HALUK ÖZMEN, GÖKHAN DEMIRCIO>LU and RICHARD K.

COLL

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT

MAPPING ENHANCED LABORATORY EXPERIENCE
ON TURKISH HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS_ UNDERSTANDING
OF ACID-BASE CHEMISTRY
Received: 7 April 2006; Accepted: 28 June 2007

ABSTRACT. The research reported here consists of the introduction of an intervention

based on a series of laboratory activities combined with concept mapping. The purpose
of this intervention was to enhance student understanding of acid-base chemistry for
tenth grade students_ from two classes in a Turkish high school. An additional aim was to
enhance student attitude toward chemistry. In the research design, two cohorts of
students were compared; those from the intervention group (N=31) and a second group
(N=28) who were taught in a more traditional manner. Student understanding of acid-
base chemistry was evaluated with a pretest/posttest research design using a purpose-
designed instrument, the Concept Achievement Test (CAT) consisting of 25 items, 15
multiple choice and ten multiple choice with explanation. Alternative conceptions
identified in the pretest were incorporated into the intervention, which thereby sought to
move students toward views more in accord with scientific views for the concepts. Statistical
tests indicate the instrument is reliable (with an alpha reliability of 0.81) and the analysis of
the findings revealed statistically significant differences between the intervention and
traditional groups with respect to conceptual understanding. Examination of student
explanations and analyses of semi-structured interviews conducted with selected students
suggest that the main influence was the laboratory activities. Analysis of the findings in the
context of relevant literature that concept mapping in conjunction with laboratory activities is
more enjoyable, helps student link concepts, and reduces their alternative conceptions.

KEY WORDS: acids and bases, chemistry teaching, concept maps, laboratory activities
According to constructivist learning theory, students begin studying
science, not as Fblank slates_, but bring to the classroom or laboratory a
variety of ideas of, and experiences with, natural phenomenal that may
influence their ability to understand different science concepts (Guba &
Lincoln, 1989, 1994). Educational research suggests that students_ world
views about scientific phenomena, as well as often being different to the
science consensual views, may interfere with students_ learning of other
scientific principles or concepts (Palmer, 1999). Such views are
nowadays more commonly referred to as student alternative conceptions;
a tacit recognition that these views and ideas are logical, sensible, and
valuable from the students_ point of view, even if they differ from accepted
scientific views (Özmen, 2004; Pakua, Treagust & Waldrip, 2005).
Research indicates that these beliefs are held by learners across different

International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education (2009) 7: 1Y24

# National Science Council, Taiwan (2007)
2 HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

grades or levels of education; that they are pervasive, stable, and resistant to
change by conventional teaching strategies.
CHEMISTRY TEACHING AND LEARNING
Chemistry is a key, enabling science, and is a subject that is considered by
many to be difficult for secondary school students (see, e.g., Chang & Chiu,
2005; Lorenzo, 2005; Taber & Coll, 2002). A variety of reasons have been
posited. Taber & Coll (2002) note that the chemistry concepts are abstract in
nature and require students to construct mental images of things they cannot
see, and thereby find it hard to relate to. A further complication in the
learning of chemistry (and other sciences) noted in the literature concerns the
medium of instruction. The literature on students_ problems with scientific
language literacy, points to confusion between scientific terminology and
similar sounding (or the same words in common language usage), suggesting
this may result in students not understanding the meaning of scientific terms
(Johnstone & Selepeng, 2001). Students for whom English is not their first
language suffer more from such confusion if chemistry instruction occurs in
English, probably due to lesser skills in English speaking, listening or reading
of English (Coll, Ali, Bonato & Rohindra, 2006), or in some cases dif-
ferences in world views as a result of cultural differences (Pakua et al., 2005;
Sutherland & Dennick, 2002).

IMPROVING CHEMISTRY TEACHING AND LEARNING

Given the above, it is no great surprise that students find chemistry study
challenging, and correspondingly teachers find some chemistry topics
difficult to teach. The literature describes a variety of interventions or changes
to pedagogy that researchers and teachers have used in an attempt to improve
student learning in chemistry, and here we consider two, that the literature
notes involves student being more active in their learning. One involves
student learning in the laboratory; the second involves concept mapping.
The literature suggest students enjoy laboratory work because it is more
active, something they find more motivating (Hart, Mulhall, Berry, Loughran
& Gunstone, 2000). In the laboratory, students have a chance to engage in
hands-on activities, and both science and non-science majors are reported to
find laboratory-based activities to be motivating and exciting (Markow &
Lonning, 1998). There have been many studies reporting on the effective-
ness of the laboratory instruction (e.g., Lazarowitz & Tamir, 1994; Hart et
al., 2000; Demircio?lu, 2003), and despite some reservations (e.g., Nakhleh,
Polles & Malina, 2002 report that laboratory work often lacks purpose or
 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT MAPPING ENHANCED 3

well-defined learning objectives) many authors believe that laboratory work

helps promote conceptual change, particularly if the practical involves
qualitative laboratory tasks.
Another technique reported to enhance student conceptual under-
standing in science and chemistry is concept mapping (Novak & Gowin,
1984). Concept mapping is a form of two-dimensional diagramming
which emphasizes the relationships among important concepts and helps
students make conceptual connections while doing laboratory work
(Markow & Lonning, 1998). Concept maps are constructed by writing
concepts and linking them by labeled lines. The labels are important
because they require whoever is constructing the map to actively select
appropriate linking words. The links need to make sense, and to be
genuine links between the two concepts; they need to relate the two
concepts in some meaningful way (Novak & Gowin, 1984). The greater
the number of valid links between concepts, the more sophisticated the
map is considered to be (Novak & Gowin, 1984). Consistent with
constructivist-based teaching, concept mapping involves students actively
in constructing their own maps (Markow & Lonning, 1998).
A substantial meta-analysis by Horton, Mcconney, Gallo, Woods, Senn &
Hamelin (1993) concluded that concept mapping generally had positive
effects on both student achievement and attitude, and concept mapping has
been reported to provide a very effective strategy to help students learn
meaningfully by helping them to see the links between scientific concepts
(Adamczyk, Willison & Williams, 1994; Fisher, Wandersee & Moody,
2000). Concept mapping also has been reported to improve students_
problem-solving ability (Okebukola, 1992), and to aid collaborative learning,
making it particularly appropriate in combination with laboratory learning
environments, which often involve group work (Sizmur & Osbourne, 1997).

PURPOSE OF THE INQUIRY

The research reported in this work builds upon the substantial research base
into comparative or intervention-based studies (sometimes called quasi-
experimental studies. The literature is replete with such studies; however,
much of this research is based in so-called Western educational contexts and
students for whom English is their first language. In contrast, as noted by
Coll et al. (2006), rather less is known about effective pedagogies in non-
Western educational settings, and for the context of this study, Turkey
(a new member of the European Union) there is a paucity of research.
The chemistry topics used as the basis for this work involves concepts
4 HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

associated with acid-base chemistry. The authors propose that this is an

appropriate choice given the ubiquitous nature of acid-base chemistry in
everyday life (potentially providing access to student world views that
might, or might not, conflict with scientific views), the fact that this
area of chemistry involves multiple concepts (which Gabel, 1998 notes
typifies chemistry learning difficulties), and the importance of acid-base
chemistry for learning the topics in chemistry and related sciences such
as biology, biochemistry. Additionally, acid-base chemistry is a topic for
which there are reports that students find difficulty in learning (e.g.,
Bradley & Mosimege, 1998; Demircio?lu, Özmen & Ayas, 2004;
Nakhleh & Krajcik, 1994; Sisovic & Bojovic, 2000). In brief, the
literature reports student alternative conceptions in acid-base chemistry
as widespread, occurring at various grade levels and that conventional
teaching strategies seem unable to rectify students_ nonscientific beliefs
(Hewson & Hewson, 1984). Hence, here we report research about an
intervention intended to help students learn acid-base chemistry more
effectively. Given the complex nature of these topics, we decided to
employ an intervention involving student activities in laboratory classes,
supplemented by the use of concept mapping to help them see how to
link concepts. In doing so, we recognize that it is difficult to attribute any
positive outcomes in terms of learning to specifically to the influence of
a laboratory-based activity or concept mapping for teaching acid-base
chemistry. The approach, like all research approaches, also has
limitations. We reflect on these issues in more detail in the discussion
and conclusion to the paper.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of an
intervention for the teaching of acid-base chemistry in a Turkish
secondary school. The specific research questions for this inquiry are:

1. Is an intervention involving the use of laboratory activities and

combined supplemented by concept mapping more effective in
improving students_ understanding of acid-base chemistry than
traditional instruction in the context of a Turkish secondary school?
2. What, if any, alternative conceptions for acid-base chemistry are
retained by students after the implementation of an intervention based
on laboratory activities and concept mapping?

METHODOLOGY AND METHODS

This inquiry is interpretive in nature (Guba & Lincoln, 1994) and draws
on constructivism. Learners are seen in this work as purposeful
 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT MAPPING ENHANCED 5

individuals who are active constructors of their own knowledge; this

construction mediated by prior learning experiences and knowledge
gained from previous instruction, and life experiences including peer and
other interpersonal interactions. The inquiry is a comparative study that
employed an intervention group, and a second group that was taught in a
more traditional teacher-centered manner (called the traditional group).
The subjects were 59 students (31 boys, 28 girls, average age 17
years) from two 10th grade classes. One class (n=31, 16 boys and 15
girls) was assigned as an intervention group and the other (n=28, 15 boys
and 13 girls) as the traditional group. The students were similar in socio-
economic status with the majority of them coming from middle- to
upper-class families. The school is a large co-educational school based in
a city with a roll of about 800 students. There are about 45 teachers and
12 science teachers. Science is seen as an important subject for the
school and is strongly supported by teachers, school administration and
families. The school is generally well equipped and has four laboratories
which have a variety of common chemistry laboratory equipment
(glassware, balances, volumetric equipment, etc.). Normal instruction
in the school is strongly teacher-dominated with a lecture type format
typical, and students passively learning, writing notes and reading
textbook material. Practical work is quite common, but is Fcookbook_ in
style with students working their way sequentially through detailed,
recipe-like, instructions and subsequently preparing reports and answer-
ing questions. The teacher who implemented the intervention, the usual
teacher for acid-base chemistry for the tenth grade in the school, was a
male with 14 years of teaching experience, who holds an MSc degree
and a diploma in chemistry teacher education.
Acid-base chemistry, and related topics like salts, is taught initially in
the eighth year of Turkish elementary schools (age range 7Y14).
However, in the second year of secondary school (i.e., tenth grade, age
range 15Y17), these concepts are re-visited, and expanded upon. The unit
Facids and bases_ is the last unit in general chemistry curriculum for the
second grade of secondary school is presented in the tenth grade. This
unit consists of: definitions of acid and base; properties of acids and
bases; protolytic equilibrium in water; the pH concept; the strength of
acids and bases; buffer solutions; and, hydrolysis of salts.

Overview of the Procedures Used for the Intervention and Traditional Groups
In this inquiry, the entire content of the acids and bases unit was taught
using the same number of lessons, but applying different teaching
6 HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

approaches for the intervention and traditional groups. In each case, the
same chemistry teacher was involved, in order to reduce to Fthe teacher
effect_ . It is recognized that even using the same teacher does not
necessarily avoid teacher bias (e.g., the teacher might be more interested
in, and thus more enthusiastic about, the intervention); however, it was
considered that using more than one teacher would further add to any
variation and potentially confound the results. The teacher was given two
45-min training sessions prior to the intervention in order to make sure
he understood the purpose of the laboratory activities, and the intended
role of concept mapping for the intervention group. It also was important
to ensure that the teacher understood the process of concept mapping as
suggested by Buntting, Coll & Campbell (2006). In the case of the
traditional group, the teacher was asked to teach the acid-base unit as he
had done in the past. Lessons were presented five 45-min periods per
week for a 4-week period and all lessons were subject to unobtrusive
observation by the researchers.

Teaching Approach Used for the Control Group

The traditional instruction approach used in traditional group was based
on the teacher providing explanations of the topics in a lecture type
format, and using a textbook for worked examples and illustrations. The
teacher did not seek to identify student alternative conceptions in
advance (either from literature or for this cohort of students), and hence
essentially ignored any students_ alternative conceptions during instruc-
tion. The teacher explained the concepts and then they were discussed in
whole-class discussions, driven by teacher-directed questions. The
majority of the lesson time (75Y85%) was based on instruction, and
discussions arising from the teacher explanations and questions. The
remaining time was devoted to completing worksheets developed based
on the textbook and used as practice activities fro exams. While the
students were studying the worksheets requiring written responses, the
teacher walked around the classroom helping them as needed. During
these activities, the students had the opportunity to ask questions. The
worksheets were collected and subsequently analyzed by the teacher.

Teaching Approach Used for the Intervention Group

The intervention consisted of eight laboratory activities (i.e., two per
week): Activity 1: Naming and identifying of acids and bases, Activity
2: Examining electric conductivity of some substances, Activity 3: Is
there any difference between a strong acid or base and a concentrated
 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT MAPPING ENHANCED 7

acid or base: Activity 4: Determining the strengths of given acids and

bases, Activity 5: Testing a given sample whether or not it was an acid or
a base, Activity 6: Determining acid-base properties of a given salt,
Activity 7: Preparing a buffer, and Activity 8: Performing titrations
(strong acid (HCl) with strong base (NaOH), strong acid (HCl) with
weak base (NH3) and weak acid (HC2H3O) with strong base (NaOH)).
These activities were prepared by the researchers based on information
obtained from a review of literature about student learning difficulties in
acid-base chemistry, and instructional material provided in a variety of
chemistry textbooks. Thus the intervention sought to take into account
student prior knowledge, consistent with a constructivist-based approach.
The students in the intervention group were assigned to study groups
(5Y6 per group) based on their achievement in a pretest on acid-base
chemistry (see below). These groups were purposely designed to be
similar, and heterogeneous in terms of student performance as based on
the pre-test.
A worksheet which included the goals for the practical activity, a list
of equipment and substances, the practical procedure, and some probe
questions was given to each group. The worksheets contained blank
areas in which students were expected to write down their observations,
provide explanations, prepare chemical equations, and draw conclusions
(see Figure 1). The questions aimed to lead students to analyze
experimental results, to compare the properties of different substances,
to compare similarities and differences of chemical reactions, and to use
previous knowledge in explanations and drawings).
The use of the intervention was preceded by the administration of a
pre-test (see below). This was deliberate to help the researchers (and
teacher) become cognizant of student alternative conceptions for the
topics covered in this unit. Before the activity began, the students were
told about common alternative conceptions (i.e., as identified in the pre-
test and from the literature). However, these were not presented as being
Fwrong_ , but as being ideas some students hold about the particular
aspect of acid-base chemistry. The ideas were discussed with the
students; this discussion aimed to potentially develop cognitive conflict
in the students when they subsequently conducted the laboratory activity.
The overall idea here was to help students see that they needed to
consider competing explanations for their observations. After the
discussion, the students carried out the activity in groups, during which
the teacher explained the topics. For each laboratory activity, worksheets
were distributed to the students and, as noted above, these included
questions related to the concepts under instruction. At the end of the
8 HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

i) The aim of this activity is to examine electric conductivity of some substances.

ii) The required equipment and substances for the activity;

1. Zinc and copper electrode 7. 0,1 M NaCl (aq) (Sodium chloride).

2. Power source and connection cables 8. 0,1 M CH3COOH (aq) (Acetic acid)
3. Ampermeter 9. 0,1 M NaOH (aq) (Sodium hydroxide)

Substances Ampoule Ampermeter

HCl (aq)
NaCl (aq)
CH3COOH (aq)
NaOH (aq)
Vinegar juice
Distilled water

Lemon
juice

4. Ampoule 10. Vinegar juice

5. Beaker (1000 ml) 11. Distilled water
6. 0,1 M HCl (aq) (Hydrochloric acid) 12. Lemon juice

Procedure:
Set up in the following mechanism.

1. Add 30 mL of hydrochloric acid solution to the beaker. And than switch the power source on. Observe the
ampoule and the ampermeter for each change. Record your observations on the table above.
2. Repeat Step 1 for each substance. A
3. Answer the following questions:
Discussion questions:
1. Which ones of given substances conduct electricity and why?
......................................................................................................
2. Which substances conduct poor electricity?
......................................................................................................
3. Why do the substances whose aqueous solutions conduct electricity show differences in this
property?
.............................................................................................
Figure 1. The worksheet for the Activity 3 used in this study.

activity the worksheets were evaluated by the teacher and given back to
the students. This same procedure was repeated for all of the laboratory
activities for the entire 4 weeks of the intervention. The overall intention
was to draw upon the results of the pre-test and literature review of
common student alternative conceptions for acid-base chemistry, and to
engage in a laboratory activity that might remedy these alternative
conceptions. An example of one such laboratory activity used with the
 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT MAPPING ENHANCED 9

experimental groups is shown in Figure 1. The intention of this activity

was to remedy the alternative conception that FAll acids and bases
conduct electricity the same_ (Item 17 Table III).
A second activity related to ways to test a sample; whether or not it
was an acid or a base (Figure 2). This activity was based on previous
research (Demircio?lu, Ayas & Demircio?lu, 2005) and aimed to remedy
the alternative conception FThe only way to test a sample whether it is an
acid or a base is to see if it eats something away, for example metal,
plastic, animal, or us_ (Item 1, Table III). After each activity, group and
whole-class discussions were conducted by the teacher. During dis-
cussions, alternative conceptions held by the students before the activity
were re-evaluated; thus giving the students an opportunity to compare
their previous and new knowledge. After these discussions, students
were requested to prepare own concept maps to help their better
understanding of the relationships between the concepts.
Before engaging in the concept mapping activity, students were
taught how to prepare concept maps (using the notions mentioned
above, i.e., the need to provide meaningful links, etc.). For some of the
practical activities the students filled an Fempty_ concept map, or drew
a map about concepts they had studied before. The intention here was
to help them become more familiar with the process of concept
mapping as recommended in the literature (Buntting et al., 2006). It
also is worthwhile to note here that concept mapping is more effective as
an intervention when it is delivered as part of a longer term strategy,
The purpose of the following activity is to remedy the student alternative conception that “the only
way to test a sample whether it is an acid or a base is to see if it eats something away, for example metal,
plastic, animal, and us”.

Experimental tools and materials: test tubes, dropper, HCl solution, NaOH solution, litmus, methyl orange,
phenolphthalein, lemon juice, vinegar, red cabbage, soapy water.

Activity steps: In this test, you will be using three known indicators and red-cabbage juice. Follow the
sequence in the chart given below. In each test, place about 4 cm3 of each solution in different test tubes. Then
place 2-3 drops of the indicator into each of the test tubes. Carefully record the color in the test tubes. You are
going to test the unknown solution after finishing the other tests.

Solution Litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl orange Red cabbage

1. HCl solution
2. NaOH solution
3. Lemon juice
4. Vinegar
5. Soapy water
6. An unknown solution

Questions: 1. Which solutions used in the activity are acidic? Why?

2. Can you use red-cabbage juice to test a liquid whether it is an acid or a base?
3. What do you have to know about an indicator before its usage? Why?

Figure 2. The worksheet for the Activity 5.

10 HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

rather than a one-off activity (Buntting et al., 2006; Horton et al., 1993).
Hence, during the teaching of the acid-base unit, the students prepared
their own concept maps for acid-base theories, properties of acids and
bases, the pH concept, the strength of acids and bases, neutralization,
buffer solutions, and hydrolysis.

EVALUATION INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE INQUIRY

Student understanding of acid-base conceptions was evaluated by means of

two instruments, and student interviews. These are now described in turn.

The Concept Achievement Test (CAT) Instrument

A 25-item achievement test for concepts covered in the acids and bases
unit was constructed for the purpose of identifying the students_
understanding and alternative conceptions in chemistry. The test consists
of 15 multiple-choice and ten multiple-choice questions which also
sought explanations for the choices made in order to probe more deeply
students_ understanding (see Dahsah & Coll, 2007). Each multiple-
choice question included the scientifically acceptable answer; one
common alternative conception reported in previous studies or identified
during interviews (see below) or the pretest, and three plausible
distracters. During the development of the CAT, first, instructional
objectives related to the acids and bases topic were determined, based on
the current chemistry curriculum (i.e., the acid-base chemistry unit).
Second, literature related to students_ alternative conceptions about the
acids and bases concepts was examined. Third, interviews were
conducted with 15 students randomly selected from both groups (eight
students from the traditional group and seven students from the
intervention group) to investigate in depth their understanding and any
alternative conceptions (see below). Following the interviews, a further
review of research on students_ alternative conceptions about concepts
identified in the interviews was conducted to validate the findings of
interviews. Hence, overall the CAT consisted of questions developed by
the researchers based on interview data and others questions from the
literature (Bradley & Mosimege, 1998; Demircio?lu, 2003; Demircio?lu
et al., 2005). The CAT was used in the pretest-posttest mode for the study
to determine students_ conceptual understanding and the prevalence of
their alternative conceptions.
Content validation for the CAT was determined by a group of experts
consisting of three chemistry educators in the researchers_ Department of
 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT MAPPING ENHANCED 11

Secondary Science Education in the Faculty of Education and three high

school chemistry teachers from the city of Trabzon who had taught
chemistry for over 15 years. In addition, the CAT was piloted with 52 grade
ten students, and the reliability assessed via item analysis. As the multiple-
choice sections of the items in the CAT were dichotomously scored (0 for
incorrect and 1 for correct) and conducted item analysis, Kuder-Richardson
20 formula for the reliability was used in this study. KR-20 is special case of
Cronbach_ s alpha for dichotomous items. The reliability coefficient was
found to 0.81, which was considered to be acceptable for an instrument of
this type. Students took about 45 min to complete the CAT.

Students Interviews
As noted above the resign design included two groups, one involved in the
intervention and a second that was taught in the normal, more traditional
manner. Eight students from the traditional and seven from the
intervention group were interviewed individually for 30 to 40 min before
the implementation. These interviews sought to develop a more in-depth
understanding of student understanding and any alternative conceptions.
For both groups, the interviewees were a mixture of high achievers,
middle or average achievers, and low achievers; based on grades they had
received in previous school-based chemistry exams. A semi-structured
approach was used in the interviews, all of which were audio taped and
transcribed verbatim. The data from the interviews were used to develop
the items of the Concept Achievement Test (CAT) as mentioned above.

RESEARCH FINDINGS

As noted above, in this inquiry, a non-equivalent pretest-posttest research

design was used, for both intervention and traditional groups. Prior to the
intervention (i.e., the concept mapping and laboratory-based activities),
the CAT was administered to students for both the intervention and
control groups. Means and standard deviations of the scores for both
groups obtained from the CAT and are given in Table I.
Independent samples t-test show no statistically significant differences
between the intervention and traditional groups (M = 33.13, SD = 17.51,
M = 35.03, SD = 18.69, respectively) with respect to chemistry achieve-
ment (t = 0.404, df = 57, p 9 0.05), indicating that students in the experi-
mental and traditional groups were similar. Because there were no
statistically significant differences see for pretest scores for the two
groups, posttests scores of the groups were compared using the
12 HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

independent t-test. Comparison of the two groups for the CAT is given in
Table II. These data reveal statistically significant differences in chemistry
achievement between the intervention and traditional groups (M = 57.36,
SD = 15.12, M = 78.39, SD = 14.56; t = 5.581, p G 0.001) (Table II). This
suggests that the achievement of students from the intervention group in the
test was higher statistically significantly than students in the traditionally
taught group.
The second research question concerned student alternative concep-
tions of acid-base chemistry before and after instruction (intervention or
traditional teaching). As noted above, in the intervention group, during
the intervention, experimental activities were used in an attempt to
remedy students_ alternative conceptions identified in the pretest.
Examination of the posttest results suggests that the intervention group
had fewer alternative conceptions after instruction (by a ratio of about
three to one) than the traditionally taught group (Table III).
Data in Table III reveal that six alternative conceptions identified for the
intervention group in the pretest were changed to become in agreement
with the scientific conception post-intervention: (i) In all neutralization
reactions, acid and base consume each other completely; (ii) Electrolysis
and hydrolysis are the same (iii); All acids and bases are harmful and
poisonous; (iv) The only way to test a sample whether it is an acid or a
base is to see if it eats something away, for example, metal, plastic,
animal, and us; (v) pH is only a measure of acidity; and, (vi) Salts don_t
have a value of pH. However, in the case of the traditionally taught group,
all of these alternative conceptions, except FpH is only a measure of
acidity_, were retained. Details of these findings are now presented.
Student alternative conceptions about neutralization concepts deter-
mined in the study pretest were: FIn all neutralization reactions, acid and
base consume each other completely_, FAt the end of all neutralization
reactions, there is neither H+ nor OHj ions in the resulting solutions_,
and FAfter all the neutralization reactions, the pH of formed solution is
always 7_. The first alternative conception (Item 13, Table III) was held
by 48% of the intervention group students pretest, but none posttest. In

TABLE I
Means and standard deviations for the results of the CAT prior to treatment
Groups Intervention group Traditional group

Measures N Mean SD N Mean SD t p

CAT 31 33.13 17.51 28 35.03 18.69 0.404 0.815

 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT MAPPING ENHANCED 13

TABLE II
Comparison of the intervention and traditional groups for overall differences in CAT
after the treatment

Groups Intervention group Traditional group

Measures N Mean SD N Mean SD t p

CAT 31 78.93 14.56 28 57.36 15.12 5.581 0.000

contrast, for those taught traditionally, 54% held the alternative

conception pretest and 36% posttest. The second alternative conception
(Item 14, Table III) for the intervention group students post-intervention,
showed a decrease from 65 to 16% pretest posttest, whereas for the
traditionally taught group, this changed from 61 to 32%. The third
alternative conception (Item 16, Table III) was held by 45% of the
intervention group pretest and 10% posttest; and for the other group 54%
pretest and 21% posttest.
Alternative conceptions about salts determined in the study were: FAll
salts are neutral_, and FSalts don_t have a value of pH_. The former (Item
3, Table III) was held by 61% of the intervention group pretest and 19%
posttest, and 64% pretest and 39% posttest for those traditionally taught.
The other alternative conception (Item 4, Table III) was held by 25% of
the traditionally taught group posttest, but none of the intervention group
posttest.
Two alternative conceptions: FAs the value of pH increase, acidity
increase_ (Item 8, Table III), and FpH is only a measure of acidity_ (Item
9, Table III) were common alternative conceptions related to the pH
concept held by the students. Some 32% of the intervention group and
29% of the others held the first alternative conception pretest, and 6 and
7%, respectively, posttest. Likewise for the second alternative concep-
tion about pH, 39% of the intervention group students and 29% of the
control group held this pretest, and none posttest.
One alternative conception revealed in the inquiry was related to
testing an acid: FThe only way to test a sample whether it is an acid or a
base is to see if it eats something away, for example metal, plastic,
animal, and us_ (item 1, Table III). Some 39% of the intervention group
held this pretest and none posttest; but for the other group 43% held it
pretest, and 18% posttest. Acids burn and melt everything (Item 2, Table III)
 14
TABLE III
Students_ alternative conceptions determined in pre-test and post-test
Intervention group Traditional group

Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest

Student alternative conceptions f % f % f % f %

1 The only way to test a sample whether it is an acid or a base is to see if it eats 12 39 0 0 12 43 5 18
something away, for example metal, plastic, animal, and us
2 Acids burn and melt everything 16 52 2 6 13 46 6 21
3 All salts are neutral 19 61 6 19 18 64 11 39
4 Salts don_t have a value of pH 10 32 0 0 11 39 7 25
5 All acids and bases are harmful and poisonous 13 42 0 0 10 36 3 11
6 Strong acids can react with all metals to form H2 gas 15 48 5 16 14 50 9 32
7 Strength of an acid depends on the number of hydrogen atoms in an acid 8 26 4 13 6 21 3 11
8 As the value of pH increases, acidity increases 10 32 2 6 8 29 2 7
9 pH is only a measure of acidity 12 39 0 0 8 29 0 0
HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

10 A strong acid is always a concentrated acid 9 29 4 13 7 25 6 21

11 Electrolysis and hydrolysis are the same 13 42 0 0 14 50 4 14
12 A strong acid doesn_t dissociate in water solution, because its intra-molecular 8 26 1 3 9 32 3 11
bonds are very strong
13 In all neutralization reactions, acid and base consume each other completely 15 48 0 0 15 54 10 36
14 At the end of all neutralization reactions, there is neither H+ nor OHj ions in the 20 65 5 16 17 61 9 32
resulting solutions
15 As concentration of H3O+ ions in an acid solution increases, pH of the solution increases 11 35 4 13 8 29 3 11
16 After all the neutralization reactions, the pH of formed solution is always 7 14 45 3 10 15 54 6 21
17 All acids and bases conduct electricity the same 10 32 1 3 9 32 5 18
 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT MAPPING ENHANCED 15

and FAll acids and bases are harmful and poisonous_ (item 5, Table III)
were common alternative conceptions related to the effects of acids and
bases on matter revealed in the inquiry. The former was held by 52% of
the intervention group 46% of the control group pretest, and 6, and 22%,
respectively, posttest. The second alternative conception was held by 42%
and 36% for the intervention and other group pretest, and 0 and 11%,
respectively, posttest.
There were ten items for which students were required to present an
explanation for their selection. These proved useful probes and in order
to see the changes in understanding for both groups some detail is now
provided for Item 22. Item 22 presented here was developed to
investigate students_ understanding of FThe effect of acids on metals
and carbonates_ . The scientifically accepted response for this item is
option C (identified with an asterisk *). The students were asked to
decide the gas or gases that are produced a result of the reactions inside
the plate I and II and were requested to write an explanation. Acceptable
explanations are: FSince copper is a inert metal, it is not possible for it to
have reaction with hydrochloric acid, on the other hand, as a result of
reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid, carbon
dioxide is formed according to the equation: CaCO3 +2HCI Y CaCI2 +
CO2 + H2O. As a consequence, only the gas CO2 is collected in plate III_.

Posttest, 75% of the intervention group and 45% of the other group
chose the correct option, and 70 and 32%, respectively, gave scientif-
ically acceptable explanations. For this item, 16 and 32% of the
intervention and other group chose option D, and examination of their
explanations suggested they thought that strong acids can react with all
metals to form H2 gas (Item 6, Table III).
16 HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

In summary, both of the groups showed progress in changing their

alternative conceptions to conceptions more in agreement with the
scientifically acceptable views, but the intervention group performed better
overall. It is worthwhile to note here, that although the intervention group
performed better, this does not mean all alternative conceptions were
corrected; the reasons for this are discussed in detail below.

DISCUSSION

Student Understanding of Acid-base Chemistry and Practical Laboratory

Activities
Literature reports on research of student understanding of acid-base
chemistry suggest that students at a variety of teaching levels hold
alternative conceptions about many concepts (Bradley & Mosimege,
1998). The literature also points to a need for pedagogies that will help
avoid, or change, these alternative conceptions and thus improve
students_ conceptual understanding (Nakhleh & Krajcik, 1994; Sisovic &
Bojovic, 2000; Demircio?lu, 2003; Demircio?lu et al., 2005). This notion
forms the basis for the present inquiry.
Examination of the pretest and posttest data for the two groups
involved in this work reveal statistically significant differences in con-
ceptual understanding as determined via the CAT instrument (Table II).
These differences appear to arise from the use of the intervention;
namely, the laboratory activities and concept mapping. With our research
design, it is probably impossible to identify explicitly which component,
or whether it is the combination, that brings about the change. One could
argue that is does not especially matter which part of the intervention
brings about conceptual change. However, if one part of the intervention
alone brings about conceptual change, it would mean the other
component is unnecessary, meaning, a simpler intervention may be
equally effective. Such problems are not uncommon in intervention
studies, which seldom involve all necessary elements of Ftrue_ scientific
testing (e.g., double-blind intervention, genuine random sampling etc,
see Rennie, 1998). Below now attempt to discern which aspects of the
intervention are of importance in effecting conceptual understanding?
We do this by looking for links between the activities and the particular
alternative conception under investigation.
First, we ague that direct encounter with chemicals in the laboratory is
an important influence in student understanding. Consider some
examples, which we believe illustrate this proposition. Analysis of the
 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT MAPPING ENHANCED 17

data from the first test item in the CAT instrument suggests that the
students held the alternative conception that FStrong acids can melt
metals and destroy them_; they drew the conclusion that the interaction
was not a transforming process and that the metal was Fdisappearing_. It
is argued here that this alternative conception was addressed by applying
enriched activities to the intervention group. The chosen acids - H2SO4,
HNO3 and HCI - were investigated in the laboratory to give students the
opportunity to actually experience the interaction of metals and acids (an
alternative conception identified in the literature; see, Demircio?lu et al.,
2004; Nakhleh & Krajcik, 1994). From physical observations in the
laboratory the students were able to see clearly that a chemical reaction
was occurring in front of them only with some different metals; and as a
result they could see that melting of metals did not occur, and that not all
metals reacted with acids. Hence, for this we argue that the laboratory
exercise is likely the most influential component.
A second illustration concerns a student alternative conception that
FThe only way to test a sample whether it is an acid or a base is to see if
it eats something away, for example metal, plastic, animal, and us_. The
laboratory exercise that accompanied the teaching of this concept
involved showing students the testing of acids and bases using litmus
paper or other indicators. Again here a visually dramatic practical
demonstration was encountered by students; this observation being in
stark contrast to their prior conceptions (and those of the traditionally
taught group). This result contrasts with work by Demircio?lu et al.,
(2005), in which the same alternative conceptions were found, but not so
readily overcome. Similar things were seen for the alternative conception
that FAll acids and bases have similar electrical conduction_. Using the
experimental apparatus in Figure 1 the students measured the conduc-
tivity of different acid and base solutions. By doing the experiment
themselves, the students could observe directly differences in electrical
conductivity values for different concentrations of acid and base
solutions and weak and strong acids and bases. A similar thing occurred
with the alternative conception that FAll the metals have a reaction with a
result of releasing gases with acids_. This alternative conception probably
arose because of student prior experiences with reactive metals and acids
such as the reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium-zinc
metals, leading them to think all acids have similar reactions. However,
the fact that they could not see any observable, physical reaction
between with acids and the inert metal copper helped correct this
alternative conception. Again here we would argue that the laboratory
exercise is likely the most influential component.
18 HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

The ability to understand aspects of acid-base chemistry even at the

molecular/particulate level also was evident here; as a result of the
laboratory activities. For example, both groups of students said that they
could observe phenomena in which acids and bases release H+ or OHj
ions in aqueous solution, and thus decide whether materials are acidic or
basic in nature. Support for this notion came from an interview in which
one student commented: F... first we look after what kind of gases they
spread out, if it is H+ so the material is acidic, otherwise if it is OHj, the
material is basic ... after we prepare the aqueous solution, if it spreads
H+, it is acidic ... we add water into the solution, if the salt happens, it is
acidic_ . According to the literature (e.g., Demircio?lu et al., 2004,
Demircio?lu et al., 2005), such alternative conceptions occur as a result
of students not being involved in laboratory activities or experiments, but
just listening to what their teachers tell them. If these and similar
concepts are investigated in actual experiments in the laboratory, it
seems likely students could better understand which events are
observable and which of them are not (and occur at the atomic or
molecular level). Again here we would argue that the laboratory exercise
is likely the most influential component.
Further support for the proposal here about the importance of practical
laboratory work is provided in the literature (see, e.g., Botton, 1995;
Sisovic & Bojovic, 2000), and it seems that the fact that most laboratory
work (including that in this inquiry) involves students working in groups
helps provide students with advantages compared with traditional
instruction. The reason for this may be that in groups, as was observed
in this work, students have to agree on observations and defend the
accuracy of such observations and any subsequent explanations (see
Nakhleh, Polles & Malina, 2002). In support of this Sisovic & Bojovic,
(2000) also used laboratory-based activities involving group work for
electrical conduction of acid and bases. In this case, within-group
augmentation was supported by whole-class discussion. This may be a
useful way of addressing what Schmidt (1991) refers to as a Fhidden
persuader_ . Consider Item 8; pretest data suggested the students held
alternative conceptions about neutralization: FAfter all the neutralization
reactions, the pH of formed solutions is always 7_, and FWith the result of
the neutralization of strong acid and strong base, neither H+ nor OHj
ions was there in the resulting solution_. The first alternative conception
is probably a result of the idea that FSalt occurs in neutralization
reactions and all the salts are neutral, and the second alternative from
different usage of the term of, Fneutral_ which also occurs commonly in
daily life (see, Ayas & Demircio?lu, 2002; Demircio?lu et al., 2001).
 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT MAPPING ENHANCED 19

Schmidt (1991) says a Fhidden persuader_ like this can come from
students being: introduced to a specific example of neutralization (strong
acids reacting with strong bases to give a neutral solution) and applying
this to other examples to which it does not actually apply. In the present
work, students did activities which involved the reaction of hydrochloric
acid with ammonia and measuring the pH of the resulting salt solution,
which was plainly not neutral.

Student Understanding of Acid-base Chemistry and Concept Mapping

A further feature of the intervention employed in this work involved
students constructing their own concept maps about acid-base chemistry
concepts. These then formed part of whole-class discussions done after
the students had completed the laboratory activities. The findings here
suggest the development of concept maps did three things. First, it
formed a key part of the laboratory acuities in that it was part of student
argumentation and defense of their ideas. This was evidenced during
observations of the students_ laboratory activities. Second, it helped
students to better understand the result of their practical laboratory
activities. Third, examination of students_ concept maps also allowed the
teacher to identify alternative conceptions or gaps in student learning
during the intervention. Hence, it formed an integral part of the
intervention because the maps helped the teacher understand student
thinking. Examples of some student concept maps are shown below
(Figure 3).
In this work we used concept maps in conjunction with laboratory
activities. This type of approach is supported by the literature, which
recommends teachers do not rely on one teaching approach, but use a
variety of teaching methods and, perhaps most importantly, do more
hands-on activities in their classrooms (Khalili, 2001). However, the
literature provides something of a Fmixed-bag_ in terms of support for the
use of practical work alone in enhancing student understanding.
Although most authors consider laboratory activities to be an important
part of chemistry education (e.g., Hart et al., 2000; Lazarowitz & Tamir,
1994), there is conflicting evidence as to whether or not laboratory
activities alone increase student understanding of chemistry. Some
researchers, for example, believe laboratory work cognitively overloads
students, meaning they have too many things to recall (Johnstone &
Wham, 1982). If, as some have argued, laboratory activities on their own
are not sufficient to increase student_s understanding, it may be that in
the present work the use of a combination of activities helps. In support
20 HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

Figure 3. Examples of some student concept maps.

of this proposition, concept maps accompanied by laboratory activities

have been reported elsewhere as playing an important role in student
success (Markow & Lonning, 1998).
Could the use of concept maps alone result in improved understand-
ing? Again the literature is mixed. Some studies suggest the use of
concept maps helps students understand the relationships between
concepts and helps make them achieve meaningful learning (Horton et
al., 1993), others suggest the gains may be small or temporary (see,
Freedman, 1997; Hart et al., 2000; Markow & Lonning, 1998). Buntting
et al., (2006) say concept mapping is of limited value if used in a one-off
type scenario, but is more effective if used for longer (e.g., a term or
significant part of a term). There is limited literature on the combined
use of concept maps with laboratory activities. Work by Markow &
Lonning (1998) suggests that constructing pre-lab and post-lab concept
maps helps students understand the concepts involved in the laboratory
experiment before they performed them. The post-lab concept maps were
apparently good indicators as to how students were able to relate the new
concepts to their pre-conceptions. Additionally, Novak & Gowin (1984)
report that after a learning task has been completed, concept maps
provide a schematic summary of what has been learned. This is
essentially how concept mapping was used in this work; the concept
maps were used during and after the laboratory applications and were
found to be useful in tracking student understanding. Hence, overall,
based on analysis of the data from of our work here, it seems laboratory
 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF A CONCEPT MAPPING ENHANCED 21

work is the most important component of this intervention. However, the

literature points to at least some influence, along with added benefits, to
the use of concept mapping in conjunction with laboratory work. The
paucity of research in combined pedagogies like done in this work
suggests this could be a fruitful area for more research; perhaps with
several cohorts of students involved in a variety of interventions; some
using laboratory activities, some concept mapping and some a
combination of the two.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

This inquiry sought to determine the effectiveness of an intervention

comprising a combination of laboratory activities supported by concept
mapping on students_ understanding of acid-base chemistry concepts,
and in remedying alternative conceptions for these topics. The research
findings for the inquiry suggest the intervention can enhance student
understanding for acid-base chemistry, and seems the visually dramatic
and hands-on nature of the practical work is particularly helpful.
The literature suggests that many high school students experience a
traditional teacher-centered approach to learning chemistry where they
sit rather passively, listening to the teacher without asking many
questions, and perhaps participate only to the extent of raising their
hand to answer or ask questions (Muir-Hertzig, 2004). Such an approach
is thought to reward rote memorization of concepts without developing
conceptual understanding. Current theories of learning such as construc-
tivism and meaningful learning theory suggests that learning consists of
interaction between students_ preexisting knowledge and new knowledge
that the learning process should be more active in nature. In other words,
student-centered learning pedagogies may, as suggested here in our
work, be useful ways of enhancing meaningful learning. Of course,
laboratory activities and concept mapping used in this study are only two
active teaching approaches open to teachers.
Despite the largely quantitative nature of our work, it is not
appropriate to attempt to generalize our work to a wider context (Guba
& Lincoln, 1994). From this perspective, given a reasonably detailed
description of our work, the reader is best positioned to judge the
relevance of our work to his or her own educational setting. With this
thought in mind, we make some proposals as to what we think our work
might mean for others. The results of this inquiry suggests that
laboratory-based applications have positive effects on students_ under-
22 HALUK ÖZMEN ET AL.

standing, consistent with at least some literature (Botton, 1995; Gouveia

& Valadares, 2004). Of course one need not use this particular
combination of pedagogies, but Stensvold & Wilson (1992) recommend
teachers use combinations of teaching approaches to improve under-
standing of the procedures used in the laboratory. This, they argue, helps
student link results to appropriate prior knowledge of science concepts,
and improves the integration of laboratory content within an individual_s
conceptual structure. For this reason, we think concept mapping would
likely be one of those methods. In conclusion, our work suggest
combining the pedagogies of laboratory-based activities and concept
mapping may be a useful strategy for teaching acid-base chemistry
concepts, and teachers may also wish to consider this approach or
another combination when teaching chemistry concepts.

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Haluk Özmen
Department of Science Education,
Karadeniz Technical University Fatih Faculty of Education,
Trabzon, 61335, Turkey
E-mail: hozmen@ktu.edu.tr

Gökhan DemNrcNo?lu
Department of Secondary Science and Mathematics Education,
Karadeniz Technical University Fatih Faculty of Education,
Trabzon, 61335, Turkey
E-mail: gdemir@ktu.edu.tr

Richard K. Coll
Centre for Science and Technology Education Research,
University of Waikato,
Hamilton, New Zealand
E-mail: r.coll@waikato.ac.nz