission system efficiency.
Cavitation
Noise or vibration causing damage to the turbine blades as a results of bubbles
that form in the water as it goes through the turbine which causes a loss in
capacity, head loss, efficiency loss, and the cavity or bubble collapses when they
pass into higher regions of pressure.
Direct current (DC)
Electric current which flows in one direction.
Draft tube
A water conduit, which can be straight or curved depending upon the turbine
installation, that maintains a column of water from the turbine outlet and the
downstream water level.
Efficiency
A percentage obtained by dividing the actual power or energy by the theoretical
power or energy. It represents how well the hydropower plant converts the energy
of the water into electrical energy.
Head

Vertical change in elevation, expressed in either feet or meters, between the head
water level and the tailwater level.

Flow
Volume of water, expressed as cubic feet or cubic meters per second, passing a
point in a given amount of time.
Headwater
The water level above the powerhouse.
Low Head
Head of 66 feet or less.
Penstock
A closed conduit or pipe for conducting water to the powerhouse.
Runner

The rotating part of the turbine that converts the energy of falling water into
mechanical energy.
Scroll case
A spiral-shaped steel intake guiding the flow into the wicket gates located just
prior to the turbine.
Small hydro
Projects that produce 30 MW or less.
Tailrace
The channel that carries water away from a dam.
Tailwater
The water downstream of the powerhouse.
Ultra low head
Head of 10 feet or less.
Wicket gates
Adjustable elements that control the flow of water to the turbine passage.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydropower

This fish ladder on the Ice Harbor Dam on the lower Snake River provides safe passage for
migrating fish.

Hydropower offers advantages over other energy sources but faces unique environmental
challenges.

Advantages
Hydropower is a fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source. Hydropower doesn't pollute
the air like power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas.
Hydropower is a domestic source of energy, produced in the United States.

Hydropower relies on the water cycle, which is driven by the sun, thus it's a renewable
power source.
Hydropower is generally available as needed; engineers can control the flow of water
through the turbines to produce electricity on demand.
Hydropower plants provide benefits in addition to clean electricity. Impoundment
hydropower creates reservoirs that offer a variety of recreational opportunities, notably
fishing, swimming, and boating. Most hydropower installations are required to provide
some public access to the reservoir to allow the public to take advantage of these
opportunities. Other benefits may include water supply and flood control.

Disadvantages
Fish populations can be impacted if fish cannot migrate upstream past impoundment
dams to spawning grounds or if they cannot migrate downstream to the ocean. Upstream
fish passage can be aided using fish ladders or elevators, or by trapping and hauling the
fish upstream by truck. Downstream fish passage is aided by diverting fish from turbine
intakes using screens or racks or even underwater lights and sounds, and by maintaining
a minimum spill flow past the turbine.
Hydropower can impact water quality and flow. Hydropower plants can cause low
dissolved oxygen levels in the water, a problem that is harmful to riparian (riverbank)
habitats and is addressed using various aeration techniques, which oxygenate the water.
Maintaining minimum flows of water downstream of a hydropower installation is also
critical for the survival of riparian habitats.
Hydropower plants can be impacted by drought. When water is not available, the
hydropower plants can't produce electricity.
New hydropower facilities impact the local environment and may compete with other uses
for the land. Those alternative uses may be more highly valued than electricity
generation. Humans, flora, and fauna may lose their natural habitat. Local cultures and
historical sites may be impinged upon. Some older hydropower facilities may have
historic value, so renovations of these facilities must also be sensitive to such
preservation concerns and to impacts on plant and animal life.

Hydropower Research and Development

The United States faces many challenges as it prepares to meet its energy needs in the
twenty-first century. Electricity supply crises, fluctuating natural gas and gasoline prices,
heightened concerns about the security of the domestic energy infrastructure and of
foreign sources of supply, and uncertainties about the benefits of utility restructuring are
all elements of the energy policy challenge. Hydropower is an important part of the
diverse energy portfolio that is needed for a stable, reliable energy sector in the United
States.
Responding to these national energy issues, DOE recently restructured hydropower R&D,
which is now organized around two primary areas:

Enhancing the viability of hydropower developing new, cost-effective, advanced

technologies that will have enhanced environmental performance and greater
energy efficiencies. When implemented, these technologies will enable a 10
percent growth in hydropower generation at existing plants.

Expanding the application of hydropower providing supporting research in

power systems integration, resource assessment, innovative technology
characterization, valuation and performance metrics, industry support, and
technology acceptance.

Current R&D
While hydropower turbine manufacturers have incrementally improved turbine technology
to improve efficiencies, the basic design concepts haven't changed for decades. These
late 19th and early 20th century designs did not consider environmental effects, since
little was known about environmental effects of hydropower at the time.
During the 1980s, the environmental concerns in the United States became more
important in hydropower projects, both existing and planned. This trend is slowly
spreading across the globe.
The hydropower industry recognizes that hydropower plants have an effect on the
environment. The industry also recognizes that there is a great need to bring hydro
turbine designs into the 21st century. The industry visualizes innovative hydro turbines
designed from a new perspective. This perspective would look at the "turbine system"
(which could include everything except the dam and powerhouse) to balance
environmental, technical, and economic considerations.
Environmental Challenges
Although hydroelectric power plants have many advantages over other energy sources,
the potential environmental impacts are also well known. Most of the adverse impacts of
dams are caused by habitat alterations. Reservoirs associated with large dams can cover
land and river habitat with water and displace human populations. Diverting water out of
the stream channel (or storing water for future electrical generation) can dry out
streamside vegetation. Insufficient stream flow degrades habitat for fish and other
aquatic organisms in the affected river reach below the dam. Water in the reservoir is
stagnant compared to a free-flowing river, so water-borne sediments and nutrients can be
trapped, resulting in the undesirable growth and spread of algae and aquatic weeds. In
some cases, water spilled from high dams may become supersaturated with nitrogen gas
and cause gas-bubble disease in aquatic organisms inhabiting the tailwaters below the
hydropower plant.
Hydropower projects can also affect aquatic organisms directly. The dam can block
upstream movements of migratory fish such as salmon, steelhead, American shad,
sturgeon, paddlefish, and eels. Downstream-moving fish may be drawn into the power
plant intake flow and pass through the turbine. These fish are exposed to physical
stresses (pressure changes, shear, turbulence, strike) that may cause disorientation,
physiological stress, injury, or death.
R&D is currently underway that will help fishery biologists and turbine designers better
understand what is happening in the turbine passage. Biological tests are being
conducted that will quantify the physical stresses that cause injury or death to fish. In
addition to these tests, tools are being developed to help both the engineers and
biologists. These tools include developing a Sensor Fish, which is a "crash dummy fish." It
will be able to measure the physical stresses in a turbine passage and can be used
instead of live fish to gather information. Another tool is the development of a
computational fluid dynamics program that models potential fish behavior in the turbine
passage. The test results and tools will help turbine manufacturers design a more
environmentally friendly turbine, which will reduce the physical stresses to which fish are

exposed. New products such as greaseless bearings eliminate the possibility of petroleum
products being released in the water.
Read more about DOE's research.
Hydro Turbine Development
In the mid-1990s, the U.S. Department of Energy began research into advanced
hydropower technology. The goal is to develop systems that generate more electricity
with less environmental impact. DOE funded the conceptual designs of four turbine types:
a redesigned Kaplan and Francis turbine, a dissolved-oxygen-enhancing turbine, and a
new turbine type that borrows technology from the food processing industry. The image
shows what the new turbine design would look like.

This new hydro turbine design may be more fish friendly.

This new turbine design proceeded into the proof-of-concept stage for biological and
engineering tests. Part of the proof-of-concept was to verify the biological design
assumptions and the issue of whether the results of biological testing of a smaller model
can be scaled upward to a full-sized turbine.
Many of the turbine manufacturers have begun designing environmentally friendly
turbines, based on a potential market not only in the United States, but also worldwide.
In 2002, DOE selected three projects where environmentally friendly turbines will be
installed and tested. Two projects involve improving downstream fish passage and one
involves increasing dissolved oxygen in discharged water. Other federal agencies and
utilities are conducting research into hydropower plant operation to improve fish habitat.
Read more about DOE's research.

Future of R&D
The Hydro R&D Forum was held in 2001 to develop an agenda for hydro industry
research and development activities worthy of pursuit in the years ahead. The forum
brought together representatives from various parts of the hydro industry.

R&D needs were identified and prioritized by the following topic areas:

Performance and Production

Environmental Issues
Innovative Operations and Maintenance (O&M)
Multi-Purpose Values
Human Resource Issues

The top issues in each area were then prioritized. Below are the top ten industry R&D
needs identified in 2001:
1. Quantify and Communicate Hydropower's Value Compared to the Power
Mix
Needs include developing objective criteria for measuring and valuing
hydropower's non-power attributes. Criteria should be based on internationally
recognized standards, should permit comparisons across generation sources,
recognize emissions as well as effects on aquatic and land resources, and take
into account the entire life cycle of facilities associated with electricity production.
2. Continue Advanced Hydro Turbine Development and Deployment
Achieving progress on advanced hydro technology, which aims to reduce mortality
of fish passing through turbines. Recommended new areas of emphasis include
water quality improvement without compromising energy generation efficiency.
3. Develop Business Model for O&M Decision Support Based on Condition
Monitoring
Condition monitoring equipment and systems are increasingly being used.
However, the availability of new information poses the conundrum of how to
optimally use this information for making both major and minor business
decisions in support of facilities operation and maintenance.
4. Improve Methods to Quantify Costs and Benefits from Ancillary Services
Hydro plant owners and operators recognize that the ancillary services often
provided by their facilities are valuable; however, market structures often fail to
appropriately recognize these values. As a consequence, returns to owners and
projects are often less than they would be if these values were appropriately
acknowledged.
5. Communicate with Stakeholder about Hydropower
There is a need to ensure that constituencies are suitably informed about hydro
issues. In this area, there are needs to identify effective educational methods and
content, research the best ways to transfer knowledge, update and maintain
factual content and methods, and develop communication networks to inform
policymakers, non-governmental organizations, and the public.
6. Support Green Power Acceptance for Hydropower
In some regions, electricity is marketed as "green," meaning it is generated from
sources that are environmentally beneficial compared to the alternative. Projects
in this area include determining how to gain acceptance for hydro within green
marketing programs.
7. Develop Hydropower Competency Management Program
Workforce issues are increasing in priority, especially because of loss and
projected loss of personnel due to retirements. Projects in this area include those

that focus on inventorying the skills and competencies that are needed for hydro
facilities operation and developing techniques and strategies for addressing
identified needs.
8. Promote Hydro-Related R&D Technology Transfer
Much information is available that is, or may be, applicable to problems and areas
of need. However, better tools and processes are needed for communicating and
sharing information, both from research activities and operational experience.
9. Determine Operating Life Effects Due to More Severe Load Operations
In recent years, many hydro projects have begun operating in ways not
envisioned during their original design. Work is needed to determine how
equipment is affected, and also to identify actions and tools for predicting and
preventing failures.
10. Develop Protocols for Measuring Mitigation Effectiveness
In recent years, hydro project owners have engaged in many instances of
implementing environmental mitigation measures. However, it is generally not
known whether the measures have been effective. Knowledge gained from
research in this could help in designing future mitigation measures and could help
to avoid ineffective mitigation.

Hydropower Research

The Osage Project on Missouri's Lake of the Ozarks tests a retrofit aeration system designed to
improve downstream water quality and fish habitat.

Hydropower is the most established of the renewable energy technologies, providing

more than 70% of the electricity generated by renewable energy in the United States.
About 7% of U.S. electricity is generated by hydropower. Hydropower offers significant
advantages over other energy sources: it is a reliable, domestic, renewable resource, and
it emits no harmful atmospheric emissions or greenhouse gases. Hydropower projects
also provide other benefits, such as water supply, flood control, irrigation, navigation, and
recreation.
Hydropower projects also present difficult environmental challenges. The issues
confronting the hydropower industry include fish injury and mortality from contact with
turbines and other equipment as well as changes to water quality and physical
environment around these projects.
The goals for the Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program's hydropower research are
to maintain conventional hydropower as an attractive electricity production option for the
twenty-first century, increase electricity generation where available without
environmental effects, and to assist industry in research, development, and deployment

of new marine and hydrokinetic technologies. To develop advanced technology and

operational improvements, the hydropower industry relies on aggressive research,
development, and support programs.
The program's 2008 priorities for conventional hydropower are to increase efficiency at
existing dams while improving the environmental performace of turbines and dams. To
maintain and expand hydropower's contribution to the nation, the program's research has
focused on the two elements of its mission:

Enhancing the technical viability of hydropower systems, and

Expanding the use of hydropower in the marketplace.

In the area of technology viability, the program is pursuing the following:

Advanced Hydropower Technology

Supporting Research and Testing

To increase technology use or application, the program sponsors the following research:

Systems Integration and Technology Acceptance

Systems Engineering and Analysis

Water Power
The program-supported Water Power research and development activities focus on
reducing the cost of new marine and hydrokinetic technologies while improving their
reliability and performance. The program will also:

Study and compare the technologies as they develop,

Understand and minimize any potential environmental and navigational impacts,
and
Support the development of industry-wide standards.

For more information about the program's Water Power activities, visit the Water Power
Web page.