BTTM

6 SEMESTER
COURSE OF STUDY
TH

CODE NO. 326

BTTM/ Sixth Semester /TTM:

Culture & Heritage Tourism in Nepal
COURSE OBJECTIVES
This course aims to give students basic outline of historical background
of Nepal and to provide them with in-depth knowledge of customs, traditions
and cultural component. This course also aims to consider these aspects for the
promotion of tourism in Nepal.

Course Contents
History of Nepal
Human Settlement and Migration in Nepal
Social Structure of Nepal
Economy Structure of Nepal
Festivals of Nepal
Art and Influencing Factors on Religion
Nepalese Arts: Ancient Art, Medieval Art, Modern Art
Monuments of Nepal
Customs of Nepal
Relation between Culture and Tourism
Cuisine of Nepal
Cultural Policy and Government
World and National Heritage Sites in Nepal
Case Study of Ethnic Groups of Nepal: Tharu, Magar, Newar and Sherpa.

Culture: An Introduction
-Lok Nath Dulal

Background
The term culture stands for the sum total of human behavior, verbal and
non verbal and its products materials and non- materials. The word culture
connotes different meaning in different situations. For instance, we commonly
use this is humanistic sense to designate manner, taste and intellectual
development. It is said that a man is quite cultural then others, or some human
products and more cultural, such as visual art, music, literature etc. poetic
expression of culture denotes sweetness and light. To a historian, culture
simply signifies social development in artistic and intellectual fields. Modern
biological usage of culture is restricted to the medium of growth where a
mould or a bacterium may be grown artificially. In Sanskrit language, the
synonym of culture is sanskriti which has been derived from Sanskrit term
sanskar, the meaning of which is the refinement of soul by various acts,
through the series of birth and rebirths. The term culture thus has been used in
different context for a long time, but its exact meaning is still vague (Roy,
2005:656).
Originally, the term culture is believed to be derived from the Latin term
cultura which means to cultivate. The term refers to patterns of human
activity and symbolic structures that give such activities significance and
importance (Kunwar, 2015:2). Likewise, in the Etymological perspective the
word is linked with the terms like cultivate, cultivation and agriculture. In
seventeenth century, its meaning was applied to human development. This
metamorphic meaning was further developed in eighteenth century to give rise
to a general term. In Germany, the word was started to be spelt as cultur. But
soon it was converted to kultur. During nineteenth and twentieth centurys,

the term became very distinct and got entangled with different meaning in
different spheres (Roy, 2005:656).

Meaning and Definition

Culture is an important element through which a biological animal
transform into a human being. Culture consequently denotes the tangible and
intangible parts of human life in common. All the social welfare and helpful
aspects for human and animal world such as art, knowledge, beliefs, feelings,
ethics, behavior, customs, thinking, devotion, discipline, system, tradition,
guidelines, lifestyle, language and speech, food and habits, tools, resources,
and other more things created by human beings are included in culture.
Culture is the completeness of workmanships style in human life. All kinds of
social systems and behaviors are performing their roles and responsibility in
society through the inner functioning different tangible and intangible units of
it. Culture is a system which has transforming quality from an individual,
society and generation to another individual, society and generation. In real
sense, culture is the sum of tangible and intangible aspects that is created by
the human beings themselves in the process of development. It is widely
related concept with human lifestyle which should merely consist of intangible
things like symbol, language, norms, values and tangible aspects as well.
In anthropological usage, the concept of culture in not only broad and
comprehensive; it is very significant as well as scientific. It does not limit
itself with specific field of knowledge, rather encompasses the whole range of
human activities. Each and every manifestations of human existence e.g. tools,
weapons, utensils, clothings, ornaments customs, beliefs, institutions, rituals,
games, work of arts etc. are included in culture. Similarly, the numerous
behaviors like economic, social, political, religious, educational, recreational

and more others that govern the way of life in any society are also covered by
culture (Roy, 2005:656).
Culture is very vague and multivariate concept. It is more difficult task
to generate the appropriate definition of the term culture. Therefore, it is better
to insist what culture is not and what particular things it does not include then
insisting what culture is. Whatsoever, there are more than hundred different
definitions have already been given by the scholars of different disciplines. It
is still not stop to deliver the definition of it. So the number of definition could
be increased in coming days. Anthropologists, in particular, point to human
origin of culture. For the first time in the history of anthropology, the British
scholar, Sir Edward Burnett Tylor wrote a book entitled Primate Culture in
1871. He introduced the term culture in anthropology, borrowing the German
word Kultur and provides an excellent definition. Since then, several
scholars of different disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, psychology,
archaeology, philosophy, and literary criticism and so on defined culture on
their own way which ultimately created confusion for understanding culture in
better way.
In this respect, E. B. Tylor, F. Boas, Herbert Spencer, B. Malinowski,
Redcliffe Brown, Margaret Mead, A.L. Kroeber, R. Redfield, Ruth Benedict,
Ralph Piddingtin, R.M. Mac Iver, Ralph Linton, Leslie A. White, M.J.
Horskovits, E.A. Hoebel, G.A. Lunberg, L.H. Morgan, H.T. Majumdar and
other numerous different scholars tried to define culture as per their own
conceptions. The earliest definition was delivered by Tylor as follows: Culture
is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law,
customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by as a member of
society(Tylor, 1871:1).

Similarly, B. Malinoswki stated that culture is the handwork of man &

the medium through which he achieves his end. He further adds culture
comprises inherited artifacts, goods, technical processes, ideas, habits and
values. He regarded that these things are interrelated and form a total way of
life, which secures for an individual the satisfaction of his bio-psychic drives,
fulfillment of other wants and relativistic. He emphasized on the plurality of
local cultures as functioning and organized whole.
Likewise, Dictionary of Anthropology defined the term culture as
follows Culture refers to all that which is non- biological and social;;y
transmitted in a society including artistic, social, ideological and religious
patterns of behavior, and the techniques for mastering the environment.
On the basis of above mentioned definitions finally we come into
conclusion that in the broad anthropological sense, culture may be define as
everything people learn about taking our place in human society and underpins
the farming of world views, and conditions human negotiated path through
everyday social reality. Hence, culture can be described as software of society,
a design of living, and as a code of conduct. Still it is believed that culture as a
product of body and mind, marks off man from other higher primates.

Typology of culture
Essentially, culture has been viewed from two perspectives. First one
views it as an ideological entity encompassing values, norms, customs and
traditions. The other perspective views culture as a combination of ideological
and material elements such as what and how people eat, what they wear and
what they use (Kunwar, 2015: 3). Culture is universal phenomena. Each and
every society has own certain culture in accordance with the available
situation and ecology. Usually, some features and traits can be resembled
between each other. But there can be measured vast differences in major
practices. Existing religion and philosophy as well as available geography,
5

ecology, economic situation and other culture are considered as the major
components which played creative and guiding roles for the formation of
culture.
In the real sense, culture represents a system of tangible and intangible
components. Tangible components of culture represent material culture and
comprise productive force and physical elements necessary to support human
life, such as clothing, tools, food, buildings, paintings, and many other culture
objects and artifacts. Intangible elements represent non- material culture and
refer to values, beliefs, attitudes, morality, ethics, spirituality, traditions, and
customs (Reisinger, 2009: 90). As per the above mentioned components
culture can be classified into numerous forms. Whereas, viewed from material
and non- material perspectives it can be classified into tangible and intangible
two different forms.

Tangible culture
Tangible culture can be seen in material forms. It can be observed
through the senses. This form of culture includes that types of physical
elements which constructed by the men for the fulfillment of their needs. For
illustrations dress and ornaments, food and drink, tools and weapons,
buildings and utensils, road and means of transportations, different types of art
and architectures and many other material objects can be included in tangible
form of culture.

Intangible culture
Intangible culture cannot be seen in material forms. It can only be
observed by inner feeling of human beings. The UNESCO convention for the
safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage 2003 defined intangible culture
as

follows:

the

intangible

cultural

heritage

means

the

practices,

representations, expressions, knowledge, skill- as well as instruments, objects,

artifacts and cultural spaces associated there with- that communities, groups

and in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage. This
intangible cultural heritage, transmitted from generation to generation, is
constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their
environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them
with a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural
diversity and human creativity (UNESCO, 2003:6). UNESCO further
classified the intangible cultural heritage in five different domains i.e. (a) oral
traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible
cultural heritage; (b) performing arts; (c) social practices, rituals and festive
events; (d) knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; (e)
traditional craftsmanship (UNESCO, 2003:8).

Key points
(a) The term culture derived from the German word kultur.
(b) E.B. Tylor was the first scholar who defined and applied in
anthropology in 1871.
(c) It is an element through which human life could be meaningful.
(d) It is a moral chain which tied generation to generation.
(e) It helps to transform biological animals into human beings.
(f) It is a universally accepted moral law which guided human being towards
six sa i.e. satmarga, sadbhab, satsang, sahakarya, satbuddhi and satbichar.
(g) As an institution it is stable as the traits or features are changeable.
(h)

There is triangular relationship between human beings, ecology and

culture.
(i)

It has transmission quality.

(j)

It is learnt behavior.

(k) It is an adopted behavior.

(l)

Every society has distinct and specific culture with own values.

(m) It is classified into tangible and intangible forms.

(n)

It is an element which helps to maintain harmony in society.

7

(o)

It is an agent of communication.

(p)

It is constructed by human beings

(q)

It is a source of norms, values and discipline.

Major Features of Nepalese Culture

In every situation and mode of life culture makes it meaningful by
enhancing things such as refinement, attraction, high handedness, purity,
simplicity, and easiness and natural as well. In the real sense, if there is
anything which can guide an individual towards the six sa i.e. satmarga,
sadbhab, satsang, sahakarya, satbuddhi and satbichar respectively truth path,
positive feeling, good friendship, collective effort, truth knowledge, and
positive thinking, then it is culture. As an institution it is considered immortal
and stable as well. As for its traits and features concerned it always looks like
changeable according to the situation, time and environment. There is a
possibility of refinement and change in symbol, language, norms, values and
every intangible as well as tangible aspect but as an institution it is remained
unchanged.
Nepal is a multiethnic and multilingual country and ethnic diversity
and cultural idiosyncrasy constitute its distinct identity. People belonging to all
the major families like the Aryans, the Mongolians, the Dravidians, and the
Agneli can be discovered to have settled in the land of Nepal since the very
prehistoric period (Diwasa, 2009:23). The Nepali people observe many
festivals and fairs then there are days in the year and these events commonly
celebrated by all people. The reflection of uniqueness of Nepali culture can be
seen in the everyday life of the people and in the works of arts and
architectures. Nepal is the culture museum where art treasures and monuments
of historical interest are preserved (Satyal, 2001: 6).
Culture is an identity of an individual as well as the entire country.
All the rites and rituals which carried out during performing the sacrament
8

from womb to tomb by man are included in culture. Culture includes the
identity and pride of the nation. In the context of Nepal folk life such as art,
music, literature and other else are considered main sources of culture. Nepal
is richer in its cultural heritage. It being remains common garden of different
castes and creeds. Nepal is an independent country, where different types of
caste and ethnic groups have been living with their indigenous culture from
the past till to present. The peoples who have been inhabitating from the very
early up to now within the geographical territories and their creations can be
included in nation culture. Here the following points could be mentioned as
the thematic aspects of Nepalese culture.
Unity in diversity
Religious tolerance within its diversity.
Cultural tradition based on varna and caste system.
Prosperity in different ethnic culture and tradition.
Store house of arts & crafts from very early up to now.
Specific manner of hospitality.
Specific economic structures and tradition.
Specific festivals and unique celebration system.
Continuously changing scenario of ruling system.
Patriarchal and patri lineage family and society.
Position of women comparatively low than male.
Unbroken cultural sequence from the very early up to now.
Feeling of inner respect between each cultural group.
Belief over god/ goddess and fortune.
Belief over reborn, heaven and hell.
Mainly economy depended upon agriculture with subsistence
productions.
9

Reference
Diwasa,

Tulsi

(2009)

Aathapahariya

Rai

Folklore

and

Folklife,

Kathmandu:Nepali Folklore Society, Edited.

Kunwar, R.R. (2015) Cultural Tourism, Journal of Tourism and Hospitality
Education, Kathmandu: AITM School of Hotel Management.
Reisinger, Y. (2009). International Tourism:Culture and Behavior,
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Roy, Indrani Basu (2005) Anthropology The Study of Man, New Delhi: S.
Chand & Company LTD.
Satyal, Y.R. (2001) Nepal an Exotic Tourist Destination, Delhi: Adroit
Publishers.
Tylor, E.B. (1871) Primitive Culture, London: J. Murry.
UNESCO (2003). Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage 2003, Kathmandu: United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization, Kathmandu Office.

10

History of Nepal
Gopal Period: An Analysis of Historical Perspective
Introduction
In the perspective of political history Gopal dynasty is known as the
first ruling dynasty in Nepal. Gopal Vansabali is an important source of
Nepalese history and culture which was composed during the regime of the
King Yaksha Malla in Medieval period. The chronicle helps to provide the
plenty of information of the ruling period of Gopal dynasty. Besides that,
chronicle of W. Kirkpetric, D. Wright, S. Levy and other literary sources have
assisted to give some information of this period.
Etymologically, the term Gopal is derived through the Sankrit words go
and pala, which means the man or groups, who rare the cows as an
occupation. In some other sources the word gopal stands to denote the man or
groups who care the earth. Therefore, it is obvious that Gopal dynasty is
derived from their profession or occupation. According to the religious
scriptures Gopal is regarded as a varnashankar caste (a caste group who fell
down from their origin status) originated from the inter caste sexual
relationship of kshetry male and sudra i.e. untouchable female. In gopal
vansabali there is a legendry of a person of gopal dynasty whose name is
Nepa. Similarly, through the Gandaki Mahatmya, an important religious text,
we find the description of a ruler of that time whose name was Nipa. On the
basis of afore mentioned evidences, some Nepalese historians believed that
Nipa or Nepa was a caste group of Gopal dynasty through which the name of
Nepal came into origin.
The group which entered Kathamandu valley from western north
direction with Lord Krishna and reared the cows then called Gopal dynasty.
According to legend there was a demon King Danasur who was controlling
the Kathmandu Valley through his power. Again he filled the valley with
water. During this time Lord Krishna came to the valley with his devotees
Gopal and killed the Demon King Danasur. He also dried out the water
through the gorge of Chobar and developed the valley as a beautiful residency.
Meanwhile, a large number cowherds i.e. Gopals had come along with Lord
11

Krishna and they settled in Nepal. According to the legend, Nemuni who is
considered to be the patron saint of Nepal, used to perform religious
ceremonies at Taku, the confluence of Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers. He
selected a pious cowherd, Bhuktaman to be the first king in the line of Gopal
dynasty.

King of Gopal Dynasty

There is no unanimous view in literary sources concerned to
the king and their ruling time. In this respect, Gopal Vamsabali
mentions that there were eight kings who ruled over 505 years and
three months. Likewise, the Wright Vamsabali indicates that the
kings of Gopal dynasty ruled over the 521 years in Nepal. There is a
practice to give twenty five years of ruling time to a king. If it is
acceptable assumption then eight kings of Gopal dynasty might be ruled
over 200 years from 900 B.C to 700 B.C in the country. Bhuktaman or Bhumi
Gupta was understood the first king of this dynesty, and jaya Gupta, Dharma
Gupta, Harsha Gupta, Mani Gupta , Vishnu Gupta and Jeeta Gupta or Gisnhu
Gupta were the other king who ruled over according to the chronological
order. In course of time pastoral disputes arose and the Ahir or Aabhir replaced
Gopal dynasty.

Key points or features

Monarchial ruling patterns and supremacy goes to the king
The boundaries of the countries were Dudh Koshi in the
east, Trishuli ganga in the west, goshainkunda in the north
and chitlang in the south.
The people were belonged Caucasoid that is Aryan racial
group.
The society and the culture were guided by Hindu religion
and philosophy.
The economy was based on animal husbandry and
agriculture.
The settlement were developed in Balambhu , Thankota ,
Kirtipure, Tistung, Palung, Chitlang areas.
Society was structured in Hindu varnavyavastha system
The society was dominated by male due to patriarchal
society and family
Shaivism was the main sect of religious beliefs.
12

 The flaming image of Lord Pashupati Nath was originated.

Mahishpal period (700B.C to 625 B.C)

Introduction
Mahispal was the second ruling dynasty of the Nepal after Gopal. Gopal
Vansabali is an important source of Nepalese history and culture which was
composed during the regime of the King Yaksha Malla in Medieval period.
The chronicle also helps to provide the plenty of information of the ruling
period of Mahispals dynasty. Besides it, chronicle of W. Kirkpetric, D.
Wright, S. Levy and other literary sources have assisted to give some
information in this regards. Who was Mahispals? Where from they came into
Nepal? How they came into the power? These are the questions which are still
waiting scientific research. There is no unanimous view in literary sources
concerned above mentioned questions. In this context, Gopal Vansabali
addressed to this group as the Mahishpala whereas, Bhasha Vansabali of
Wright mentioned it as Ahir and Mahispal. But a renowned historian William
Kirkpettric believed that Mahispasl should also be a descendent of Gopal.
Etymologically, the term Mahispal is derived through the Sankrit words
Mahish i.e. buffalo and pala i.e. rare, which means the man or groups, who
involved in the buffalo rearing occupation. Therefore, it is obvious that
Mahishpal dynasty is derived from their profession or occupation. The
Mahispals were also known as Ahirs or Abhirs dynasty. In the real sense, the
term Ahir is a derivative form of the word Aabhir. Aabhirs were also powerful
in Lichhavi politics. Now, we can also see, the huge settlement of Aabhirs in
different territories in India. In the inscription of the king Samundra Gupta of
India, there is a description of the word Aabhir. According to Manu Smriti
Aabhir is regarded as a varnashankar caste (a caste group who fell down from
their origin status) originated from the inter caste sexual relationship of
Bramhan male and Baisya female.

Kings of Mahispal dynasty

13

There is a description in Gopal Vamsabali, which reveals that after the

defeating to the last king of Gopal dynasty, the Mahispal captured the thrown.
Similarly, the chronicle of Kirkpettric mentions that Mahispals were the
indigenous people of the midland of Simraungad and Janakpur in ancient
period. There in the region they reared buffaloes. When they knew the
information that the last king of Gopal dynasty did not have son or prince,
then they entered into the valley and captured the thrown, after the death of the
last Gopal vansi king Jita or Jishnu Gupta. According to the Bhasa Vansabali,
Mahisapals were brought from Madhya desh i.e. the middle parts of Nepal or
India and put them into the thrown by the gopal themselves. What so ever, in
the political history of Nepal Bara sing was the first, Jaya singh the second
and Bhuwan singh was the last Mahispals kings who ruled over the state from
700B.C to 625B.C. In this way mahispal dynasty ruled over only 75 years by
their three kings mentioned above. Unfortunately the last king Bhuwan singh
was defeated by the first king named Yalamber of the Kirat dynasty and finally
the ruling power of Mahispal dynasty came into the end.

Key Points or Features

Monarchial ruling system and supreme power depended
upon king.
The boundaries of the state were settled like as the
Lichchhavi period i.e. Dudh Koshi in the east, Trishuli ganga
in the west, goshainkunda in the north and chitlang in the
south.
The peoples belonged to Caucasoid social stock.
The society and culture guided by Hindu religion and
philosophy.
The economy was based on animal husbandry and
agriculture.
Society was structured by Hindu varnavayastha system.
The society dominated by male due to patriarchal society.
Comparatively the position of woman was low than male
due to patriarchal society.
Shaivism was the main religious sect of the religion.

Kirat period (625 B.C to 100 A.D)

14

Introduction
Kirat was another ruling dynasty of Nepal. There is no exact evidence
that helps to provide information who was Kiratas? Where from they came
into Nepal? How they came into the power? These are the questions which are
still waiting scientific research. There is no unanimous view in literary sources
concerned above mentioned questions. To some extent, Gopal Vamsabali an
important source of the history and culture of Nepal and some other different
Vhasa vamsabali such as W. Kirkpetric, D. Wright, S. Levy and other sources
have assisted to give some information in this regards. Besides it, the religious
sculptures like bajasenia sanhita of sukla yajurbed, atharbabed, balmiki
ramayan, mahabharat, mastsya puran, vayu puran, markandeya puran
provide the descriptions of Kirat dynasty.
The term kirat is being used in different sources as to denote both caste
and the country too. In Samskrit literature the word kirat means kiram atati
yan: kirat as used to refer those people who travelled and lived into the forests
and caves. The term kirat also used in Bhisma Parva of Mahabharat, Matsya
Puran, Markandeya Puran and Vrihat Samhita to refer as the separate group
who lived in Himalayan region. Generally, kirat people speak Bhote Burmeli
dialect and known as Mongolian racial stock.
Some scholars believed that, mainly, the kiratas were the people of
middle parts of the Mediterian Sea, who migrated to Asheria near about 2400
years B.C. One of the branches of this group, firstly, entered into Iran, then
came and started permanent settlement into Northern west Himalaya region of
India. Similarly, some historians argue that Kiratas were the indigenous caste
of Middle Asia especially different region of Tibet and China. In the migration
process they leaved their origin territories and came into Asham of India than
in Nepal. Likewise, some anthropologists suggested that Kiratas were pre
historic people, who lived from Neolithic period in Nepal. According to Babu
Ram Acharya a great historian of Nepal, the Kiratas came into the Nepal near
about 700 B.C.

Important kings of Kirata dynasty

Historians believed that the leader of kirat dynasty
named Yalamber defeated the Mahispals the last king Bhuwan
singh in 625 B.C and established kirat regime at the same
15

time. According to the description of the vamsabalis there

were 28 to 32 kings of kirat dynasty, who ruled over the 700
years in Nepal. King Yalambar, was the first king of the same
dynasty. As well as Humati, Jite Dasti, sthunko, Patuka, and
Gasti were respectively the 6th, 7th, 14th, 28th, and 29th other
famous kings of this dynasty.
During the regime of the 7 th Kirat king Jite Dasti Lord
Shakya Muni Buddha had taken his valuable visit in the
Kathamandu valley along with some disciples. At that time
Lord Buddha visited the shrines of Swayambhu and Guheswori
and perched his doctrine. Similarly, during the ruled of
Sthunko the 14th king of the same dynasty, about 250 B.C
Indian Emperor Ashoka came on a pilgrimage to Lumbini, in
Nepal. To mark the birthplace of Lord Buddha, Ashoka
engraved the inscription on a stone pillar and erected at the
point. According to some literary sources, at the same time
Emperor Ashoka visited kathamandu along with his daughter
Charumati. Meanwhile, Ashoka got his daughter married with
the Kshetriya Prince Devepal. Then she settled near the
Pashupati and founded a town called Devapatan in the
memory of her husband. She also got a vihar i.e. monastery,
erected for herself which was called Chabahil. In this period
the Emperor Ashoka established four stupas in four corners of
Patan city. According to the literary sources the last Kirat king
was Gasti who was defeated by Nimisha the king of the Soma
dynasty and Kirat regime came to an end.

Key Points or Features

As the Gopal and Mahispal periods, there is lack of
archaeological evidences which can help to prove the history
of Kirat period as a whole. Therefore, it is also not to be
included as the historic period. But apart from the literary
sources, some circumstances situations, inscriptional records
such as Khopring, Tenkhu, Sangu, Changu, Kurpasi,
Mapachouk, Lingaul, Kuther, Sulli and other more Kirati
language mentioned in Lichchhavi inscriptions as well as some
so-called images of this period help to provide some valuable
informations of Kirat dynasty. In the kirat period, they had
16

done some socio-cultural activities. Among them major

significant are the following
Monarchial political system where the king has the supreme
power.
The administration units were established from center to
village level mapachauka, kuther, suley, lingawal were the
main administration units of the period.
The boundaries of the state were extended Tista river (now
in India) in the east, Trishuli ganga in the west,
goshainkunda in the north and chitlang in the south.
Trade and commerce were flourished at the period in
international level.
Considerable progress in art and architectures.
Development of Trade relationship with India, China and
Tibet.
The town like Matatirtha, Sankhamul , Devapatan,Thankot ,
Khopung , khopasi, Sanga , Teku etc were developed.
The peoples belonged to the Mongoloid stocks.
The society and culture guided by Hindu and Buddha
religion and philosophy.
The position of the woman was not equivalent with male.
Sanskrita and Kirat language were practiced in the society.
Kirateshwor Mahadev was the clan deity of the period.
Besides trade and commerce, agriculture and animal
husbandry were also regarded as the main sources of the
economy
The wool, woolen goods, woods and herbs were main items
and productions of Nepal for exports.
Patriarchal and patrilenage family and society.

Lichchhavi Period (100 A.D. to 880 A.D.)

Introduction
The Lichchhavi period is known as the first historical period in the
history of Nepal. Through which chronology of writing i.e. inscriptional
records, chronology of dates, chronology of historical events and other several
archaeological materials can be found which helped to prove every aspects of
17

history and culture of Lichchhavi period. Thus, in the history of Nepal

Lichchhavi period especially from the regime of king Manadev 1st is
recognized as the first historical period. From this period besides literary
sources and foreign account there are archaeological evidences i.e.
inscriptions, coins, art objects, archaeological remains and other more
materials can be found which are helping to scholars for the reconstruction of
the history and culture of the period.
After the down felled of Kirata the ruling authority has gone to the
Lichchhavi dynasty. There are some descriptions in Vamsavali and Pauranic
literatures which indicate that through the influenced of Surya Vansha i.e. the
solar dynasty the Lichchhavi had succeeded to defeat to the king of Kirat
dynasty and took over their thrown (Bajracharya & Malla, 1985:75).
According to Pashupati Puran and Himawatkhanda the Lichchhavi might be
captured the thrown either by defeating or convincing ways to the king of
Kirat dynasty (Yogi, 2013: 55-56). There are three different names of last kirat
kings. In this regards, GopalVamsabali mentions to Khigu, Bhasha Vamsabali
to Galij and Wright Vamsabali to Gasti as the last king of Kirat dynasty.
It is obvious that Lichchhavis were the ruler. They had an independent
republican state in Baisali. Basad of Northern India is known as the ancient
Baisali state of Lichchhavis now, which is located in the Mujefarpur district of
Bihar State. At that time the republican States were unified in a single Federal
State. Brijji Sanga was known as one of the greatest Federal State of Northern
India, where Videha, Lichchhavi, Gyatrik and other eight small States were
unified at that circumstance. Among the eight, the Lichchhavis of Baisali was
one of the powerful unified republican States at that time. Unfortunately, the
existence of these eight republicans had gone too disappeared due the attack of
the king Ajatasatru of Magadha State. When the Lichchhavi having lost their
political fortune and dethroned in Baishali in India came to Nepal and attacked
and defeated to the last king of Kirat dynasty.

Important Kings
The archaeological sources and findings of Lichchhavi period have
helped to prove the several dimensions of Nepalese history and culture. But
the exact time when Lichchhavi begun to rule over the country is still in

18

question mark. There are various views among the different scholars on this
issue. Baburam Acharya a great historian is delivered his views in this way
before their arriving into the Kathmandu Valley, there were Kirat king who
ruling the kingdom. Lichchhavis were also the rulers. They have had plenty of
experiences how to defeat to the enemies and rules over the country.
Sometime later they began their business of defeating to the Kirat king.
Ultimately, they got success to defeat them and establish their power in 250
A.D. (Acharya, 2054: 26). On the basis of the descriptions of Vamsabali,
R.C. Majumdar a renowned historian said that the regime of Lichchhavi
dynasty in Nepal was probably established in 1st or 2nd century A.D.
(Majumdar, 1962:83).
In this regard, J.C. Regmi a renowned culture experts and historian
mentions that Changunarayan inscription of 464 A.D. of king Manadev 1st is
the first evidence, where king Manadev mentioned his three ancestors names
before him. Beside it, there is another Pashupati inscription of 733 A.D. of
king Jayadev 2nd which engraves the Vamsabali of Lichchhavi kings i.e. the
names of important kings from the beginning up to Jayadev himself. The
kings who missed their names to engrave only serial number included in the
inscription. The king Manadev 1st engraved as the 39th king here in the
Vamsabali. It means there were 38 more kings already ruled over before the
king Manadev 1st. If we give only 20 years of ruling time, in an average to a
king, than it is said that Lichchhavi regime might be established 760 years ago,
than the king Manadev 1st. Thus, on the above mentioned analysis Regmi is in
viewed that Lichchhavis were established their power about 296 B.C. (Regmi,
2035:23).
Similarly, Dhanabajra Bajrachrya recognizes to Jayadev 1st as the 16th
king of this dynasty before the king Manadev 1st, who made the foundation of
the state very strong. He provides 25 years ruling time in an average to a king,
than total ruling time of 16th kings reached into 4 hundreds years. Finally, he
believes that before 4 hundreds years i.e. about 64 A.D. than that the date of
the first inscription of king Manadev 1st i.e. 464 A.D., king Jayadev 1st
established Lichchhavi thrown in Nepal (Bajracharya, 2030: 557).
In this respect, some scholars forwarded little similar view which has
mentioned by Bajracharya, with some reservations. The differences can be
measured only in hypothetical ruling time. They give only 15 years in an
average to a king. Through which the total ruling time of the 16 th king stand
19

only 240 years. Therefore, they believe that king Jayadev 1st was the leader
who established Lichchhavi regime 240 years ago than king Manadev 1st i.e. in
224A.D. (Pandey & Regmi, 2054: 132).
What so ever, in the history of Nepal Lichchhavi dynasty was ruled over
about 780 years from 100 A.D to 888 A.D. Through the inscription of king
Mandev 1st of Changunarayan of 464 A.D and the inscription of Jayadev 2nd
of Pashupatinath of 733 we could know about the descriptions of the some
popular kings of the Lichchhavi dynasty. Beside it, other several inscriptions
such as the inscriptions of Pashupati Suryaghat of Vijayawati, the Thankot
inscription of Basantadev, Lele inscription of Shivadev and Amshuvarna,
Bhungamati, Hadigaon, Tistung inscription of Amshuvarna,Yagabahal, Patan
Bhansarchouk, Anatalingeswor inscriptions of Narendraevd are considered
important sources, through which we could be informed about the history
and culture of that period. According to the inscriptional records the Manadev
1st, Basanta Dev , Shivadev 1st, Amsuverma , Narendra Dev , Shiva
Dev ,Jayadev 2nd were known as the famous kings of Lichhavi period .

Key Points or Features

In this period many socio cultural activities had practiced and several
norms and values were established through the above mentioned kings. The
mentionable socio cultural reforms of the period are as following
Monarchial ruling system, but not autocratic, the king did
have the super power.
Well managed administrative system. The administrative
system was extended through panchali i.e. village units to
central
level.
kuther,
lingawal,
sulley,
mapchok,
purbadhikaran , pachimadhikaran etc were the main
administrative units of this period.
Society and culture guided and controlled by the Hindu
religion and philosophy as well as Buddhist religious norms
and values.
Society and culture based on Hindu Varnasram system. At
this period four varna and so many caste groups were in
existence ( Mandev 1st of Changunarayan inscription,
Vasantadev's of thankot inscription , Narendradev 's of

20

Anantalingeshwor inscription as known as the witness and

evidence of it.
Sati system (woman immolate herself on the funeral pyre
with dead husband) was practiced but not compulsion.
Rajyawati mothers of king Manadev, Batas Devi mothers
of king Jayadev 2nd and Abhiri Gomini mothers of Bhauma
Gupta where women who did not sacrifice themselves with
their pyre of dead husband.
Polygamy and polyandry marriage system as well as
divorce system was in practiced (king Mandev 1st did have
three wives). The inscription of Maligaon of Vishnu Gupta
helped to prove the polyandry marriage and divorce system
of this period.
Patriarchal or patrileanage society and family system.
Lichchhavi script and Sanskrit language were in practiced.
Lichchhavi extended boundary and maintain good
relationship with India, China and Tibet
Lichchhavi king nicely developed art and architectural
assets in their ruling period (Managriha, Kailaskuta,
Bhadradiwas, Visworupa, Vishwavikranta, Nirisingh these
are the main illustration of the art and architectural assets
of the time).
Lichchhavi kings built and used coins for the first time in
the history of Nepal (Mananka, Vaishravan , Pashupati etc
are the coins ).
Basically Lichchhavi kings beloved in Hindu religion. Mainly
Lord Shiva, Vishnu, goddess were worshipped in this
society.
People belonged on Caucasoid and Mongolian social stocks.
Trade and commerce, agriculture, industry, animal
husbandry were the main occupations of the society.
There were strong judicial systems. There were different
forms of punishments. But most of them were of
informative type.
The position of woman was not equivalent with man (sati
system, polygamy marriage system, patriarchal society are
the illustrations of it)

21

 Educational status was not satisfactory. But informally,

there were opportunity to the interested people for learning
about religion, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, art
and architectures, literatures, and some technical
education.
There were some festivals and means of recreations in this
period. Varaha jatra mentioned in the Anantalingeswor
inscription of Narendra Dev, dhwaroghatan jatra mentioned
in the Khopasi inscription of Shiva Dev 1st and
Amshuvarma, kailash jatra mentioned in Khopasi inscription
of Shiva Dev and Amshuvarma, shovana yatra mentioned in
Balambhu inscription of Shiva Dev 2nd , lokpalaswamy yatra
mentioned in Anantalingeswor inscription of Narendra Dev,
mandapi yatra mentioned in Nakshal Narayanchaur
inscription were the important festivals and jatras and
music, dance, musical instruments, drama, malla yuddha,
goyuddha and other folk sports were also considered
significant means of recreations of that period.
There were typical dress and ornaments as well as food and
drink in this period. The descriptions of Chinese travelers
and some inscriptions of Lichchhavi kings as well as some
well dressed and ornamented images of this period were
understood as the important illustrations to prove this
statement.
Gosthi tradition was understood as the significant cultural
practices of this period. Basudev gosthi, pradeepa gosthi,
brahmana gosthi, paniya gosthi, mallayuddha gosthi, dhupa
gosthi, indra gosthi, badrita gosthi, archa gosthi, dhwaja
gosthi, pranali gosthi, brahmana sanathya gosthi,
prawahan gosthi are thirteen different gosthis which con
found in Lele inscription of Shiva Dev 1st + Amshuvarma of
604 A.D.
There were wage labour, bonded labour and slavery system
in Lichchhavi period. The Anantalingeswor, Yagabahal and
Pashupati Bajraghar inscriptions of King Narendra Dev,
Balambhu inscription of Shiva Dev-ii, Kewalpur inscription of

22

Dhruba Dev + Jishnu Gupta are the important inscriptions

which mentioned on these issues to some extent.

Reference
Acharya, B.R. (2054). Nepal ko Samskrit Parmapara,
Kathmandu: Shree Krishna Acharya.
Bajracharya,D.B. & Malla,K.P. (1985). Gopalraj Vamsabali,
Kathmandu: Nepal Research Centre.
Bajracharya, D.B. (2030). Lichchhavi kalaka Abhilekh,
Kirtipur: CNAS. T.U.
Chhetri, G.P.& Rayamajhi, R.C. (2060). Nepalako Itihash,
Kathmandu: Asia publications.
Majumdar, R.C. (1962). Nepal,The Classic Age, Bambay:
Bharatiya Bidhya Bhaban.
Pandey, R.N. & Regmi, D.C. (2054). Nepalko Pauranik
Itihas, Kirtipur: CNAS. T.U.
Regmi, J.C. (2035). Prachin Nepalako Rajanaitika Itihas,
Kathmandu: Nepal Rajakiya Prajna Pratisthan.
Yogi, N.N. (2013). Itihash Prakash, Anka-2, Bhaga-1,
Kathmandu: Itihash Prakash Sangh.
Yogi, N.N. (2013). Itihash Prakash, Anka-2, Bhaga-2,
Kathmandu: Itihash Prakash Sangh.
Yogi, N.N. (2013). Itihash Prakashama Sandhipatra
Sangraha, Kathmandu: Itihash Prakash Sangh

Medieval period (880-1768)

After the downfall of lichchhavi period in 880 A.D then the medieval
period had begun in the political history of Nepal. Basically the medieval
period was dominated by the rulers of the Malla dynasty. Therefore,
sometimes the period is known as Malla period. In the political history of
Nepal from 880 to 1768 A.D that is about 888 years the medieval period was
in existence. It is known as the glorious period in art architectural, sociocultural as well as administrative perspectives. Malla rulers' developed trade
and commerce, industry, religion and culture on the basis of the society.
Similarly, they reached a high level of perfection on the field of arts and
architecture. Medieval period is divided in to two different ages i.e. early and
late medieval period. There were no adequate archaeological i.e. inscriptional

23

records in the early medieval period, whereas, the late medieval period was
documented by the inscriptional and other archeological records.
After the death of king Yaksha malla, the integrated Malla state was
divided into three small and independent states i.e. Kirtipur, Bhaktapur and
Lalitpur. In this period, the integrated power of Malla rulers was completely
deteriorated, whereas, the socio culture and art architectural values were
rapidly developed. So many mall kings ruled over the state in this period.
Among them Jayasthati Malla, Yaksha Malla, Pratap Malla, Jayaprakash
Malla, Siddhinarsingh Malla, Yoganarendra Mall , Ranjit Malla, Bhupatindra
Malla were the most famous kings of the period . This was the period which
carried out so many social, economic as well as land reformed jobs by the
leaders. Likewise, socio cultural reforms were made by the kings; following
are the major socio cultural features of the period.
Monarchial governing system king considered as the super
power.
Administrative system was extended through local level to
central level. Mainly the administration was divided into
three unites i.e. central level, regional level and local level.
King, prince, bharadarishava, sadharan shava, royal priests,
chautra or minister, raj baidhya (royal medical man),
pradhan, gram panchali were the major administrative
unites.
The society was highly civilized. People respect each other.
Newari, Sanskrit, Nepali language existed in the society.
Prachin newari , devangari , ranjana, panchumol, bhujimol
etc were the main scripts of writing
Art, architecture and literature of the period were highly
advanced. The temples, monasteries, gumbas, matha,
water reservoirs, palaces, traditional houses which are in
existence today's recognized as the valuable heritages of
the period.
The society of medieval period was reformed by King
Jayasthiti Malla. Especially, classification of the Newar
community in different social classes and orders according
to their occupations is the best example.

24

 The society was based on Hindu varna vyavastha that is

four varna and caste system and guided by Hindu as well as
Buddhist religion and philosophy.
Sati system, slavery system, polygamy marriage system,
child marriage these were the traditions which are
remaining few years ago in this period.
The position of woman was not high and good
comparatively then the male.
Daura suruwal, dhoti, choli, patuka, pachaura , pageri, jama
were the famous dresses and bamkasila (chura), tuki, tika,
satifali, ring, tulibafi (anklets), beads etc were the popular
ornaments of the period.
Dashain, tihar, gaijatra, indrajatra, krishnajanmasthami,
bhotejatra, shivaratri, ghodejatra, sithinakha, gathemuga,
machhendranath rath yatra, nagapanchami, kwatipunhi,
panchadana, etc were the popular festivals of the period.
Basically dhido, roti, rice, chiura, fish, flesh, milk, alcohol
and different types of foods and drinks were the major
foods and drinks.
Trade and commerce, industry, agriculture, animal
husbandry were the major occupation of the source of
income.
Highly advanced judiciary system. Law was created by the
kings themselves on the basis of religious scriptures. Kings,
ministers, civil servants were the authorities to provide
decision of the issues. ,
In this period international relationship with India, china and
some other European countries had developed.
Modern period (1768 up to date)
About 3 hundred years ago Nepal was divided into several small states
and principalities. There was no unity among the rulers. They had quarreled
with each other for territorial integrity and sovereignty. The Malla kingdom of
Kathmandu Valley was also divided into three kingdoms i.e. Bhaktapur,
Kantipur and Patan. At the same time there were Makawanpur, Vijayapur and
Chaudandi states in the east. Likewise, there were 24 small states in the
western i.e. in the Gandaki region known as Chaubisi Rajya, where as 22
principalities far western i.e. Karnali region which also known as Baisi Rajya.

25

In this circumstance, there was a strong need to consolidate all these small
states and principalities into a greater nation. The credit for this consolidation
goes to the Shah Kings of Gorkha kingdom. Prithibinarayan Shah, who, took
initiation of unification campaigns. Thus he always regarded as the founder of
the greater nation.
In the history of Nepal, the modern period was begun after the defeated
of Kathmandu valley by the king Prithivi Narayan Shah i. e. from 1768 and
remains till to the date. In this period the rulers of Shah Dynasty have
continuously ruled about 250 years. Therefore, in the political history of Nepal
this period is known as the Shah period as well. The historians divide the
period in different eras. The early age i.e. the period before the Rana regime,
the Rana period, the age of democracy and the republican are the main. The
brief descriptions of the period are given below.

1. Before Rana period (1768 A.D to 1846 A.D)

When Prithivi Narayan Shah unified kathamandu valley in 1768 A.D
i.e. 1825 V.S then this period was begun and remained till to 1846 A.D i.e.
1903 V.S. It is an age before the rana regime. In this period the total efforts
have gone to the unification process. After the death of the king Prithivi
Narayan Shah his successor Rana Bahadur Shah, Bahadur Shah and
Rajendra Laxmi provided the continuity to the unification campaigns.
Therefore, in this period the political instability was the main cause which
hindered the socio cultural as well as economic development of the country. In
this period the socio cultural features of the society was remained little more
same as like the previous tenure. Finally, these can be taken as the major socio
cultural features of this period.
Monarchial ruling system king recognized as the super
power. The final authorities of every issues depended upon
the kings.
Administrative system was practiced through the local level
to central. But king did have final authority.
Sugauly Treaty was carried out in 3 March 1816 with East
India Company. Through the treaty Nepal has lost huge
territories.
Kathamandu city developed as the capital city of the unified
greater country. When Prithivinarayan Shah defeated the
Kantipur kingdom than advanced to Hanuman Dhoka as the
headquarter of the state.
26

 Society was dominated by Hindu and Buddhist religion and

philosophy and determined on four varnas and jati
vyavastha as well. Dibya upadesh a ethical text is to be
taken as the witness of varnas and jati vyavastha where he
mentioned to the nation as the beautiful garden of four
varna and 36 castes.
Kasha and Sanskrit language taken as the popular public
languages in this society. Through the time Nepali
languages was practiced as the national language
The process of Hindulization has rapidly grown.
Domestic productions have got priority in the society.
Especially, P.N. Shah was in favor of patronizing indigenous
industries and putting a ban on the import of foreign goods.
The position of woman was weak then the male. Sati
system, polygamy marriage system, child marriage were
understood the main causes to making the low position of
women.
Sati system (woman immolate herself on the funeral pyre
with dead husband) was existed in this period.
Slavery system, polygamy marriage system, child marriage
these were the traditions which are remaining few years
ago in this period.

2. Rana period (1903 to 2007 B.S)

Janga Bahadur a famous leader of the history of Nepal. He came into
the power and ruled Nepal as a shree 3 prime minister from B.S 1903. After
his death his successor ruled over 104 years i.e. till to 2007 B.S continuously.
In this period there is no adequate right to the people. Therefore, the rana
period known as the autocratic rana ruling system in the political history of
Nepal. Janga Bahadur , Chandra Sumsher , Veer Sumsher , Juddha Sumsher ,
Bhim Sumsher , Mohan Sumsher were the famous shree teen prime minister
of this period. After the public movement leaded by Nepali congress in
2007B.S the autocratic ruling system of Rana has came into an end.
Through the Rana time Nepalese society was politically discouraging,
there were some efforts for social reform. Muluki Ain (code) was promulgated
in 1910 and it tried to systematize the cultural and social behaviors of the
people of different castes, punishment and acts and other laws. Those acts and

27

laws were made being influenced by Hindu religious scriptures. Law was
made according to which sati system would not apply to under aged, pregnant
women, slave and widows. But later on 28th June 1920 Chandra Sumsher
eliminated the sati system throughout the kingdom. Similarly, in 1925 the
slavery system, which becomes widespread during Malla Period, was also
eliminated. If we look at the social life of Rana period there, was a bad
practice of unmatched marriage, child marriage and polygamy. Some attempts
were made for reforming this situation. Judda Sumsher initiated the system
according to which Brahmin (male) of age from 30 to 48 could not marry a
person under the age of 12 and those with age 48to 60 could not marry a
person under the age of 20 in the Nepalese societies. As a whole the social,
cultural, economic and political aspects of Rana period were mainly centered
on the Ranas. The following are the major socio cultural features of the
period
Monarchial ruling system but dominated by shree teen
Rana prime minister. The final authority captured by them.
Administrative system was practiced through the local level
to central. But shree teen Rana Prime Ministers did have
final authority.
The first code of Nepal was declared by the king Surendra
Birbikram shah in 1910 B.S which helped to classify the
society in different status according to caste system
Tagadhari, Mathwali, Choichitto halna naparne and
choichitto halna parne these were the division in caste
system which was managed by the new national code
1910.
Banke, Bardiya, Kailali and Kanchanpur were returned from
East India Company by the than Prime Minister Janga
Bahadur in November 1, 1860.
Some educational activities were also carried out by Rana
Prime Ministers. Durbar high school, Trichandra College in
1919, Bir Pustakalaya is the mentionable illustrations.
Some infrastructures i.e. Singhdurbar, Babar mahal, sital
niwas, harihar bhavan, rabibhavan, Narayanhiti Royal
Palace, Ghantaghar etc. was constructed.

28

 Some industries i.e. Biratnagar jute mills, Juddha match

factory, Biratnagar cotton mills, Birjunga cotton mills, Nepal
plywood and ban bin company etc. was established.
Railways service from Raksaul to Amalekhajunga in 1927
and from Janakpur to Jayanagar in 1940 was begun.
Those infrastructures which were damaged by the great
earthquake of 1934 were restored.
Some hospitals i.e. Bir Hospital, Bhadagaon Hospital in
1904, Military Hospital in 1926 were established.
The first Hydro power i.e. Pharping hydro power in 1911
and Ropeway were established.
The facilities and services of communication i.e. publication
of Gorkha Patra, postal service, telephone service, money
order and so on were existed in this period.
The Arsenal Museum of Chhauni and Juddha Jatiya Art
Gallery were established.
The certainty and uniformity of office time and weekly as
well as yearly holyday facilities were brought into the
practices by Dev Shumser.
In 28 June 1920 the sati system has abolished by the Prime
Minister Chandra Shumsher in the social history of Nepal.
In 1925 A.D the slavery system has gone to abolish by the
Prime Minister Chandra Sumsher.
In this period child marriage , polygamy marriage these
type of marriage were in practice but in this respect the
Rana rulers have done some reforms in this period the rules
of the marriage has changed by the prime minister Juddha
Shumsher.
Juwa, tash, madira these types of social evils have gone to
control as much as possible in this period.

3. Democratic age (2007 B.S to till date)

The downfall of autocratic age of the Rana dynasty the democratic age
was began. Finally due to the public revolution of 2007 B.S the autocratic
Rana regime has came into downfall. After 2007B.S till to date the social,
cultural, political, economic situation of the country have been changing day
to days. Since 2007B.S to 2015 there was very difficult political situation. The
first general election of the parliament has conducted in 2015 B.S. The leader
29

of the Nepali Congress B.P. Koirala has appointed as the first public elected
Priminister in the history of Nepal. He could not succeed to run the country in
democratic political environment. The government of BP Koirala got
dissolved in 2017 paush 1 because of the dictatorship king Mahendra and was
imposed party less Panchayat system. Due to the overtaken of the then king
Mahendra the democracy of the country has kidnapped. This system ruled for
30 years i.e. till to 2046 B.S.
After the overtaken of democracy, in this gapping period there were so
many public movements and demonstrations had come in to existence against
the political system for democracy. Non violence movement of 2042,
referendum of 2036 is considered as the most important activities in the
political history of Nepal. These all public movements and demonstrations
doing for democracy could not successes for the political change at the
situation. Finally the public movement of 2046 has successes to regain the
losing democratic system of the country. Again, the democratic system has
overturned by the king Gyanandra in ashoj 18, 2059 V.S. due to this overtaken
situation the close relationship between the parliamentarians political parties
and Maoists have grown. Then parliamentarians political parties and Maoists
party has jointly organized the public movement and democratic revolution
second from 2062/63 V.S. for the reestablishment of the democratic system in
the country. Ultimately, as a result, through the peoples movement of 2062/63
B.S the 250 years long shah dynasty monarchy system was brought to an end
and republican political system came into existence. This event is taken as the
watershed/milestone in the history of Nepal. Now, Nepal is a secular country.
It has created new situations. The revolutions, which has committed in
different period in the country could not only political system, but also be
helped to change in the socio-cultural and economic life of the peoples as well.
The following are the major socio-cultural features of the period.
Downfall of the monarchy system and establishment of
democracy as well as republican country very recently i.e.
from the interim constitution 2063. The His Majesty Govt.
changed into Nepal govt.
The Hindu state is changed into secular state very recently
i.e. from the interim constitution 2063.

30

 The all types of social discrimination have came to an end

and helped to establishment of the social solidarities as well
as inclusive culture
The new nation code has proclaimed by the king Mahendra
in 2020 V.S. Different types of discriminations i.e. sex and
gender, caste and class etc. have gone to reduce through
the Code.
Economically, the country entered into privatization and
globalization movement. Agriculture, tourism, industry,
remittance considers as the main sources of economy.
The country changed into the political structure through
central ruling approach to federalism. This is strongly
managed by the interim constitution 2063.
East-west highway was began to be constructed from 2019
B.S. besides it, other several north south and linkage
highways are being constructed.
Land reform act began in 2021 B.S. which is still in
practices. The act helps to scientific and systematic
classification, distribution and utilization of the land.
Gaun farka rastrya abhian i.e. National campings of return
to village begun in 2024 B.S. Through this activity the
villages have got the opportunities of their enhancements.
End of all kind of slavery system. Especially the kamaiya
system among the tharu people has gone to an end in 17
July, 2000.
End of the polygamy, polyandry, child marriage system. The
new code i.e. mulikiain 2020, the constitution of 2047 and
the interim constitution of 2063 has proclaimed of its end.
End of the feudalism, brita, kipat, jagir land system.
Through this reform scientific and systematic classification,
distribution and utilization of the land could be possible.
Eradication of the malaria from the terai region began to
rehabilitation program in the terai region.
Now the country is in the building process of the national
constitution.
Quota system has managed to backward, marginalize and
disable people and communities by the interim constitution
2063.
31

 Nation building process began with planned way. It was

begun from 2013 V.S. The development movements of the
country has rapidly forwarded through the process.
The infrastructures and facilities i.e. roads, transports,
education, health, communication and so on have rapidly
developed comparatively then previous ages.

Human Settlement and Migration

Human Settlement
Natural resources, adopted ecology and available facilities are highly
regarded as the major leading components which helped to generate human
settlements in different territories in the world. No doubt, in the absence of
these components there can be no existence of human settlements. Today, how
many human settlements are there in existence in the world, its credit goes to
the above mentioned components. According to Oxford Advanced Learners
Dictionary settlement means a place where people have come to live and
make their homes, especially where few or no people lived before (Sally,
2007:1390). Settlement is a universal phenomenon. It is closely related with
the human beings. Both these phenomenons could never be separated with
each other. Obviously, there can be no human settlement where there are no
human beings. It means where there is human being the settlement itself
exists. Thus, the history of settlement can be taken as long as the history of
human beings in the world.
In the real sense, the history of human settlement has begun from the
prehistoric culture and civilization. On the basis of duration, we can classify
the pattern of settlement into two different categorize i.e. temporary and
permanent. If we look at the history of human settlement, we can observe,
more or less the prehistoric life of the people was nomadic. Through the
hunting and gathering they spend their life as much as possible. Continuously,
there were no adequate opportunity of hunting and gathering within a territory
in the long time. Therefore, for the purpose of fulfilling their requirement of
foods they were compelled to change their shelters frequently. Due to that
particular situation the first types i.e. temporary settlement was existed. The
evidence shows that the prehistoric man has begun their permanent settlement
32

very late. When they began cultivation of the land and domestication of the
animals, the permanent settlement has come into existence.
There were beautiful centers of human settlements in prehistoric sites.
Altamire, Lauscaus, Font- De Gaume, Pindel, Teyjat, Hornos De La Pena,
Gargas, La Pasiega, Combarelles, Cantabria, Castillo etc. were regarded as
the suitable illustrations of prehistoric human settlement sites in the world.
Today these sites have to be taken as the noteworthy territories for the study of
prehistoric culture and civilization. Later on i.e. during the proto- historic
period the process of human settlement grew up systematically and
scientifically as well. The civilizations such as Egyptian, Indus Valley,
Babylonian, Chinese as well as even the civilization of Kathmandu Valley of
early Lichchhavi period are considered beautiful examples of it.
In the context of Nepal, according to the Hindu belief the history of
Nepalese culture and civilization can be traced back to the mythological
period. King Manu, who is said to be the first king of the world ruled in Nepal
in Satya Yuga i.e. the Age of Truth and Nepal, was known as the Land of
Satyawati. Later on it was called the land of solitary meditation and penance
(Tapovan) in the Treta Yuga i.e. the Age of Silver. Similarly, Nepal was known
as the ladder of salvation (Muktisopan) in the Dwapar Yuga i.e. the age of
copper; and it is known as Nepal in the Kali Yuga i.e. the age of iron. Beside
afore mentioned mythological description, archaeological findings also
suggest that there were prehistoric human culture and civilization in Nepal.
The fossil findings of the Ramapithecus from the bank of Teenau River and
stone tools of Paleolithic and Neolithic characteristics from the different parts
can be helped to prove the prehistoric human settlements of the country.
The mythological history shows that Gopal, Mahispal and Kirata were
the inceptives ruling dynasties of Nepal. They had begun systematic
settlements in Kathmandu Valley. Especially, in Kirat period changu,
khopring, kurpasi, tengkhu and other various settlement sites were existed,
today which is known as Changu, Bhaktapur, Khopasi and Teku respectively.
Similarly, the Lichchhavi rulers were systematically developed and classified
the settlement sites into different categorize i.e. grama, tala and dranga. The
inscriptions of Lichchhavi period has come into collection in different villages
such as Deupatan, Thankot, Balambu, Chapagaon, Sankhu, Changu,

33

Pharping, Kisipidi, Satungal, Budhanilakantha, Tohka, Bunmati, Hadigaon,

Sanga, Lele, Chitlang, Bhatuwal, Lagan, Maligaon and other several villages,
which suggest that these places were highly developed as the human
settlement sites at that time. The Malla rulers continuously gave the priority to
this tradition of developing human settlement in medieval period.
No doubt, from the very early, Nepal was a melting pot of several caste
and ethnic groups of different races. Today this feature is still known as the
identity of the country. It constitutes various caste and ethnic groups of
different races, living in different regions with their distinct socio-cultural
features. If we look at the settlement pattern the high Himalayan region is
settled by the Tibetan speaking people especially the Sherpas. Likewise, the
midlands including Kathmandu Valley are inhabited by various TibetoBurman and Indo-Aryan speaking people such as Brahmins, Chhetris and
Newars. A part from it, the Rais, Limbus, Tamangs, Magars, Sunwars, Jirels,
Gurungs, Thakalis, Chepangs and so on are other Tibeto-Burman speaking
mongoloid people found in the middle hills. Similarly, the Terai is inhabited
by the people such as Brahmins, Rjputs, Tharus, Danwars, Majhis, Rajbansis,
Shatars, Dhimals, Ganagais, Bantars, Dhanuks, Jhangars, Musahars etc.with
their beautiful settlement sites from the early up to now.
In this present circumstances, there are two types of settlements i.e.
disperse and clusters. More or less the first type i.e. disperse settlement pattern
can be found in rural areas, where as the second type i.e. the cluster
settlements can be observed in urban society. It means disperse settlement is
characterized by rural atmosphere and cluster settlement is to be represented
by the urbanity. According to the national census of 2011, among the 5423297
households, all together there are 4377722 (80.72%) found in rural areas,
where as the rest of the households i.e. 1045575 (19.28%) are found in urban
region (CBS, 2012:16). This statistics shows that the disperse settlement
pattern is much more practiced and popular then cluster settlement in Nepal.
On the basis ecological belt there is dense settlement in hill and terai
comparatively then mountain region. According to the national census there
are 2532041 (46.69%), 2527558 (46.60%) and 363698 (6.71%) households in
hill, terai and mountain regions respectively (CBS, 2012:16). These figures
indicate that the hilly and terai regions seem to be much more popular then

34

mountain for human settlement. Likewise, on the basis of development region,

if we look at the statistics of the census of 2011, we can see the dense
settlement in Central Development Region comparatively then other.
According to the figures of the census, among the 5423297 households, the
Central Devt. Region covers 1962238 (36.18%), Eastern Devt. Region holds
1230734 (22.69%), Western Devt. Region covers 1065599 (19.65%), Mid
Western Devt. Region holds 695014 (12.82%) and Far Western Devt. Region
covers 469703 (8.66%) of households (CBS, 2012:16). These statistics
highlight that the Central and the Eastern Devt. Regions seem to be much
more popular than the other regions for human settlement.

Migration
Meaning & Definition
Migration is directly related with the movement of the people especially
of the whole groups from one place to another particularly with the intention
of making permanent settlement in a new destination. It is a social or cultural
behavior which has been existing from the early days up to date. Migration is
the spatial movement of people which is done from one geographical area to
another involving the permanent change of settlement. Obviously migration is
a simple process where people change their origin place or country into a new
destination or place permanently or temporarily. Similarly, migration is
meaningful and as well as done as objectively through the people for the
fulfillment of a specific motto, the peoples have migrated from one place to
another destination.
From the sociological and anthropological perspectives migration does
not only concerned with the residential changed of the people. The people who
migrates, she or he carried all the socio cultural and economical as well as the
other norms and values with him or her into the new destination, In totality
migration helped to create the interaction between old and new comer member
of the society. Therefore, it is considered as an organization of the society
The history of human migration is old as the history of human beings. It
is cleared that the early human beings were almost surely hunters and gathers
who move continuously in search for food from one place to another. The
superior of these hunting bands allowed them to spread further and faster then

35

had any other dominant species. Human beings are thought to have occupied
the entire continent except Antarctica within a span of about 50,000 years. But
migration is considered as the matter of study and investigation only in 18 th
century in the world. The various studies and researches have provided the
precious meaning and definitions of the term migration. Among them, some
important are as follows
According to United Nation Multilingual Dictionary migration is a
form of geographical mobility or spatial mobility between one geographical
unit and another, generally involving a change in residence from the place of
origin or place of departure to the place of destination or place of arrival.
According to Dictionary of Anthropology migration is the large
movement of a people seeking a permanent change of residence.
Similarly, Dictionary of Sociology defined the term migration as
follows migration is a relatively permanent movement of a person or
population across a political boundary to a new residential areas or
community.
E.S. Lee one of the renowned scholars who founded push and pull
theory of migration in the world. He provides scientific definition of the term
migration as follows migration broadly consider it as a permanent or semipermanent change of residence with no restrictions on the distance involved in
the movement.
In this respects, Nepalese scholar Bal Kumar K.C. (Population
Monograph of Nepal 2003) provides the definition of the word migration in
the context of Nepal. According to him migration is a spatial mobility of
people by changing usual place of residence to a well defined destination. A
migrant is a person who moves either from his place of birth to another area or
keeps on moving stepwise or circular by changing his residence more or less
frequently by be to either seasonal, temporary, semi- permanent or permanent
migrant depending on the duration of migration and season for migration
within a defined geographical area.

Type of Migration
There is no exact and absolute classification of migration. Various
scholars have categorized migration into different forms on the basis of nature,
geography, settlement patterns, time or duration of settlements, seasons and so
on. In this regards, migration can be classified as follows:

36

On the basis of geography or territory

National or in country migration
International migration (a) immigration (b) emigration
On the basis of settlement
Permanent migration
Temporary migration
Seasonal migration
On the basis of interest
Unconscious drift
Compulsory movement
Voluntary movement
On the basis of time or duration
Seasonal migration
Daily migration
Periodic immigration
On the basis of demographical perspective
Marriage migration
Adoption migration
Pressure migration
On the basis of economic development
Rural to urban migration
Urban to rural migration
Rural to rural migration
Urban to urban migration

Causes of Migration
Migration is a movement of people, which is lead by different causes
and factors. Evidences of human history proved that without any causes and
factors there is no possibility of peoples movement from one place to another.
There are several causes why people choose to move in or of a country. A
group of people may migrate in response to the lure of more favorable region
or because of some adverse condition or combination of conditions in the
home environment. Most of the historians believed that non nomadic peoples
are disinclined to leave the place to which they are accustomed and that most
historic and pre- historic migrations were stimulated by a deterioration of
37

home conditions as well as the lacking situation of appropriate foods. This

belief is supported by the finding evidences preceding most major migrations.
No doubt, the specific stimuli for migrations may be either natural or social
causes. Among the natural causes are changes in climate stimulating a search
for wormer or colder lands, volcanic eruptions or foods that render sizable
areas uninhabitable and periodic fluctuations in rainfall.
In this present situation so many scholars have generated the theories of
migration. In this respect, we can mention the theories of R.G. Revienstain,
Evert S.Lee, Todaro and Stoffer which helps to identify the causes and factors
of migration. R.G. Revienstain has published a research based book in 1885
and mentioned a concept of mutual relationship between origin place and new
destination; motivate the people for the mobility. Similarly, E.S.Lee has
generated a theory push and pull factors in 1966, whereas, Todaro has coined a
theory of economic benefit in 1976. Still among the afore mentioned theories,
sociologists usually reasons for migration in term of push and pull factors.
Push factor denote the causes of lacking, difficulties and problems of origin
place, whereas, pull factor denote the attractions and available facilities of the
new destinations. In totality, the causes or reasons of migration is enlisted
within push and pull factors.

Push factors

Socially unacceptable
Lack of economic benefit
Politically isolation
Demographic causes
Difficult geographical situation
Lack of physical infrastructures
Lack of social security
Lack of employment opportunities
Lack of adequate health services
Self interest of an individual
Under developed rural area
Not favorable religion and belief
Existing conflicts

38

Pull factors

Socially acceptable situation

Available economic benefit
Politically assimilation
Demographic causes
Favorable geographical situation
Strong physical infrastructures
Strong social security
Available employment opportunities
Strong health services
Self interest of an individual
Strongly developed urban area
Favorable religion and belief
Favorable and peaceful society

Consequences of Migration
Migration is a social and cultural phenomenon, which has been existing
from the very early up to now. It is directly or indirectly helped to bring sociocultural, economical and demographical impacts in the society either origin
place or new destination. Among the distinct effects of migration are the
stimulation of further migration through the displacement of other people; a
reduction in the members of the migrating group because of hardship and
warfare; changes in physical characteristics through inter marriage with the
groups encountered, changes in cultural characteristics by adoption of the
cultural patterns of peoples encountered; and linguistic changes, also effected
by adoption.
Similarly, migration brings some negative and positive impacts in the
origin place. Therefore, the consequences or impact of migration is
categorized in both sites i.e. origin place which the people leaved and new
destination where the people arrived. As a whole the followings are the major
consequences or impacts of migration in the both place:

Consequences or impacts in origin place

Migrated of qualified human resources
39

Lack of qualified and active labour

Impact on fertility rate
Decrease of local production
Separation of family and relatives
Mental stress
Economic upgrade
Growth of national GDP
Impact on culture and society

Consequences or impacts in new destination

Competition in opportunities
Dense settlement
Problems in social services
Increase in mental stress
Increase of social crimes
Introduced new technology
Increase of productive labour
Impact on culture and society

Reference
Bajracharya D.B. (2030). Lichchhavi Kalaka Abhilekh, Kirtipur: I.N.A.S., 4th
Edition.
Burkitt, M.C. (1992). The Old Stone Age, New Delhi: Rupa & Co.
CBS, (2012). National Population and Housing Census 2011 (National
Report), Kathmandu: Govt. of Nepal, NPCS.
Dhaubanjar, Gopal. (2068). Kathmandau Upatyakaka Bastiharu, Kathmandu:
Shreemati Kalpana Shrestha.
Sally, Wehmeier (2007). Oxford Advanced Learning Dictionary, Oxford:
Oxford University Press, (Edited).

Social structure of Nepal (See the class notes and the book entitled The
Newars of G.S. Nepali)

40

Economic structure of Nepal (See the class notes and the book entitled
The Economic History of Nepal of M.C. Regmi)

Festivals of Nepal (See the class notes and the book entitled Festivals of
Nepal of Mery M. Anderson)

Art and influcing factors on religion (See the class notes)

Nepalese Art
According to the Hindu belief the history of Nepalese culture and
civilization can be traced back to the mythological period. King Manu, who is
said to be the first king of the world ruled in Nepal in Satya Yuga i.e. the Age
of Truth and Nepal, was known as the Land of Satyawati. Later on it was
called the land of solitary meditation and penance (Tapovan) in the Treta Yuga
i.e. the Age of Silver. Similarly, Nepal was known as the ladder of salvation
(Muktisopan) in the Dwapar Yuga i.e. the age of copper; and it is known as
Nepal in the Kali Yuga i.e. the age of iron. Beside afore mentioned
mythological description, archaeological findings also suggest that there were
prehistoric human culture and civilization in Nepal. The fossil findings of the
Ramapithecus from the bank of Teenau River and stone tools of Paleolithic
and Neolithic characteristics from the different parts can be helped to prove
the prehistoric human settlements of the country.
No doubt, the history of art as old as the history of human beings in the
context of Nepal. The mythological history shows that Gopal, Mahispal and
Kirata were the inceptives ruling dynasties of Nepal. Politically, the history of
Nepal is classified into three major period i.e. ancient, medieval and modern
periods. Likewise, the history of arts can be classified into four different
categorize i.e. early Lichchhavi, Lichchhavi, medieval and modern school of
arts.
Early Lichchhavi Art

41

The art of early Lichchhavi period was developed due to the patronizing
roles of the Kirat and early Lichchhavi rulers. How much the art objects were
created from the very early up to fourth century Christian era, these are
recognized as the art of early Lichchhavi period. No doubt, the art of this
period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and patronizing roles of
the Kirat and early Lichchhavi rulers. Therefore, the school of art of this
period is named as early Lichchhavi art.
The art of early lichchhavi period was influenced through the different
school of art from India. Especially, the Maurya, Sunga, Kushana School of
Mathura and slightly of Gandhara School of Art were ideal centers to the
artists and art lovers of early lichchhavi period. No doubt, without losing
indigenous identity and values, the artists of this period borrowed some
features from Maurya, Sunga, Kushana School of Mathura and slightly of
Gandhara School of Art for their art works. As a whole, the images of
Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi, Yalamber of Pashupati
Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum, Chaturmukhi
Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar, Mother Goddess of Haugal- Bahal,
Handigaon, Balkhu, Kirtipur, Bagalamukhi, Changunarayan and other that
belonged to early lichchhavi period are highly known as the representative art
objects. Through the analysis of above mentioned sculptures, we can note
down the major features of early lichchhavi art as follows:
The art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and
patronizing roles of the Kirat and early Lichchhavi rulers.
It is important Art School which represents the features of Nepalese art
from the very early up to fourth century Christian era.
Use of stone, terracotta, wood and metal for the purpose of creation of arts.
The art of this period was slightly influenced by Maurya, Sunga, Kushana
School of Mathura and slightly of Gandhara School of Arts from India,
without losing indigenous identity and values.
Ugly and rough facial structures. (The sculptures of Gajalaxmi of
Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi are known as the best examples).
Lack of selection of quality and attractive stone for the creation of art
objects. The brownish and weak stone was used. (The images of
Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar, Mother Goddess of HaugalBahal, Handigaon, Balkhu, Kirtipur, Bagalamukhi, Changunarayan are
taken as the best illustrations of it).
42

 Lack of in-depth artistic appealing. The artists of this period could not give
the priority to very small parts of the body i.e. lines of the palm, nails of the
fingers and so on especially in terracotta images.
Lack of well structured and proportioned limbs. (The images such as
Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi, Yalamber of
Pashupati Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum,
Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar, and Mother Goddess of
Haugal- Bahal are taken as the best illustrations of it).
Lack of elasticity and frazil body likewise what found in Lichchhavi
sculptures. (The images of Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of
Sikubahi, Yalamber of Pashupati Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of
National Museum, Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar, Mother
Goddess of Haugal- Bahal, are taken as the best example of this feature).
Used of huge and thick ankles as an ornaments in female images. (The
sculptures of Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi,
Mother Goddess of Haugal- Bahal, Handigaon, Balkhu, Kirtipur,
Bagalamukhi, Changunarayan are known as the best examples of it).
Decorated head dress especially in the case of female images. (The
sculptures Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi, Mother
Goddess of Haugal- Bahal, Handigaon, Balkhu, Kirtipur, Bagalamukhi,
Changunarayan are known as the best examples of this feature).
Lack of holy thread in case of male images likewise Lichchhavi sculptures.
(The sculptures of Yalamber of Pashupati Mrigasthali, Yaksha and
Jayavarma of National Museum, Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya
Nachghar are known as the best examples of it).
Oval facial structures like Mongolian stocks. (The sculptures of Gajalaxmi
of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi, Yalamber of Pashupati
Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum, Chaturmukhi
Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar are known as the best examples of it).
Especially, in the case of male images the upper parts of the body seem
uncovered. (The images such as Yalamber of Pashupati Mrigasthali,
Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum, Chaturmukhi Brahma of
Rastriya Nachghar are taken as the best illustrations of it).
Religious as well as secular in nature. All most, the sculptures were created
in this period, were concerned to religious sects. But very few i.e. the
sculptures such as Yalamber of Pashupati Mrigasthali, Yaksha and
Jayavarma of National Museum were created for secular motif.
43

 Did not follow the features mentioned in iconographic science for the
creation of arts. What the iconographic features are found on the texts, the
artists did not used.
Lichchhavi Art
The Lichchhavi period is known as the first historical period in the
history of Nepal. The chronology of writing i.e. inscriptional records,
chronology of dates, chronology of historical events and other several
archaeological materials can be found which helped to prove every aspects of
history and culture of it. Thus, in the history of Nepal Lichchhavi period
especially from the regime of king Manadev 1st is recognized as the first
historical period. From this period besides literary sources and foreign account
there are archaeological evidences i.e. inscriptions, coins, art objects,
archaeological remains and other more materials can be found which are
helping to the scholars for the reconstruction of the history and culture of the
period.
In the history of Nepal Lichchhavi dynasty was ruled over about 780
years from 100 A.D to 888 A.D. Through the inscription of king Mandev 1st of
Changunarayan of 464 A.D and the inscription of Jayadev 2nd of
Pashupatinath of 733 we could know about the descriptions of some popular
kings of the Lichchhavi dynasty. Beside it, other several inscriptions such as
the inscriptions of Pashupati Suryaghat of Vijayawati, the Thankot inscription
of Basantadev, Lele inscription of Shivadev and Amshuvarna, Bhungamati,
Hadigaon, Tistung inscriptions of Amshuvarna, Yagabahal, Patan
Bhansarchouk, Anatalingeswor inscriptions of Narendraevd are considered
important sources, through which we could be informed about the history and
culture of that period. According to the inscriptional records the Manadev 1st,
Basanta Dev , Shivadev 1st, Amsuverma , Narendra Dev , Shiva Dev ,Jayadev
2nd were known as the famous kings of Lichhavi period .
Apart from the other, the art of Lichchhavi period was developed due to
the patronizing roles of the above mentioned rulers. How much the art objects
were created from 4th to 9th century Christian era, these are recognized as the
art of Lichchhavi period. No doubt, the art of this period was existed because
of the creative enthusiasm and patronizing roles of the Lichchhavis. Therefore,
the school of art of this period is named as the dynasty of the rulers. Finding
evidences and inscriptional records show that the Lichchhavi rulers were art
44

lovers. There were beautiful stone sculptures, which indicate that Lichchhavi
period was known as the golden age especially in the form of stone art
comparatively than the other eras.
Beside stone art, inscriptional records show that Nepal was the popular
province for the creation of paintings, wooden, terracotta and metal works in
Lichchhavi period. The inscriptions of Chabahil, Nakshal Narayanchour,
Shanga, Gorakhanath Cave of Gorkha are the best examples, which informs
about the paintings of lichchhavi period. Similarly, the Patan Sundhara
inscription of Amshuvarma and Thankot inscriptions of Bhimarjun Deo/ Jusnu
Gupta help to indicate the existence of wood work of that time. In this respect,
there were some terracotta and metal figurings which are taken as the
noteworthy illustrations of that period.
The art of lichchhavi period was influenced through the different school
of art from India. Especially, the Mathura, Guptas and Pal School of Art were
ideal centers to the artists and art lovers of lichchhavi period. No doubt,
without losing indigenous identity and values, the artists of Nepal borrowed
some features from Mathura and other Indian schools of art for their art works.
As a whole, the images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath,
Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum,
Virupaksha of Pashupati Aaryaghat, Kaliyadaman of Hanumandhoka,
Padmapani Lokeswor of Dhwakabaha Chaitya, Standing Budha of
Bangemuda, Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha, Dhumbahara of Chandol
and other several sculptures that belonged to lichchhavi period are highly
known as the representative art objects. Through the analysis of above
mentioned sculptures, we can note down the major features of lichchhavi art
as follows:
The art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and
patronizing roles of the Lichchhavi rulers.
Lichchhavi period is known as the golden age as the form of stone
sculptures.
It is important Art School which represents the features of Nepalese art of
4th to 9th century Christian era.
Use of stone, terracotta, wood and metal for the purpose of creation of arts.

45

 The art of this period was slightly influenced by Mathura, Guptas and Pal
School of Arts from India, without losing indigenous identity and values.
Beautiful and attractive facial structures. (The sculptures of Vishnuvikranta
of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Vishorupa image of Vishnu of Changunarayan
are known as the best examples).
Selection of quality and attractive stone for the creation of art objects. The
blackish blue stone was used. (The images of Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga
and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of
National Museum, Virupaksha of Pashupati Aaryaghat, Kaliyadaman of
Hanumandhoka, Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha are taken as the
best illustrations of it).
In-depth artistic appealing. The artists of this period focused on very small
parts of the body i.e. lines of the palm, nails of the fingers and so on. (The
sculptures of Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum
are noteworthy examples of this feature).
Well structured and proportioned limbs. (The images such as
Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta
Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum, Kaliyadaman of
Hanumandhoka, Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha, are taken as the
best illustrations of it).
Elasticity and frazil body. (The images of Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and
Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav and Umamaheswor, nativity scene of Budha of
National Museum are taken as the best illustrations of it).
Limited used of ornaments. (The sculptures of Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga
and Lazimpath, Vishorupa image of Vishnu of Changunarayan,
Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National
Museum are known as the best examples of this feature).
Simple and lively facial structures. (The images such as Vishnuvikranta of
Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and
Umamaheswor of National Museum, Kaliyadaman of Hanumandhoka,
Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha, are taken as the best illustrations of
it).
Decorated head dress especially in the case of female images. (the
sculptures of Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum
are known as the best examples of this feature).
Use of simple and transparent dress. (The images such as Vishnuvikranta of
Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and
46

Umamaheswor of National Museum are taken as the best illustrations of

it).
Use of simple and circular nimbus. (The images of Vishnuvikranta of
Changunarayan, Padmahasta Laxmi of National Museum are known as the
best examples of this feature).
Use of stone paste to make the art objects very smooth and beautiful. (The
images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath,
Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National
Museum can prove this feature).
Use of holy thread. (The images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and
Lazimpath, Kaliyadaman of Hanumandhoka, Jalasayan Narayan of
Budhanilkantha, Dhumbahara of Chandol are taken as the best illustrations
of it).
Oval facial structures like Aryan stocks. (The sculptures of Vishnuvikranta
of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Vishorupa image of Vishnu of Changunarayan,
Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National
Museum are known as the best examples of this feature).
Especially, in the case of male images the upper parts of the body seem
uncovered. The images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath,
Kaliyadaman of Hanumandhoka, Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha,
Dhumbahara of Chandol are taken as the best illustrations of it).
Lack of tantric influence. (Limited used of ornaments, heads, hands, and
weapons are known as the strong evidences of this feature).
Religious in nature. How much the sculptures were created in this period,
were concerned to religious sects.
Creation based on iconographic science. What the iconographic features
are found on the texts, the artists used it as much as possible.

Medieval period (880-1768)

After the downfall of lichchhavi period in 880 A.D then the medieval
period had begun in the political history of Nepal. Basically the medieval
period was dominated by the rulers of the Malla dynasty. Therefore,
sometimes the period is known as Malla period. From 880 to 1768 A.D that is
about 888 years the medieval period was in existence. It is known as the
glorious period in art architectural, socio-cultural as well as administrative

47

perspectives. Malla rulers' developed trade and commerce, industry, religion

and culture on the basis of the society. Similarly, they reached a high level of
perfection on the field of arts and architecture. Medieval period is divided in to
two different ages i.e. early and late medieval period. There were no adequate
archaeological i.e. inscriptional records in the early medieval period, whereas,
the late medieval period was documented by the inscriptional and other
archeological records.
The death of king Yaksha malla remained one of important cause of the
division of integrated Malla kingdom into three small and independent states
i.e. Kirtipur, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur. In this period, the integrated power of
Malla rulers was completely deteriorated, whereas, the socio culture and art
architectural values were rapidly developed. So many mall kings ruled over
the state in this period. Among them Jayasthati Malla, Yaksha Malla, Pratap
Malla, Jayaprakash Malla, Siddhinarsingh Malla, Yoganarendra Mall , Ranjit
Malla, Bhupatindra Malla were the most famous kings of the period . This
was the period which carried out so many social, economic as well as land
reform jobs by the leaders.
Apart from the other, the art of medieval period was developed due to
the patronizing roles of the above mentioned rulers. How much the art objects
were created from 9th to 18th century Christian era, these are recognized as the
art of Malla period. No doubt, the art of this period was existed because of the
creative enthusiasm and patronizing roles of the Malla rulers. Therefore,
sometimes the school of art of this period is known as the Malla art. Finding
evidences and inscriptional records show that the Malla rulers were art lovers.
There were beautiful stone, bronze, terracotta, wooden sculptures and painting
of different forms, which indicate that, the artists did have the high and
commanding skill of arts of the Malla period. Among the various forms,
medieval period is known as the golden age especially in the form of metal art.
The art of Malla period was influenced through the different school of
art from India. Especially, the Pal, Sen, Rajput and Mungal School of Art were
ideal centers to the sculpture artists and art lovers of this period. Whereas the
works of painting especially paubha i.e. scroll paintings were slightly
influenced from the Tibetian School of Arts. No doubt, without losing
indigenous identity and values, the artists of medieval Nepal borrowed some
features from outside for their art works. As a whole, the images such as

48

Umamaheswor of Kwabaha, Hadigaon and Patan Kumbheswor, Surya images

of Thapahiti, Banepa and Panauti, Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and
Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan, Chaturmukha Linga of Deopatan,
Vishnu- Vyuha of Patan Kumbeswor, Vishnu of National Museum, Vishnu and
Harihar of Bhaktapur Art Gallery, Narasimha and Hanuman of Bhaktapur
Durbar Square and other several sculptures are known as the noteworthy
illustrations of stone works.
Similarly, Vishnu of Bostan Museum, Buddha of Los Angeles County
Museum, Vajrapani Bodhisatwa of Newyork, Avalokiteswor of Kwabahal,
Namasangiti and Mahish- Sambara of National Museum and Pujadevi and
Nritya Devi of Wooden Art Gallery of Bhaktapur and Nritya Devi of National
Museum are understood as the significance examples of metal and wood
works of medieval period. Likewise, Asthasahsrikapyajnaparamita of
Cambridge University Library, pyajnaparamita of S.K. Saraswatis collection,
Dasavatar painting of Bhaktapur Museum these belonged to medieval period
are highly known as the representative art objects. Through the analysis of
above mentioned sculptures, we can note down the major features of medieval
art as follows:

The art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and
patronizing roles of the Malla rulers.
Malla period is known as the golden age as the form of bronze arts.
It is important Art School which represents the features of Nepalese art of
9th to 18th century Christian era.
Use of metal, stone, terracotta, wood, paper and clothes for the purpose of
creation of arts.
The art of this period was slightly influenced by Pal, Sen and Mungal
School of Arts from India, without losing indigenous identity and values.
Small and oval facial structures. (The sculptures of Vishnu of Bostan
Museum, Buddha of Los Angeles County Museum, Vajrapani Bodhisatwa
of Newyork, Avalokiteswor of Kwabahal, Namasangiti and MahishSambara of National Museum are known as the best examples).
The quality of stone comparatively lost.(The images of Umamaheswor of
Kwabaha, Hadigaon and Patan Kumbheswor, Surya images of Thapahiti,
Banepa and Panauti, Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and Visworupa Vishnu
49

of Changunarayan, Chaturmukha Linga of Deopatan, Vishnu- Vyuha of

Patan Kumbeswor, Vishnu of National Museum,are taken as the best
illustrations of it).
Well structured but lack of proportioned limbs. (The images such as Vishnu
of Bostan Museum, Buddha of Los Angeles County Museum, Vajrapani
Bodhisatwa of Newyork, Avalokiteswor of Kwabahal, Namasangiti and
Mahish- Sambara of National Museum are known as the best examples of
this feature).
Elasticity and frazil body. (The images of Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and
Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan, Chaturmukha Linga of Deopatan,
Vishnu- Vyuha of Patan Kumbeswor, are taken as the best illustrations of
it).
Maximum used of ornaments. (The sculptures of Umamaheswor of
Kwabaha, Hadigaon and Patan Kumbheswor, Surya images of Thapahiti,
Banepa and Panauti, Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and Visworupa Vishnu
of Changunarayan, are known as the best examples of this feature).
Use of simple and transparent dress. (The images such as Surya images of
Thapahiti, Banepa and Panauti, Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and
Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan, are taken as the best illustrations of
it).
Use of decorated and slightly oval as well as circular nimbus. (The images
of Vishnu and Harihar of Bhaktapur Art Gallery, Narasimha and Hanuman
of Bhaktapur Durbar Square are known as the best examples of this
feature).
Use of holy thread. (The images such as Surya images of Thapahiti,
Banepa and Panauti, Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and Visworupa Vishnu
of Changunarayan, are taken as the best illustrations of it).
Tantric influence. (Maximum used of ornaments, multi heads, hands, and
weapons are known as the strong evidences of this feature).
Religious as well as secular in nature. (The sculptures of this period were
not only concern to religious nature but also secular motif for example the
statue of Pratap Malla, Yoganarendra Malla, Bhupatendra Malla etc).
Lack of classical norms and values. (What the iconographic features are
found on the texts, the artists did not use it properly).
Use of triangular shape crown especially on the head of Budhas images.

50

 Lack of in- depth artistic appealing. The artists of this period could not give
the priority to very small parts of the body i.e. lines of the palm, nails of the
fingers and so on especially in terracotta images.
Throughout the unnecessary part from the sculptures. (The image of
Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan is one of the best example of it)
Constructed terrific sculptures of the Gods and Goddesses.
Constructed erotic carving especially on the struts of the temples for
example the struts of Jagganath temple of Hanumandhoka, Jalabinayak
temple of Chobhar.
Modern period (1768 up to date)
About 3 hundred years ago Nepal was divided into several small states
and principalities. There was no unity among the rulers. They had quarreled
with each other for territorial integrity and sovereignty. The Malla kingdom of
Kathmandu Valley was also divided into three kingdoms i.e. Bhaktapur,
Kantipur and Patan. At the same time there were Makawanpur, Vijayapur and
Chaudandi states in the east. Likewise, there were 24 small states in the
western i.e. in the Gandaki region known as Chaubisi Rajya, where as 22
principalities far western i.e. Karnali region which also known as Baisi Rajya.
In this circumstance, there was a strong need to consolidate all these small
states and principalities into a greater nation. The credit for this consolidation
goes to the Shah Kings of Gorkha kingdom. Prithibinarayan Shah, who, took
initiation of unification campaigns. Thus he always regarded as the founder of
the greater nation.
In the history of Nepal, the modern period was begun after the defeated
of Kathmandu valley by the king Prithivi Narayan Shah i. e. from 1768 and
remains till to the date. In this period the rulers of Shah Dynasty have
continuously ruled about 250 years. Therefore, in the political history of Nepal
this period is known as the Shah period as well. The historians divide the
period in different eras. The early age i.e. the period before the Rana regime,
the Rana period, the age of democracy and the republican are the main.
Besides socio-cultural, economic as well as other sectors, from the
perspectives of art and architecture some efforts have carried out by the rulers
and the public as well. The following are the major features of the period:

51

 The art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and
patronizing roles of the rulers.
It is important Art School which represents the features of Nepalese art of
18th to till date.
Use of metal, stone, ceramic, terracotta, wood, paper, leathers, feathers,
bones, horns and clothes for the purpose of creation of art objects.
The art of this period was slightly influenced by Sen, Mungal and
European School of Arts especially from England.
Small and oval facial structures.
The quality of stone comparatively lost
Well structured but lack of proportioned limbs.
Maximum used of dress and ornaments.
Use of decorated and slightly oval as well as circular nimbus.
Tantric influence. (Maximum used of ornaments, multi heads, hands, and
weapons are known as the strong evidences of this feature).
Religious as well as secular in nature.
Lack of classical norms and values. (What the iconographic features are
found on the texts, the artists did not use it properly).
Constructed terrific sculptures of the Gods and Goddesses.

Monuments of Nepal (See the class notes)

Customs of Nepal
Nepal is a small and landlocked country sandwiched
between two giant neighbors India and China. Its location is in
the northern margin of South Asia. It has its elongated
rectangular shape roughly with north-west to south- east
orientation. The country has 147181 square kilometers in
areas which accounts as 0.03 per cent if the total land of the
earth. Geographically, Nepal lays 800 4' to 880 12' east longitude
and 260 22' to 300 27 north latitude. The territory of Nepal is

double in the size of Sri Lanka, whereas, 3.5 times and 6.7
times bigger than Switzerland and Israel. On the one hand and
52

23 times smaller than India and 68 times less than the size of
China, on the other (Agarwal & Upadhyay, 2006:46-47).
Beside it, in the context of its biodiversity it is only five time
smaller than India and as well as three time than China. So, its
unique diversity has popularized it as the tourism paradise in
the world.
It is a multiethnic, multilingual, multi-religious country
having diverse caste, religion and races from ancient period to
the beginning of this twenty first century. It deserves its
importance as an independent kingdom with full of antiquities
and the relics of the past. It has been a country of extreme
diversity in terms of ethnicity, language, religion, ecology and
economy and it will remain so in the future (Bhattachan and
Pyakurel, 1996: 31).
The geographical and ecological diversity is considered
one of the important causes for other forms of diversity.
Mountains, hills and terai are its major geographical division.
There is diversity in caste, ethnic groups as well as their
culture according to the ecological zones. If we look at the
statistics of national census 2011, we can see one hundred
and twenty five different caste and ethnic groups have been
living with their cultural identity in Nepal. Among them, some
are quite more in numbers whereas, some are very few (CBS,
2012: 3). The diverse forms strong help to creat the
diversifications into the customs as well. Therefore, we con
observe different customs according to the geography, caste,
creed and ethnicity in Nepal.
Nepal has rich cultural history because of Nepals vast diversity in altitude
that has reflected to our unique culture. Also being sandwiched between both
53

India and China people exist at different altitudes which also affects the way in
which they live their lives and hence their culture. Many of ethnic groups have
their own dramatic culture, language and dialects. Although some customs
have merely been converted to habits without thought, ancient texts justify
them with far-fetched reasons, sometimes making sense and sometimes not.
Most of these customs go back to the Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Among
them, the rules of marriage are particularly interesting. In traditional families
marriage deals are arranged by parents after the boy or girl come of age. Child
marriage and polygamy that were once upheld and accepted with glee are not
allowed
by
the
law
anymore.
(Some do and don'ts)
Affection between men and women, even married, is selfdom expressed.
Public kissing, hugging, and hand- holding are offensive to most Nepalese
and a sign moral. But it is acceptable for two men to walk hand in hand.
Baksheesh is an extra payment for a service performed and is usually given
to porters or laborers at the end of the job. It can be money or clothes or
anything else and there is no set rate.
Bargaining is to be expected. Don't bargain if you're not really interested. If
your price is accepted, don't try to back out, and don't try to get an even
lower price.
Bathing in the hills is very conservative. Men should wear shorts; women
should wear a lungi pulled up under the arms.
Children are spoiled crazies. Don't be surprised if you are the center of
attraction everywhere.
Clothing is conservative. Men should not go bare- chest and shorts should
be conservative. Women should avoid bare shoulders halter tops, and
shorts. Ties and suits are not necessary except for special occasions.
Conversations may have 'dead' patches. Nepalese are not uncomfortable
with silence.
Cows are sacred. They go and sleep where they want. Watch out for them if
you must stretch them out while sitting on the floor. Never step over
anyone, and always move your feet let people avoid stepping over you.
Gifts are rarely given and seldom opened in front of the person who has
given it.
Heads are sacred and should be treated with respect. Never should be
treated without respect. Never take who has given it and never take a topi
(hat) off a man's head, even in fun.
Invitations often arrive at the last moment. Don't be surprised or offended,
it happens to everyone. If you're busy, even a short appearance is enough.

54

 Jutho (impurity) refers to food that is ritually polluted and therefore

inedible; any food which has come into contact, either directly or indirectly
with the month becomes jutho.
Left hands are used for cleaning oneself after going to the toilet. It is never
used to pass or accept things, whether food at the table or money with a
shopkeeper.

Relationship between Culture and Tourism (See the class notes)

Cuisine of Nepal
Nepal

is

multiethnic,

multilingual,

multi-religious

country having diverse caste, religion and races from ancient

period to the beginning of this twenty first century. It deserves
its importance as an independent kingdom with full of
antiquities and the relics of the past. It has been a country of
extreme diversity in terms of ethnicity, language, religion,
ecology and economy and it will remain so in the future
(Bhattachan and Pyakurel, 1996: 31).
The geographical and ecological diversity is considered
one of the important causes for other forms of diversity.
Mountains, hills and terai are its major geographical division.
There is diversity in caste, ethnic groups as well as their
culture according to the ecological zones. If we look at the
statistics of national census 2011, we can see one hundred
and twenty five different caste and ethnic groups have been
living with their cultural identity in Nepal. Among them, some
are quite more in numbers whereas, some are very few (CBS,
2012: 3). According to national population census 2011, there
are 123 languages and ten religious sects i.e Hindus, Budhist,
Islam, Kirat, Christianity, Prakriti, Bon, Jainism, Bahai and
Shikha are in practicing in Nepal.

55

Nepal is a land of paradise in terms of fairs, festivals and

jatras from the very early of the history. The people of Nepal
are said to observe many fairs, festivals, jatras and traditional
family ceremonies than there are days in a year. Nepal follows
the lunar calendar. Different festivals are celebrated all the
year round. The celebration of these festivals may be nationwide, regional or just confined to the village or city (Satyal,
2001:22-23).
No doubt, the traditional foods and cuisine of Nepal is
guided by the geography, caste, creeds and ethnic groups as
well as their culture, customs, norms and values, fair and
festivals, and availability of goods and materials. Thus, we can
see the different forms and tests of foods and cuisine
according to the features of our geography, caste, creeds and
ethnic groups, their culture, fair and festivals, and availability
of goods and materials.
The food of Nepal is as diverse as the country itself. The Nepalese
recipes are quick to cook and good to eat. Nepalese food is famous for its
nutrition level and tempting taste. Whilst Nepalese cuisine is somewhat basic,
it certainly does not lack in flavor, making extensive use of spices and
flavorings such as ginger, garlic, coriander, pepper, cumin, chilies, cilantro,
mustard oil, ghee and occasionally yak butter. Come let us savour some of the
famous dishes of Nepal. The food in Nepal differs from the one culture to the
another. However, heres a typical sample of food from different cultures in
Nepal. Dal, Bhat and Tarkari - translated as Lentils, Rice and Curried
vegetable.

It

Nepalese

is

the

main

cuisine refers

staple
to

the

diet

of

food

most

Nepali

people.

eaten

in Nepal.

The

country's cultural and geographicdiversity provides ample space for a variety

of cuisines based on ethnicity and on soil andclimate. Nevertheless dal-bhat56

tarkari (Nepali: ) is eaten throughout the country. Dal is a soup

made of lentils and spices. This is served over boiled grain, bhat
usually rice but sometimes another grainwith vegetable curry, tarkari.
Condiments are usually small amounts of extremely spicy chutney ()
or pickle (achaar, ) which can be fresh or fermented. The variety of
these is staggering, said to number in the thousands. [1] Other accompaniments
may be sliced lemon (nibuwa) or lime (kagati) with fresh green chili (hariyo
khursani). Dhindo is a traditional food of Nepal. Much of the cuisine is
variation on Asian themes. Other foods have hybrid Tibetan, Indian and Thai
origins. MomoTibetan style dumplings with Nepali spicesare one of the
most popular foods in Nepal. They were originally filled with buffalo meat but
now also with goat or chicken, as well as vegetarian preparations. Special
foods such as sel roti and patre are eaten during festivals such as Tihar. New
food varieties have been introduced such as taas,[2] similar to shish kebab.
Eating Habits
Main Meal
In most part of country, especially rice-growing areas, Dal Bhat (pulses and
rice) is the staple food of Nepalese that is eaten twice a day.
Snacking
Snacks such as bread, chura (beaten rice), roti (flat bread), curried vegetables,
milked tea and other snacks are also generally eaten in between the two big
meals.
Famous Nepalese Cuisine
Gundrook- Dheedo - Dried and fermented green vegetables leaves. When
made to soup gives a slightly sour, slightly tangy. Equally popular among
Nepali people and foreign tourists, Gundrook-Dheedo is a sugar-free dish
made of wheat, maize and dried green vegetable. The food is high on nutrition
level and satisfies the taste buds as well.

57

Alu Tama
Aloo Tama (Alu Tama) simply means 'Potato Bamboo Shoots'. It is a unique
and classic Nepali curry flavor dish. It is unique in the sense that it is unlike
any other Indian or South Asian curry since they rarely use bamboo shoots.
Similarly, unlike other East Asian cuisine such as Chinese that uses Bamboo
shoots but does not use curry spices.
Vegetable Pulao (Fried Nepali Rice)
Vegetable Pulao is one of the popular ways rice is served during the parties
and events in the Nepalese household. It has flavor of turmeric and cumin to it.
The rice is particularly famous among tourists who prefer eating it with curd
and Manchurian.
Masu - meat with spices (curry) and gravy. Usually served with rice. Most
Nepalese eat chicken, mutton. Some eat buffalo and pork. Almost no one eats
cow. Killing cow is prohibited in Nepal

Vegetable Thukpa (Egg Noodles)

This is a seasonal dish. Tibetan Vegetable Thukpa is one of the main food.
During Tibetan new year celebration 'Losar'the dish is a part of celebration and
tradition for the Nepalese.
Chatamari
Regarded as Newari pizza, Chatamari is a flat bread made from rice flour with
or without toppings (meat, vegetables, eggs, sugar). It is highly savoured by
the tourists who consider it as a good and healthy substitute to pizza.
Choyla -(Newari) grilled /roasted spicy meat. usually eaten as appetizer with
liquor
Kwati - (Newari) soup with many beans. a festival specialty
Momo(cha) - (Newari) a dumplings filled with minced meat (usually buffalo
in Nepal, Turkey elsewhere), served steamed or fried. very popular appetizer,
afternoon snack or evening meal.

58

Samay Baji - (Newari) beaten rice with roasted meat, smoked fish, boiledthen-fried egg, black soybeans and diced ginger.usually a ritual food co
Sekuwa - grilled meat usually made from mutton, duck, chicken, buff, wild
boar.
Sel - donoght-like shaped dessert/snack made from rice flour
Sukuti - spicy dried meat roasted over a charcoal fire.
Tawkhaa - (Newari) Jello of meat soup served cold.
Wo - (Newari) flour patty made of lentils with or without meat/egg topping.
used in ritual or festival or used as snack.
Dal - lentil soup usually eaten with rice. most popular lentils usued as dal in
Nepal are black, red and yellow.
Sag - Green Vegetables - Spinach, mustard greens or broad-leaved mustard. A
standard accompaniment to plain rice for lunch or dinner.
Bhat - steamed rice
Tarkari - any vegetable or group of vegetables in curry, usually broth. can be
made in thousand s ways.
RELISHES
Achar - a sour, spice or seet pickle. can be made in thousand ways. the most
poplar are made of ground tomatoes, sliced radish, ground coriander, boiled or
diced potatoes.
Sanya Khuna - (Newari) hot, spicy, salty jellotype food made from fish soup.
NEPALI DESSERTS
Dahi - Yogurt/Curd
Juju Dhau - popular creamy curd from Bhaktapur. Juju literally means
king".

59

Sikarni - curd mixed with dried fruits.

NEPALI DRINKS
Thon (Newari) or Chhyang (Tibetan) - the milky white beer/liquor made
from fermented rice.
Tongba - popular liquor in the hills. made by pouring hot water into a pot of
fermented millet and drunk with a bamboo straw. A special Limbu culture
drink, Tongba is homemade wine. Fermented millet seeds are put in a wooden
or plastic mug which is filled with hot water. One sips through a bamboo straw
as more hot water is added which makes Tongba go down easily with greater
impact and taste. Many consume this drink during winter season, and is also a
favorite drink among the tourists.
Rakshi
Rakshi is a millet-based distilled alcoholic drink It is traditionally an important
requirement at a lot of religious rituals and social events, perhaps because it is
not only an alcoholic drink but also because of its antiseptic qualities. It is a
strong drink, and is often brewed at home.
Apart from its traditional food the country offers a wide range of Chinese and
Japanese fast foods like momos and macaroni. There are many food outlets in
the city which provide the traveler with excellent cooking. The food in Nepal
is delicious and is available at a very reasonable price to the tourist so that
they could fully enjoy the mouth watering traditional recipes of the region.

Cultural policy of government (See the class notes and Rastriya

Sanskriti Niti 2067)

Heritage: A Brief Introduction

Meaning and Definition
Heritage means the collective cultural and built inheritance and history
of a group of people (or of a place) that can be used to build an identity
through the telling of stories. Heritage is often seen as the selective
60

presentation and interpretation of elements of history (Hannam & Knox,

2010:192). The word heritage is North American term, incorporated into
British and antipodean use covered a wide range to attractions as set out in the
1994 paper. The term fitted well with the observed behavior of North
Americans trying to find their roots in Europe, and more recently in Africa and
growing towards Asia. In Britain the term heritage had fitted well with
Thatcheriate Victorian values (Cooper, 2006:156-166). Thus the evolution
of the idea of heritage came from the preservation of aspects of a past.
Heritage is a tradition that inherits from one generation to another.
Heritage is abroad concept and includes the nature as well as the cultural
environment. It encompasses landscapes, historic places, sites and built
environment, as well as biodiversity, collections past and continuing cultural
practices, knowledge and living experiences (Kunwar, 2006: 125). Heritage
could be the object and infrastructure made for the livelihoods or entertaining
transferred for next generation. This may be some entertainment or culture or
events etc which followed generation to generation. This would made for
enjoyment, successful functions or sorrow ceremony indicate the peoples
desire and requirement for event and the culture in the past, represent the
creativity, skills, knowledge and education of those days. The custom may
president for individual, family, community and society to follow in future as
tradition or entertainment. This is a custom for educating present and future
prediction and driving society and community (Ulak, 2012: 65).
Mainly the available heritage could be classified into natural as well as
cultural or human creations. In these two categories it includes any items and
evidences preserved and transmitted from the past to current communities,
especially; original culture and natural beauties/ materials/ evidences, the built
environment, the archaeological resources, the intangible practices and the
natural preservations.

61

World Heritage sites

Heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and what
we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and natural heritages are both
irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration. World heritage is the designation
for places on earth that are of outstanding universal value to humanity and as
such, have been inscribed on the World Heritage List to be protected for future
generations to appreciate and enjoy. Places of diverse and unique as the
Pyramids of Egypt, the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, Galapagos Islands in
Ecuador, Taj Mahal in India, the Grand Canyon in the USA, or the Acropolis
in Greece are examples of the 788 natural and cultural places inscribed on the
World Heritage List to date. Along with cultural sites and natural sites a new
category called cultural landscape was added in 1993 (Kunwar, 2006: 125).
The idea of combining conservation of cultural sites with those of
nature comes from the United States of America. A White House Conference
in Washington, D.C., in 1965 called for a World Heritage Trust that would
stimulate international cooperation to protect the worlds superb natural and
scenic areas and historic sites for the present and the future of the entire world
citizenry. In 1968, the International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) developed similar proposals for its members. These proposals were
presented to the 1972 United Nations conference on Human Environment in
Stockholm. Eventually, a single text was agreed upon by all parties concerned.
The Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural Natural Heritage
was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO ON 16 November 1972.
By regarding heritage as both cultural and natural, the Convention reminds us
of the ways in which people interact with nature and of the fundamental need
to preserve the balance between the two (Kunwar, 2006: 125-126).
There are several heritage sites in Nepal. IUCN Nepal and Nepal
Heritage society have documented 1254 heritage sites in 72 districts outside
the Kathmandu Valley. According to the survey of 1975 the Kathmandu Valley
62

holds 888 heritage of global significance. Apart from these, Pasupatinath,

Swoyambhunath, Boudhanath, Changu Narayan, Patan Durbar Square,
Bhaktapur Durbar Square and Hanuman Dhoka Durbar Square, Lumbini,
Chitwan National Park and Sagarmatha National Park these are the ten
UNESCO world heritage sites found in Nepal. Out of these, eight falls on
cultural and remaining two are under the natural categories. Similarly, among
the eight cultural heritage sites, seven monuments are located within twenty
kilometers of radius, which can be found only few countries in the world
(Satyal, 2000: 14-15).

Reference
Cheryl, M.H. (2001). Heritage Tourism, Island: Simons, Vol-1.
. (2006). Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Research Informing Policy
and Planning, Australia: Gold Cost Campus Griffith University.
Cooper, C. (2006). Classic Reviews in Tourism, New Delhi: Viva Book Pvt.
Ltd. (edited).
Kunwar, R.R. (2006). Tourists & Tourism: Science and Industry Interface,
Kathmandu: International School of Tourism and Hotel Management.
Ulak, B.N. (2012). Heritage Tourism in Panauti, THE GAZE, Journal of
Tourism and Hotel Hospitality, Vol. 4, No.1, Kathmandu: International School
of Tourism and Hotel Management

Changu Narayan: World Heritage site of Nepal.

1. Background
Nepal is a small and landlocked country surrounded by two giant neighbours
India and China. It is a multiethnic, multilingual country having diverse caste,
religion and races from ancient period to the beginning of this twenty first
country. It deserves its importance as an independent kingdom with full of
antiquities and the relics of the past. It has been a country of extreme diversity
in terms of ethnicity, language, religion, ecology and economy and it will
remain so in the future (Bhattchan and Pyakurel,1996:31). In the context of its
biodiversity it is only five time smaller than India and as well as three time
than China. So due to its unique diversity the land is known as the tourism
paradise in the world.

63

Unfortunately the history of tourism is not long. Simply, the history of tourism
in Nepal dates back to 1950 when it was first opened to foreigner after the
abolishment of Rana regime. After the formulation of tourist development
board in 1957, the tourism history of Nepal has taken rapid momentum in this
country. In the true sense, the promotion of tourism in Nepal started more or
less only from the beginning of the 1960s (Satyal,1988:39). In this short
period of time, what the jobs we have done in the field of travel and tourism,
that is little considerable but not full of satisfaction. So, in this field there are
numerous jobs still remained to carryout by the country and as well as the
people too.
There are ample heritage sites in our country. IUCN Nepal and Nepal Heritage
society have documented 1254 heritage sites in 72 districts outside the
Kathmandu Valley. According to the survey of 1975 the Kathmandu Valley
holds 888 heritage of global significance. Apart from these, there are four
civilization centers in Nepal i.e. Synja of Jumla, Lumbini, Kapilvastu,
Janakpur (Maithili) and Kathmandu Valley (Kunwar,2006:324). Likewise
there are ten UNESCO world heritage sites in Nepal, these are Pasupatinath,
Swoyambhunath, Boudhanath, Changu Narayan, Patan Durbar Square,
Bhaktapur Durbar Square and Hanuman Dhoka Durbar Square, Lumbini,
Chitwan, National Park and Sagarmatha National Park. Out of these, eight
falls on cultural and remaining two are under the natural categories. Among
the eight cultural heritage sites, seven monuments are located within twenty
kilometers of radius, which can be found only few countries in the world
(Satyal, 2000: 14-15).
Out of UNESCO World Heritage site of Nepal, Changu Narayan is the most
important one. Thus alike other this particular site is also considered
significant as the tourists and tourism perspectives. So keeping it in mind,
through this article the researcher is trying to analyze the role which has been
playing by the site for the promotion of tourism in Nepal.
2. Historicity of Changu Narayan
Changu Narayan is one of the seven world heritage sites of Kathmandu Valley
listed on the UNESCO's world heritage list in October 1979 A.D. (Satyal,
2000: 15). It is a most popular site which possesses the cultural, religious,
archaeological, historical and antique importance. According to archaeological
evident the history of this site goes back to third century A.D. The Ichangu
inscription of Vijaya Kamadev dated of N.S. 320 informs that the temple of
Changu Narayan was built by the king Hari Dutta Varma (Khanal, 2040:2). In
this respects, Satyal, a tourism scholars of Nepal views that the temple was
built by Vishnu Gupta and later improved by the king Hari Datta Varma
64

( Satyal,20026-7). But the mythical description helps to trace out the origin
and history of Changu Narayan as old as the above mentioned archaeological
records.
According to legend Lord Vishnu, while fighting with the demon king named
Chanda, killed a Brahman named Sumati. Guru Sukracharya the teacher of the
dead Brahman was angry with Vishnu and cursed him that he would be
beheaded by a Brahaman in future. After this incident, Vishnu lived in a tree of
Champak forest and had paid for the curse. There he lived on milk stolen from
a cow which belonged to a hermit called Sudharsan. When Sudharsan found
out out the mystery of stolen milk, he attacked and beheaded Lord Vishnu that
made Lord Vishnu free from his sin. Ever since from that day the site has been
held sacred and the temple has been revered (Khanal, 2040:101,103).
The site was popular from the name of Champakarandya, prior to the
beginning of Christian era. In Lichchhavi period Champakarandya was
transformed to the Dolashikhara, which meant for mount or hill like a shape of
Doli (Khanal, 2040:5-6). This term became popular in the name 'Chngu' or
'Changu' during the medieval period. Likewise the Sanskrit terms
Champakapur, Charuparvat, Champakavana were used in state of the term
'Changu' from the Malla period (Khanal, 2040:5). Historian believed that
during the same period Changu was developed as a metropolis city with seven
hundred houses (Khanal, 2040:8). At that time the site was named 'Champapur
Mahanagar'. The priest of Changu Narayan temple is still using the term
'Champapur Mahanagar' while performing the puja (worship) to the lord
Vishnu.
Now days the site has become increasingly popular by the name 'Changu
Narayan'. About the origin of the term Changu Narayan there are two different
versions are equally coming into practice. Some scholars advocate that the
term changu is derived from the Newari and Tamang Vocabulary. In Newari
and Tamang Language 'Chha' means champa a kind of tree and 'gu' means hill.
These two terms are combined together they stain for a single word Changu
literary meaning the hill with champa forest (Khanal, 2040:5). In this respect a
journalist writes that the name Changu Narayan has been adopted from the
Newari Word Chagu and Narayan meaning the chopped Narayan (Dangol,
2006:18).
3. Geographical Setting
Bhaktapur, a smallest district of Nepal, is elevated from 1372 to 2166 metres
high above the sea level. It lies between 2737' to 2744' north latitude and
8521' to 8532'east longitude of an area of 169 square kilometers (Nepal
65

District Profile, 2006:630). Changu Narayan VDC lies to the north 4.5
kilometres far from the headquarter city Bhaktapur and standing 1539 metres
high above the sea level (H.M.G. Nepal, 2031:656). The VDC is located 18
kilometres east from Kathmandu the capital city with 6.10 square kilometers
of total territores (Dhakal, 2007:34). The VDC area stretches from north
Danchi and Indrayani VDC to Jhaukhel and Duwakot VDCs to the south as
well as Chhaling and Mulpani VDCs lie in the east and west respectively. It
has possessed subtropical climate and the temperature falls 20-25 Celsius
with annual rainfall rate 3162.2 mm in an average in this VDC (Changu VDC,
2063:3).
4. Major Assets of Tourist Attractions
Attractions or amenities are the most important component of tourism.
Attractions may be classified on the inventory as a core attractions or a
supporting attraction. Core attractions represent the basis assets or attributes of
the community. They form main theme of the destination. They may be natural
or men made, historical or cultural, recreational or spectator events.
Supporting attractions represent the facilities and services that serve the needs
of visitors, lodging, food service, local transportation, shopping foreign
currency exchange and so on. Resources of hydrosphere's which is concerned
to water activities, resources of lithosphere constitute the surface activities and
resources of anthrop sphere which is related to culture and civilization of
human beings are the major types of attraction(Kunwar,2006:29).
In Nepal, especially Kathmandu Valley can only well offer these kinds of
attraction or amenities to the visitors. Kathmandu the capital city where one
find a unique culture having the blend of Hinduism and Buddhism, majority of
the people are spiritual minded are found both in Kathmandu Valley and else
where in Nepal (Kunwar, 1997:196). Kirkpetric, a great historian, remarked
that the valley consists of as many temples as there are houses and so as many
idols as there are men (Regmi, 1966:871). Regmi, a great Nepalese historian
said that Kathmandu is a city of temples and so are Patan and Bhaktapur.
Every inch of the sacred soil supported a shrine or an image
(Regmi,1966:871). We have so many memorable temples abbies, palaces,
monasteries, gumpas, stupas, sculptures and other ancient and medieval
uncountable monuments in and around the Kathmamdu Valley as well as other
parts of the country (Dulal, 2060:205).
The tourist coming to Kathmandu on finding beautiful natural landscape
(Nagarkot, Dhulikhel), historical monuments, ancient an medieval art,
traditional artifacts, traditional lifestyle, different cultural events, feasts and
festivals, animal sacrifice, ancestral worship and cremation of dead body by
the riverside get fascinated (Kunwar,2006:321). Changu Narayan, a world
66

heritage site and living museum of art architecture and culture is an important
part of the valley. Therefore, the attractions or amenities available in the
Kathmandu Valley can also be found in Changu Narayan site. The major
attractions that could be found in Changu Narayan are following.
a) Changu Narayan Temple:
This is an important historical and religious monument of the site. This is
believed to be the oldest pagoda temple of valley rare artistic heritage of
Lichchhavi era. It is an ancient historic place situated at an altitude of 153
metres and located on the hill name kileswora and there is a composite image
representing kileswora and Vishnu Garauda and Lion (Satyal, 2000:55).
Hindus worship the residing on the hill as Garuda Narayan, while Buddhists
identify Changu Narayan with Avalokiteswora the Bodhisatwa of Campassion.
The history of the site date back to the 3rd an 4th century A.D. and the first
temple is thought to have been built in the time of king Hari Dutta Varma in
325 A.D. (Bernier, 1978:149). One of the oldest inscription found in the valley
which dates to 464 A.D. of Lichchhavi Manadev-I, shows that the temple at
Changu was already on important spiritual centre at that time (Vajracharya,
2030:9-30), The temple was restored during the lifetime of Ganga Rani spouse
of Siva Simha Malla who reigned from 1585 to 1614 A.D. There are records
of the temple gutted in the year of 822 N.S. (1702A.D.) (Regmi, 1966:877).
After the incident of this temple reconstruction was carried out. This two
stored temple of basic Nepalese design with possible emphasis given to
masterful ornamentation. The decorations of stone, wood and bronze are
profuse and perhaps older than those of almost any other temples in the valley
(Bernier, 1978:149-150). In the word of Percy Brown the temple of Garuda
Narayan at Changu is the richest of the Nepalese Pagoda in carving, color and
embossed metals (Brown, 1952:198).
b) Other Temples:
The temple of Lord Krishna: This temple was built by Raghuveer, a
marechants of Thimi in 1963 A.D. (Khanal, 2040:88), which is the Shikhara
Style temple found in the courtyard of Changu Narayan Nateswora temple:
This temple is known as the temple of Nasal Devata, which represents the
dancing form of Lord Shiva. The name of the temple was mentioned for the
first time in some of the historical documents in N.S. 668 (Khanal, 2040:89).
Shomaligeswora temple: This is also a Shikhara styled temple dedicated to
Lord Siva, which has built in 1856 A.D. (Khanal, 2040:91). Ganesh temple:
This is one of the highly decorated shrines located in the southern part of the
main temple. Yataju temple: This temple is known as the temple of
67

Asthamatrika or 'Chhinnamasta: In a document published in N.S. 618, the

name of the temple was mentioned in first time (Khanal, 2040:93). The temple
dedicated to Chhinnamasta of Shakti Cult is one of the oldest temples of this
site. It is situated in the south-east of Changu Narayan temple. The goddess
Chhinnamasta beheaded herself, offered her own blood to feed the hungry
Dakini and Varmini then became famous as Chhinnamasta. This name
Chhinnamasta refers to the beheaded one in English. Laxmi Narayan temple:
This is a temple of Nepalese pagoda of single storey. Kanti Bhairab temple:
This temple is dedicated to the terrific form of the God Bhairab. In a document
of N.S. 615 the name of this temple is found for the first time (Khanal,
2040:97). Kileswora temple: This is a small two storey temple located within
this site. This is famous for its exotic motifs which are depicted in the struts.
Lord Siva himself appeared in the form of Siva Linga for the protection of this
hill. For the first time in a document of the name of the temple was published
in N.S. 615(Khanal, 2040:97).
c) Secular Architecture:
Paties, Pauwas (Rest houses), Sattal, Mandepa, Dhunge dhara, Jaladroni
(Water Spouts Reservoir), Traditional Newari Houses are known as the secular
architecture of Nepal. There are more than six paties, Pauwas located in the
courtyard of the site. Bhajan pati, Balmpu Pati, Magam Pati, Bhimsen Pati,
and Bhairab pati can be seen still in better condition. Among those, Bhimsen
pati is considered much more important than other one. Descending while
from the stone staircase through the eastern door of the temple courtyard,
single roof of the pati can be seen on the northernside of the courtyard. Inside
the pati there are images of Bhimsen, Draupadi, Jaya and Vijaya. Infront of the
pati there is a place belonging to the palace of Yoga Narendra Malla the king
of Patan had come to stay in this palace to pass the rest of his life in 17th
century A.D. and died there.
As like stone steps, water spouts (Jaladroni and Dhungedhara), Ponds are
other important monuments found in the permises of the main temple. 30.88
of the people of this VDC has been using waterspouts for the source of
drinking water till now. There are 328 water spouts and dhungedhara still
remaining in good condition (Changu VDC, 2063:24), belonged to ancient and
medieval period. Gahiti, Narayan hiti, ancient water spouts Shankha daha;
Gaon dhoka pokhari, Sindhurkuwa pokhari etc are the main water spouts and
ponds of the site.
d) Sculpture Art:
The heritage site is nicely decorated by the different sculptures too. There are
over 14 individual stone images in the temple itself, they are all standing
68

freely and easily accessible for both pilgrims and visitors. Whereas, other
more than fifty individual sculptures can be found at the surrounding of the
temple. Remarkable and rare sculptures found in the site that the complex is
best known. Many of those work of art date back to the Lichachhavi period
which was contemporary to the king Manadev and his inscription, they jointly
provided the rich interpretation not only the history of art of Nepal but of the
religious and cultural history of the valley. The stone sculpture of Garuda,
Garuda Narayan of 6th century A.D. (Khanal,2052:),Sridhara Vishnu of 11
century A.D.(Kramrisch,1964:), Vishworupa of 7th century A.D. Vishnu
Vikrant of 6th century A.D.( Raya,1975:100), Narasimha of 13th century A.D.
(Pal,1974:97), Kaumari, Brahmayani, Maheswori, Vaishanavi, Varahi,
Chamunda, Mahalaxmi and Bhairabi of ancient period (Khanal, 2040: 92) and
statue of Bhupatendra Malla and Bhuvanlaxmi, the king and queen of the
Kantipur of 17th century A.D. (Khanal, 2040: 87) are the most important
sculptures of the site.
e) Historical Pillar
One of the proud collections of Changu Narayan Complex is the historical
stone pillar with inscription. This inscription was engraved in Pro-Lichchhavi
script and Sanskrit language. This is the oldest script of Kathmandu Valley and
the pillar was established by the Lichchhavi King Manadev in 464 A.D.
(Vajracharya, 2030:9-30).
f) Changu Museum
Along the main path to the Changu Narayan temple, a local house has been
transformed into first private museum in Nepal. It is full of precious art
objects such as coins of ancient period, cooking utensils, agricultural tools,
music instruments and portraits. The museum is housed in an old Newari
village at the right side of the road, which provides good opportunities to see
the interior of a traditional house. The entire legend of Changu Narayan has
been depicted and hangs on the wall of the museum with little explanation.
The museum was established few years ago with the permission of VDC and
little amount as an entrance fee is levied.
g) Fairs and Festivals
Altogether there are 125 caste and ethanic groups in Nepal (CBS, 2012:4). As
in all countries, in Nepal festivals are celebrated in a slightly different ways
and with varying degrees of intensity depending upon locality, economic and
social status, education, religious and family background and personal
inclination (Anderson, 1971:). In this country, everyday there seems people
observing some kind of festivals and ritual activities. It is assumed that people
69

of Kathmandu Valley observe more than 366 annual festivals in one year
(Kunwar, 2006:320). Some festivals such as Dashain and Tihar are celebrated
throughout the country. Besides this Narayan, Mahadev, Chhinnamasta Jatra
(April-May), Kalas Jatra (July-August), Kusmanda Nawami (OctoberNovember), Mahasnanna (November-December), Bansha Gopal Jatra
(February-March),
Krishna
Janmasthami
(August-September)
(Khanal,2040:100-129) these are the major festivals and jatra which have
been celebrating from the ancient period to date in this historical site.
h) Natural Attractions:
Community forestry is one of the important natural attractions of this VDC.
There are four community forestries in the site, which are extended in 132.51
hectors of land (Changu VDC, 2063: 30). The forest of this VDC includes
sallo, Chilaune, Uttish, Mauwa etc. Likewise the Mirga, Fox, Wolf, Dumshi
etc are the major animals that are found in this VDC. Being situated toward
the eastern side of the valley, Changu is surrounded by Green Mountain, fresh
mountain air clean and natural environment, green field and beautiful view of
the Himalayan mountain range. Life Style of the villages, innumerable
wilderness of Himalayan flora and founa are the major touristic attractions of
the destination. The Panoramic views of Langtang, Dorjay Lakpa and other
snow topped mountains, the romantic sunrise and sunset, existing village and
jungle walk and beautiful and fresh environment has established itself as one
of the most popular all seasons destinations among eco-tourists and village
tourists.
5. Conclusion
Changu Narayan, UNESCO world heritage site, is the all seasons destination
of tourism. In this historic site tourists have been paying visit from the very
beginning up to date for the purpose of sight seeing, explore the heritage,
observation of art/architecture, performed religious rituals enjoying in a
peaceful environment, study and research etc. Due to the lack of proper
tourism planning, the site could not achieve desired results to tourism
promotion as per its potentiality. Therefore, the government, concerned
authorities and stakeholders should pay first priority to promotion of tourism
to this site. If all the concerned authorities should keep equal participation in
various conservation and preservation program as well as tourism
inhencement activities with single motive, the sustainable and longterm
tourism development in this particular heritage site seems possible. Otherwise,
the nation should bear dire consequences for losing an important tourism
destination in the days to come.
70

Reference:
Bhattchan, K.B. and Pyakurel, K.N. (1996). Emerging Ethencity and Aspects
of Community adoption The issue of National Integrated in Nepal, An Ethno
regional approach, Occasional paper in sociology and Anthropology Vol.5,Kritipur: Central Dept. TU.
Satyal, Y.R. (1988). Tourism in Nepal, A profile, Varanasi: Nath Publishing
house.
Kunwar, R.R. (2006). Tourists and Tourism Science and Industry Interface,
Kathmandu: International School of Tourism and Hotel Management.
Satyal, Y.R. (2000). Nepal an Exotic Tourist Destination, Delhi: Adroit
Publisher.
Khanal, M.P. (2040). Changu Narayan Ko Itihasika Samagri, Kirtipur: CNAS,
TU.
Satyal, Y.R. (2002). Pilgrimage Tourism in Nepal, Delhi: Adroit Publisher.
Dangol, Rajeev (2006). Oldest Sculpture of Changu Narayan, Nepal
Traveller.
Nepal District Profile (2006)
H.M.G. Nepal (2031). Mechi Dekhi Mahakali, Kathmandu: H.M.G. Nepal.
Dhakal, Riju (2007). Changu Narayan All Seasons Destination for Rural
Tourism, A case of study, Kathmandu: A project unpublish report, P.K. Campus
Dept. of R.D.
Changu VDC (2063). Changu Narayan VDC Ko Vastugata Vibaran,
Kathmandu: Changu Narayan VDC.
Kunwar, R.R. (1997). Tourism and Development Science and Industry
Interface, Kathmandu: Laxmi Kunwar.
Regmi, D.R. (1966). Medieval Nepal Vol-II, Calcutta: Firma, K.L.
Mukhopadya.
Dulal, L.N. (2060). The land of Pagoda, A brief study of Multi roofed temples
of Nepal, Kasturi Mukhapatra, Varsa-40, Purnanka-15, Kathmandu:
Padmakanya Multiple Campus.
Satyal, Y.R. (2000). Tourism Scene in Nepal, Delhi: Adroit Publisher.
Bernier, R.M. (1978). The temples of Nepal, New Delhi : S.Chand &
Company.
Vajracharya, D.N. (2030). Lichchavi Kalaka Avilekha, Kirtipur: INAS, TU.
Brown, Percy (1952). Picturesque Nepal, London:
Khanal, M.P. (2052). Nepalikala, Lalitpur: Sajha Prakashan
Kramrisch, Stella (1964). The Art of Nepal, The Asian Society
Raya, Amita (1975). The Art of Nepal, Delhi:
Pal, P. (1974). The Art of Nepal, Vol-I, Netherland:
71

Anderson, Mery.M. (1971). The festivals of Nepal, Calcutta: Rupa Co

Pashupatinath: One of the Holiest Pilgrimages of Hindus

Pashupatinath is being a one of the holiest pilgrimages site of the
Hindus in the world. It is holiest sites of all the pilgrimages to Lord Shiva, the
guardian diety of Nepal, or the preserver of the universe. The pilgrimage site
is situated on the western bank of the holy river Bagmati five k.m. north-east
of the Kathmandu core and contains the sacred lingam of Loed Pashupati.
Every year, from the very early, thousands of devitees have been paying their
holy visit to this pious site not only from the parts of the country but from the
aboard especially from India. Shiva Ratri is one of the greatest festivals of
Hindus, pilgrims in their numbers visit to this temple from far and wide.
Nepal Mahatmya of the Skanda Purana is a famous religious text which
helps to provide the legend about the origin of this guardian deity. According
to this legend Lord Shiva was very attracted by the charm of Sheleshmantaka
forest situated in the estern part of Pashupati temple which is now popular as
Mrigasthali. It is believed that Lord Shiva visited the Shelesmantaka forest
with his wife Parvati in the guise of a deer i.e. mirga. Meanwhile, Lord Shiva
was missed for a long course time and caused anxiety to Brahma, Vishnu and
Indra the three deities of the heaven. Then God Brahma, Vishnu and Indra
came to Shelesmantaka forest and caught with all mights to the deer in
disguise of God Shiva by one of his horns which got broken into three pieces.
It is believed that these three pieces of horns were establidhed in three places
of Nepal and India as directed by Lord Shiva himself (Satyal, 2002:48-49).
In this regard, another text mentions that one piece of broken horn of
deer buried under the earth. On this buried place a heavenly cow Kamadhenu
used to visit daily and give her milk. One day the herdsman noticed this act
and amazed by seeing this act. He got this spot dug out found the cosmic
Linga of Pashupati. The cowherd began to worship the Linga as a guairdian
deity. Then, smoothly the site of Pashupatinath became a famous place of
pilgrimage.
The core ane peryphrey of the Pashupatinath temple is being known as
the Pasupat Chhetra i.e. Pashupati area from the very beginning. There are
near about more than two hundreds shrines of different sizes and architectural
styles. Apart from these religious temples and other edifices, there are several
rest houses, mathas, Jogi kuti i.e. hermitage of the saints and other types of
sheltering places as well. From the religious, cultural, art and architectural

72

perspectives, among the various religious and seculars monuments and shrines
Pashupatinath temple is highly regarded as the most important one.
It is mentioned that the three-tired multiroofed of gold-gilt
Pashupatinath temple was constructed on the archictural design of shikhara
style in the very beginning. Due to the collapsed of its old structure, the then
king Raghav Deo was renovated it on this multiroofed style near about 879
A.D. and brought new era i.e. Nepal Samvat in practice on this occasion
(Benerjee,1980: 84). The absolute date of its construction is still uncertainty.
There are several views about the date of construction of it. In this regard,
Bernier a great art historian views that the present form of this temple was
constructed in1692A.D (Bernier, 1968:160). Likewise, D.R. Regmi a
prominent Nepalese historian forwards his similar views as the views of
Bernier and said that the present form of this temple has contructed in
1692A.D. (Regmi, 1966: 877). Whereas, W.G. Korn mentions that the modern
structure of this temple has built in 1702 A.D., when the old one was damaged
due to the fire during the period (Korn, 1993:66). The Gopalraj Vamsabali the
oldest avaiable chronicles of Nepal mentions that the temple of Pashupatinath
was firstly built by the king Supuspa Deo, the early ruler of Nepal (Satyal,
2002:48-49). Whereas, according to the legendry this shrine was structured in
325 Christian eras, during the regime of King Haridatta Barma.
The historical evidences show that the present form of this temple came
into existence after the various renovation works of rulers and art lovers as
well. Whatsoever the holy temple of Lord Pashupatinath was beautified and
decorated by the different kings of Nepal. The existing architectural design of
Pashupati Temple said to have been came into structure by the benevolent
wishes of the Queen Ganga Devi wife of Shivasimha Malla, the king of 1578
to 1620 A.D. Along with many architectural temples and building, there are
several stone inscriptions and images from the second and third centuries.
Presently, the temple and its surroundings are included in the world heritage
list of UNESCO. By signing the World Heritage Convention in 1978, Nepal
became a party to it. In 1979 Nepal enlisted seven historical and cultural
sitesof universal importances in the World Heritage List. Among them
Pashupatinath is important one. Pashupatinath is the most venerated shrine of
the Hindus. It is the principal deity of the country. Apart from the proctection
given by the Ancient Monument Preservation Act, 1953 Pashupatinath temple
complex is also procted by a separate legislation known as Pashupati Area
Development Trust Act, 1987(Amatya, 1999:155-157).

73

Reference
Amatya, Saphalya (1999). Art and Culture of Nepal, Delhi: Nirala
Publications.
Banerjee, R.N. (1980). Nepalese Architecture, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
Bernier, R.M. (1968). The Temples of Nepal, Delhi: Sultan Chand &Co.
Korn, W.G. (1993). The Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu Valley,
Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.
(Regmi, 1966: 877). Medieval Nepal, vol. 2, Culcutta: Firma K.L.
Mukhopadhyay.
Satyal, Y.R. (2002). Pilgrimage Tourism in Nepal, Delhi: Adroit Publishers.

Swayambhunath: One of the Famous Pilgrimages Nepal

Swayambhunath is one of the popular pilgrimages sites of the Nepal.
This place of pilgrimage is famous not only for Buddhists but also for Hindus
of either religious faith. The pilgrimage site is situated on a hillock nearly 4
kms west of the Kathmandu core. It is one of the oldest monuments, and
considered as a typical example of the Stupa architecture of Nepal. The
courtyard of Stupa contains many chaitya, shrines, and sacked pillors and so
on. There is also a pagoda temple of Harati, the guardian deity of epidemics.
The Stupa represents the essential unity of the Buddha and the universe
(Satyal, 2002:38).
Swayambhunath is a sacred Buddhist pilgrimage site on a top of a hill
overlooking a good view of the Kathmandu city and snowy mountains in the
horizon. It is located on a hillock about 77 meters above the level of the valley.
According to Mr. Duncan Forbes (The Heart of Nepal) Swayambhunath
which is contracted to Swayambhunath in colloquial language, means The
self-born Lord and the Stupas great sanctity for Buddhists of the Mahayana
or great vehicle, is due to the fact that, when the whole valley was a lake, it
was on the spot that the lotus bloomed which contained Swayambhu, the selfborn in its petals. The Stupa itself, more correctly called a chaitya since it
contains no specific Buddhist relic, is a large hemisphere of Masonry about

74

fifty feet high. This is the garbh or womb representing the creation of the
world of nature (Satyal, 2002:58).
The absolute date of its construction is still uncertainty. There are
several views about the date of construction of it. In this regard, Percy Brown
a great historian views that the the Stupa of Swayambhunath is to be two
thousands years old (Brown, 1965:16). Likewise, J.R. Regmi traces back to
the history of this Stupa into the Kirata period, whereas, the style of the
canopy of this Stupa was developed in 14th century Christian era (Regmi,
2026: 458). Some chronicles of Nepal mentions that the Stupa of
Swayambhunath was firstly built in Tretayuga i.e. the age of truth. Whereas,
the broken inscription of Gorkarna of King Amshuvarma is the first historical
document, which provides the descripton of this Stupa as the named
Bhuchaitya (Bajracharya, 2030:370). It suggests that this Stupa was well
existed during the Lichchhavi period. The historical evidences show that the
present form of this Stupa came into existence after the various renovation
works of the rulers and art lovers as well. Whatsoever the holy Stupa of
Swayambhunath was beautified and decorated during the different period of
Nepal. It obvious that the existing architectural design of Swayambhunath
Stupa said to have been come into structure during the 14th to 15th century
Christian era.
The main way of the pilgrimage site from the east leads by near about
365, watched towaeds the summit by pair of animals like peacocks, horses,
elephents and lions. These animals are regarded as the mount of pancha
dhyani Buddhas. Gilt Taras guarded, the Stupa and a beamy peacock watched
over all from the dominance of a huge pillar of stone. At the top of the steps is
an enormousVajra i.e. thunderbolt known as Dorje in Tibetan rested on
pedestal which bears on its base, the animals of the Tibetan calendar. The
Stupa is composed of a solid hemisphere of brick and earth on the platform.
The Stupa does have large hemisphere representing the Garbha which signifies
the womb, the seat of Creation. It is surrounded by a gold gilt sqoares
projection which in turn topped by the Chudamani, a conical canopy of gilt
rings (Satyal, 2002:57-58).
There are four niches having golden images of pancha Dhyani Buddhas
on a circular base. In Buddhism pancha Dhyani Buddhas i.e. Achhobhya,

75

Ratnasambhav, Amitabha, Amokhasiddhi and Bairochan are known as the

representative forms of pancha skandha i.e. bijnana (science), bedana,
sanjna, samskar and rupa; pancha bhautika tatwa i.e. earth, water, fire, air
and sky; pancha color i.e. blue, yellow, red, green and white; five direction i.e.
east, south, weast, north and ishan; pancha buddhas i.e. Kanaka Muni,
Ksyapa, Shakya Muni, Maitreya and Krakuchhanda; pancha boddhi satwa i.e.
Samantabhadra, Vajrapani, Ratnapani, Padmapani and Biswapani; pancha
emblems i.e. chakra (wheel), vajra (thunderbolt), ratna (jewel), padma (lotus)
and biswavajra (two crossed thunderbolt); pancha mudra (five postures) i.e.
bitarka, vajrashan, dhyana, barada (boon) and dhama chakra (preaching);
pancha ritu (five seasons) i.e. winter, spring, summer, monsoon and autumn;
pancha swad (five tests i.e tito (pungent), nunilo (saline), amilo tito (acidic),
tito (bitter) and gulio (sweet); pancha klesha (five evils) i.e. kama, krodha,
moha, irshya and trisna. For the representation of the above mentioned
things and elements the images of five dhyani Buddhas might be depicted in
the niches of the Stupa.
There is a square toran i.e. tympanum with a lofty conical spire
separated into thirteen layers of golden plate denoting the thirteen blesses of
the Buddhist world. Prabhudita, Bimala, Prabhakari, Archismati, Sudurjaya,
Abhimukhi, Durangana, Achala, Sadhumati, Dharmamegha, Samantaprabha,
Nirupama and Jnanawati are the names of thirteen different world of
Buddhism which represents through the thirteen layers of golden plate in this
Stupa. According to the Buddhist doctrine a person who crossed to the fifth
world i.e. Sudurjaya, he or she known as srawakyani (therabad), who crossed
the ninth world i.e. Sadhumati, he or she known as Arhat, who crossed
eleventh world, he or she known as Mahayani and who crossed all thirteen
worlds he or she recognized as the Vajrayani.
The courtyard of the pilgrimage is full of innumerable subsidiary
chaityas, shrines and sacred pillars. The temples of Harati Ajima, Pratapapur,
Anantapur are considered other significance monuments of the site. The hill
itself is a mosaic of small chaityas and Nepalese style temples with intricate
figures of god and goddesses which gives great dignity and beauty. Presently,
the Stupa and its surroundings are included in the world heritage list of
UNESCO. By signing the World Heritage Convention in 1978, Nepal became
a party to it. In 1979 Nepal enlisted seven historical and cultural sites of

76

universal importances in the World Heritage List. Among them the Stupa of
Swayambhunath is important one. Swayambhunath is one of the most
outstanding monuments of Asian Culture. Its inclusion in the World Heritage
List offers an independent and impartial testimonial to this fact. For its
conservatrion and development a Master Plan is being prepared with the help
of the Government of Federal Germany Republic (Amatya, 1999:155-158).

Reference
Amatya, Saphalya (1999). Art and Culture of Nepal, Delhi: Nirala
Publications.
Bajracharya, D.B. (2030). Lichchhavi Kalaka Abhilekh, Kirtipur: INAS, TU.
Banerjee, R.N. (1980). Nepalese Architecture, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
Bernier, R.M. (1968). The Temples of Nepal, Delhi: Sultan Chand &Co.
Korn, W.G. (1993). The Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu Valley,
Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.
Brown, Percy (1965). Indian Architecture,
Regmi, D.R. (1966). Medieval Nepal, vol. 2, Culcutta: Firma K.L.
Mukhopadhyay.
Regmi, J.C. (2026). Lichchhavi Samskriti, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar
Satyal, Y.R. (2002). Pilgrimage Tourism in Nepal, Delhi: Adroit Publishers.

Bauddhanath Stupa: An Important Centre of Devotion

Bauddhanath Stupa is treated as an important centre of devotion for
devotees of Boddhism in Nepal. The pilgrimage site is situated about 7 kms
north east of the Kathmandu core. It is one of the oldest and largest Stupa in
the world, and considered as a typical example of the Stupa architecture of
Nepal. It is built on an octagonal base and has about eighty small recesses
each containing an image of the Buddha. The Chudamani is composed of a
steep pyramid. The Stupa is inset on four sites with the all-seeing eyes of Lord
Buddha. The Stupa is also ringed with prayer wheels. The courtyard of the
Stupa contains several smaller shrines and the houses of Buddhist priests
(Satyal, 2002:38).
The absolute date of its construction is still uncertainty. There are
several views about the date of construction of it. In this regard, Bhasha
Vamsabali mentions that the Stupa of Bauddhanath was constructed by the
77

king Manadev 1st for the salvation from mortal sin of his father. Whereas, the
Gopalraj Vamsabali the oldest avaiable chronicles of Nepal mentions that the
Stupa of Bauddhanath was built by the king Shiva Deo as a name with Khaso
Chaitya (Bajracharya &Malla, 1985: paper no. 21). The hemisphere
represents the word of wisdom which contains the relics of Kashyap Buddha
(Waddelle, 1895:6). Therefore, today this Stupa might also be known as
Buddha or Khasti or Khasa Chaitya. Likewise, on the basis of its huge
structure and style D.R. Regmi traces back to the history of this Stupa into the
early medieval period (Regmi, 1966: 572).
The Stupa is composed of a solid hemisphere of brickwork, surmounted
bya brazen minaret. Its octagonal base is inset with prayer wheels. There are
niches in each of which are cylinders filled into an iron frame.these cylinders
contains Buddhist prayer scripts and the pious devotees is seen the cylinders
as they go around the Stupashowing their devotions. Hemisphere of the Stupa
is raised on a series of rectangular terraces of whole being covered in an outer
round wallhaving prayer wheels and painting of five Buddhas. It is designed in
the Mandala shape, oriented east-weast by north south. Altogether 108
Buddha idols and 147 insets of prayer wheels cover the base of the huge
circular edifice
(Satyal, 2002:59-60). Presently, the Stupa and its
surroundings are included in the world heritage list of UNESCO. By signing
the World Heritage Convention in 1978, Nepal became a party to it. In 1979
Nepal enlisted seven historical and cultural sites of universal importances
including this Stupa in the World Heritage List.

Reference
Amatya, Saphalya (1999). Art and Culture of Nepal, Delhi: Nirala
Publications.
Bajracharya, D.B. (2030). Lichchhavi Kalaka Abhilekh, Kirtipur: INAS, TU.
Bajracharya,D.B. &Malla, K.P. (1985). The Gopalraj Vamsabali, Kathmandu:
Nepal Research Centre.
Banerjee, R.N. (1980). Nepalese Architecture, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
Bernier, R.M. (1968). The Temples of Nepal, Delhi: Sultan Chand &Co.
Korn, W.G. (1993). The Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu Valley,
Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.
Brown, Percy (1965). Indian Architecture,

78

Regmi, D.R. (1966). Medieval Nepal, vol. 1, Culcutta: Firma K.L.

Mukhopadhyay.
Regmi, J.C. (2026). Lichchhavi Samskriti, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar
Satyal, Y.R. (2002). Pilgrimage Tourism in Nepal, Delhi: Adroit Publishers.
Wadel, L.A. (1895). Buddhism of Tibet or Lamaism, London:

Hanuman Dhoka Durbar Square

Kathmandu, Patan and Bhadagaon are the important three cities of the
valley. It was very rightly observed by Kirkpatrick as The valley (valley of
Kathmandu) consists of as many templesas there are houses and of as many
idols as there are man. In this context, the city of Kathmandu is undertaken as
one of the important ancient city of the valley.the ancient name of Kathmandu
is kantipur, literarly the city of glory.it was established by the King Guna
Kama Deva in 732 A.D. To be precise, it is better to describe the temples and
start from Hanuman Dhoka Durbar Square.
Kathmandu Durbar Square, most popularly known by the name of
Hanuman Dhoka Palace is famous as the most attractive part of Kathmandu,
full of temples, palace buildings and courtyards constructed during malla
period i.e. from the 12th century to 18th century. The significance of Hanuman
Dhoka refers an image of Hanuman, the monkey god, stationed at the main
entrance of the palace by the King Pratap Malla in 1729 V.S. In the historical
documenta of the Malla period, it was addressed as the different names such as
Rajkura, Lajakuta, Layaku and Gunapo(Bajracharya,2033: 15). Hanuman
Dhoka Durbar represents the artistic features and sequences of Malla to Shah
Period as well. The nine storeys building of eastern site has built by King
Prithivi Narayan Shah, whereas, the western portion of the palace was
contructed by the Rana Priminiser Janga Bd Rana in his regime. Exceptions of
these two portions, all of the parts of the palace were structured in Medieval
Period. Especially, the credit of the constructions of this palace goes to the
Kings Mahendra Malla and Pratap Malla as well.
It contains traditional artistry and the rich cultural heritage of Nepal.
The exoticism of histirical remains consisting of palace building and temples
in the Durbar Square offer elaborateness of artistic detail and beauty treatment
which has no rival in Asia. Kathmandus greater importance lies in the fact
that it is the artistic as well as cultural capital of Nepal. Nepal by this singular
beauty of art and archictural marvels is regarded as one of the few countries in
the world (Satyal, 2002: 63-64).
79

Among the three historical palace square of Kathmandu Valley, the

Hanuman Dhoka Durbar Square is the most extensive not only inits size but
also in the scale of its open spaces and structures. It contains sixty important
monuments of which the greater majority date from the 17 th and 18th centuries
(Amatya, 1999:155).
Hanuman Dhoka is one of the world heritage sites, enlisted in the World
Heritage List in 1979. In the beginning the international organizations like
UNESCO, UNDP and friendly countries such as West Germany, Japan and so
on to conseve this site, particularly the palace area. After restoring a portion of
the palace built in the beginning of the 19 th century, it was used for housing
museums. The frist biographical museum known as Tribhubwan Memorial
Museum was established here in January 1980. Now there are National
Numismatic Museum is also housed in this palace. It was opened in 1962 by
the late King Mahendra. Here the coins from the B.C. period to the present
days are on pisplay. Clay seals, leather coins and punch mark coins are also
exxhibition (Amatya, 1999:46-47).

Patan Durber Square

Patan Durbar Square is another cultural centre which is enlisted in the
World Heritage List in 1979. The ancient name of Patan is Lalitpur, meaning
the city of beauty, and is about five kilometers southeast of Kathmandu. The
whole Durbar Square is a cluster of pagoda temples and stone statues. Many
pagoda temples dedicated to Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva are scattered in the
quadrangle which is on of the main city area of Patan. It is renowned for its
awe-inspiring collection of towering pagodas and colonnaded temples of
carved facades and stone monoliths having bonze status.
The patan Durbar Square took its oresent form largly during the rule of
Siddhi Nara Singha Malla and Shriniwas Malla between 1660 and 1684
respectively. The Patan Durbar Complex has also divided into several
courtyards namely Mulchowk, Sundari chowk, and Mani Keshab Narayan
chowk. West part of the courtyard is said to be designed as the residence
quarter of royal family. The beautiful bathing tank and water spout kmown as
Tusa Hiti (Royal Bath) were built in the centre of courtyard. Shrinibas Malla
also erected a temple of great artistic design for the Agamdeveta i.e. secret
house of Goddess in the south wing of the courtyard which is still guarded by
the life size figures of Ganga and Yamuna in gilded bronze.
Over this shrine there is a three tiered roof. The excellent metal
doorway is indeed a tribute to the matel working. Adjacent to the Mul chowk

80

and dominating the palace complex because of its size in the Deotale built by
King Siddhinarasingh Malla in 1641. It is five tiered and is dedicated to Taleju
Bhawani. This is the crowning example of the whole structure around royal
palace. The golden statue of King Yog Narendra Malla seated on high stone
pillar is standing there praying to Goddess Taleju. The most striking temple at
the edge of the Durbar Square is the unusual octagonal stone temple of Lord
Krishna built by King Siddhi Narasingh Mallain 1637. Scenes from great
epics, the Mahabharat and Ramayan have been engraved around the lintels
above the colonnade.
The temple of Shikhara style and a bronze figure of Garuda, the mount
of Lord Vishnu stands in front of it. This temple is an extraordinary example
of stone archicture in Nepal. Near to Krishna Mandir, there are two other
temples known as Bishwanath and Bhimsen. Returning to the upper end of the
Durbar Square, there are interesting temples and shrines. The Durbar Square is
full of temples with five bronze gateways, guardians deities and palace
complex with wonderful carvings. This is known for its rich artistic heritage.

Bhaktapur Durber Square

Bhaktapur, is one of the oldest city of the country. It does have several
names. It is being identified with different names through the ages. Khopring,
Khakampring, Makhopring, Khrupung, Bhaktagram, Bhaktpur, Bhaktpure,
Bhaktapuri, Bhaktpuripattan,Bhaktapattan,Khwopa, Bhadagaon are its locally
knowing names through which Bhaktpur is being identified from the ancient
period up to now (Dhaubanjar, 2068: 197-200). Khopring is its almost oldest
name, which was used in the inscriptions of Lichchhai period. In the
inscription of Ratnasangh of sambat 399 i.e.527 of Deopatan of the period of
king Manadev 1st, the term Khopring came into use to denote a village
(Bajracharya, 2030: 54). Khakampring, Makhopring, and Khrupung are other
synonymous names of Khopring which being used in various inscriptions of
Lichchhavi period (Bajracharya, 2030: 13, 50, 249 & 253). The words such
as Khopring, Khakampring, Makhopring, Khrupung, which used in lichchhavi
inscriptions are not considered the words of Samskri language. They belonged
to Kirati language. It means these were the names of villages which were
established by the Kirata kings themselves (Bajracharya, 2030: 251).
During the medieval period Bhaktapur was known as the several names
such as Bhaktagram, Bhaktpur, Bhaktpure, Bhaktapuri, Bhaktpuripattan,
81

Bhaktapattan, Khwopa etc. Among these, beside Khwopa other are directly
related with devotion to the gods and goddesses of the people. It means the
city which is literally called city of devotees. Likewise, the remaining name
Khwopa is to be believed the derivative forms of Khopring of Lichchhai
period which was especially used by Newar community. Khwopa was existed
from the very beginning of medieval period and is continuously practicing till
today in Newar community. Bhadagaon is not locally popular and traditional
name. But some time, in some historical documents especially after the king
Prithibinarayan Shah it is used as to denote the Bhaktapur city (Dhaubanjar,
2068: 198-200).

Bhaktapur Municipality area had the palace of Malla King during the
Malla period. So it is known as the advance of art and architecture of the
medieval period along with the importance of various deities of Hindu and
Buddhist religion. Most of the people have been living in the particular area
are Newar ethnic groups. They have been involving in the business associated
with tourism. Bhaktapur Municipality is famous for its unique culture and
cultural heritage. The city was known as the dirtiest among the three cities of
the valley about some years ago. In the very short period of time, people of
Bhaktapur could get success to beautify the city and preserve their cultural
heritage. In this period a lot of cottage industries associated with tourism are
introduced providing job opportunities to the local people. It is populated for
its elegant art, fabulous culture, colorful festival, traditional folk dances and
the typical Newar life style. Tourists visiting Nepal feel their visit incomplete
unless they get a mesmerizing glimpse of their ancient city of culture.
Painting, carvings, masonry, bronze casting, jewelry, pottery and so on are
major traditional enterprises. Monuments and artistic carving on woods, stone
and metal are shown all over the historical core of the city.

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The Durbar of Bkaktapur as understood as oldest palaces of Kathmandu

Valley. It was only the capital city and central of administration before the
division of Malla Kingdom. According to the sources, it is believed that the
King Ananda Malla of 12th century was built for the frist time. Latter on the
main building of the palace was constructed in 1427 during the regime of King
Yaksha Malla. Then it has been renovating countinously till to the date. The
Durbar Square of Bkaktapur is one of the importances historical as well as
cultural site is enlisted in World Heritage List by UNESCO in 1979. It is
surrounded by numbers of shimmering pagoda temples with feagures different
God and Goddess and religious symbles. The Batsala Devi, the Pashupati
Nath, Nyatapola, Bhairab, Dattatraya, the Shiva temples and many other are
the show-peaces. The fifty five windows palace was constructed by the King
Bhupandra Malla now is known as one of the illustrative example of wood
work in Nepal.
Today Bhaktapur Durbar Square is considered as one of the famous and
popular tourist destinations of the world. Here, one can absorb the joy of
historical, archeological, religious, natural, cultural, art and architectural
things and activities very nicely. Moreover, this place is very important from
the point of view of tourism. This is the nearest cultural tourism cultural
destination from Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal. Even then, the all
tourists who come to Kathmandu have not been taken to this place. It is a
pitiable fact that the significant potential of this place has not been exploited
till date. There is lack of proper management to boost of such fascinated
destination

ChitwanNationalPark
1.

Introduction
83

ThegeographicallocationofChitwanDistrictis84 003'eastto84039'
westlongitudeand27020'northto27049'northlatitude(NTB,2008:65).The
shape of Chitwan looks like an equilateral triangle .It is located between
Mahabharat and Churia Hills in the north and South respectively. And
Narayani River in the western part and Makawanpur district with Parsa
WildlifeReserveintheeast.Chitwanhastropicalandsubtropicalmonsoon
climatewithhighhumidityandthreemainseasonsi.e.summer,monsoonand
winter.Chitwancovers2218sq.Km.or1.5percentofthetotalareaofNepal
(NTB,2008:65).DuetohighsufferingofMalaria,hightemperature,presence
ofpoisonoussnakeslikeCobra,andanimalslikerhinos,tiger,bears.Chitwan
wascalledDeathValley.ThenameofChitwanhasseveralmeaning.Themost
essentialandsuittablemeaningis;ChittameansheartandVanmeansjungle.
Thus,Chitwanmeanstheheartofthejunglewherenecessaryfoodandshelter
areavailableforalltypesofwildlife.
SaurahavillageapartofBacchauliVillageDevelopmentCommitteeis
locatedinthecloseproximityoftheChitwanNationalpark.TheVillageis
connectedtoTandiandChitrasarivillageby6and3km.respectively.Itis
knowntodayanimportanttouristsdestinationofNepal.InBachheuliVDC
compriseapproximately1500households.ThetotalpopulationofthisVDCis
about9696.Temperaturereachesamaximumof450cinMayandaminimum
of 060c in December, whereas, the maximum rainfall is 216mm which is
witnessed during September and October. The Bacchauli VDC comprises
differentvillagessuchasSauraha,Odra,Badreni,Malpur,Sisuwa,Jhuwani
andTasauli(Kunwar,2002:81).
AccordingtoNEDStherearealtogether4422Tharusandtheremaining
otherpopulation(5244)incomposedofBrahmins,Chhetris,Newars,Kamis,
Gurungs,Magars,Tamangs,Botes,Damais,Danuwars andDhobis inthis

84

VDC.RiverBudhiandRaptihavedividedtheVDCintothreedifferentparts.
Tandi,ChitrasariandGothaulialllocatedonthenorthernsideoftheriver.
Fromtheviewpointoftourism,Sauraha,OrdsaandBadrenivillagesarevery
importantbecausemostoftheresortsarelocatedthere (Kunwar,2002:81).
TheTharupopulationofSaurahaVillageisapproximatelytwohundredandof
Odra220.Saurahaisoccupiedby9exogamoussubgroupswhereasOdrais
occupiedby13exogamoussubgroupsonly.FurthertothesouthofSauraha
thereisadenseforestandnearittherearefewTharusvillageslikePatna,
Dhindauli and Merchanli in Padampur VDC. The present Sauraha gives a
glimpseoftoday'sThameloftheKathmanduValley,thelakesideofPokhara
andGoaofIndia(Kunwar,2002:8182).
2.

MajorTourismproductsofSauraha
Atpresent,thisparkhasbecomeoneofthenationtreasuresofnatural

wonders.Recognizingitsuniqueecosystemofglobalsignificance,UNESCO
declareditaWorldHeritageSitein1984.Itisaneminentparkofthecountry,
whichconsumes thelargest numberofthetouristinitslabfilledwiththe
uniqueecosystem.Saurahahelptoincreasethenationaleconomicbyluring
touristtoshowitsnaturaldiversityaswellasTharuculturalheritage.There
aremanyprospectsassociatedwithtourismdevelopmentinthisdestination.
Theopportunityofscenicattraction,trekking,elephantsafari,junglesafari,
community forestry, bird watching, elephant breeding centre, crocodile
breeding centre, vulture breeding centre, participating different water
activities,observingtheTharuculturalheritageandtourisminfrastructureare
themajortourismproductsofSauraha.

2.1ChitwanNationalPark

85

National Parks have been establishing the purpose to conserve and

preservethenaturalresources,toprotectthefloraandfauna,toprotectthe
wildlifehabitat,topayavaluablepartinthedevelopmentofwildlifeoriented
tourismindustryandtoprovidetheopportunitiestocarryoutresearchand
investigationonjungleactivities.Nationalparkshavebeenestablishingfrom
theveryearlydaysintheworld.Atthefirsttime,thefirstnationalparkwas
established in USA in 1872, as the name of Yellow Stone National Park
(Satyal, 1988:9798). Once than the concept of National Park has spread
beyondtheAmericanfrontiersandhasflourisheduniversallyandthishasnew
resulted in the creation of 1024 National Parks or equivalent reserves,
throughouttheworld(Satyal,1988:9798).
InordertoprotectthefloraandfaunaofNepalwhicharedecliningatan
alarming rate, HMG Nepal has decided to established National Park and
wildlifeReservesinmanypartsofthecountry.Afterthedeclarationofthe
HMGpolicies,thevariousnumbersofNationalParksandWildlifeReserves
havecameintoestablishindifferentpartofthecountry.Amongthevarious,
ChitwanNationalParkisone.
PhysicalSettingofthePark
TheparkcontainsChuriahills,oxbowlakesandthefloodplainsof
Rapti,ReuandNarayanirivers.Thechuriahillselevatesonincreasingorder
from west to east from 110 m. to 850m. The lower but more rugged
someshwor hills occupy most of western portion of the park. The park
boundariesaredelineatedbytheNarayaniandRaptiRiversinthenorthand
westandReuriverinSomesworhillsinthesouthandsouthwest.Itseastern
boarderisjoinedwithParsaWildlifeReserve.TheParkhasrelativelyhigh
humiditytropicalmonsoonclimate.Monsoon,winterandspringarethethree
main seasons can found in the park. The winter season begins with the

86

beginningofOctoberandendswiththeendingofFebruary.Springbeginsin
MarchandendswithsummerinearlyJune.Itgetthemaximumtemperature
400cinMayandminimumof060cinDecember.Maximumrainfallrecorded
intheparkareais216mm.whichiswitnessedduringSeptemberandOctober.
Duringthistimemostoftheroadsareimpassableduetoflood.Thereforethe
periodbetweenDecemberandFebruaryinconsideredbeingthebestseason
havingapanoramicviewofthePark.
HistoryofChitwanNationalPark.
ChitwanNationalParkhasoccupiedimportantpositioninSouthAsia
fortheconservationofrareanimalsandplants.Theparticularregionwhichis
famousastheCNPtoday,wasprotectedashuntingreserveareabythethan
Prime Minister Janga Bd. Rana in 1962 B.S. and which is continuously
extendedtilltotheRanaregime.In2015/16BS(1958)anAmericanscientist
namedE.P.G.ofFaunaPreservationSocietyofAmericahasrecommendedthe
northpartoftheRaptiRiverasthebestterritoryforestablishmentofNational
Park,whereas,theSouthPartfortheRhinocerosProtectedAreaaswell. At
thesametime,thethenKingMahendrahasestablishedaDeer'sProtection
Areainthesitein1959. Keepingitismind,thethenkingMahendrahas
suggested to his government and then the government has established
Rhinoceros Protected Area in 1963 (2017/18), which is extended about 8
hundredsq.km.
During the period, when Deers and Rhinoceros Protected Area has
established,thesitewasdenselyinhabitantbythepeople.Thus,atthefirst,
HMG of Nepal has needed to replacement to the people from the site.
Meanwhile, HMG of Nepal has launched rehabilitation program and has
rehabilitated about 22,000 households including 4000 households from the
particularsiteofChitwantotheotherpartsofthecountryin1964(2020/21

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B.S.)Inthisprocess,KingMahendrahasapprovedtheRhinocerosProtected
AreaasthefirstNationalParkofthecountryin1970(2026/27B.S.).Afterthe
resolutionofthethanking,departmentofforestryofNepalandWWF(World
WildlifeFund)havejointlyprovidedthefinancialandtechnicalsupportfor
thepreliminarydevelopmentactivitiesofthepurposedNationalParkin1971
(2027/28 B.S.). Finally, the Rhinoceros and Deers Protected Area has
transformedastheRoyalChitwanNationalParkin1973.Afterestablishingas
theNationalParkHMGofNepalhasformulatedanactnamedRoyalChitwan
NationalParkAct2030in1973.ItisthefirstNationalParkofNepalhas
establishedfornaturalconservationbythegovernment.
ThisParkissituatedinthesubtropicalinnerTarailowlandsofSouth
CentreofNepal.Theparkhasroughlyextended100kmlongand40km.wide
fromeasttowestandnorthtosouthrespectively.Thecoveringareaofthe
parkhaswidelyextendedthrough544sq.km.to932sq.km.in1977(2033/34
B.S.).Thisistheareaoftheparkexcluding750sq.km.bufferzone,which
hasaddedin1996.Iftheareaofbufferzoneisincludedwithinthepark,the
totalareagoestothe1682sq.km.whichisthe6.24%ofthetotallandofthe
NationalParkandWildlifeReservesofNepal.ThisParkisextendedwithin
fourdistrictsi.e.Chitwan,Makawanpur,ParsaandNawalparasiofNarayani
andLumbinizones.ThenameoftheparkhaschangedasChitwanNational
Park from Royal Chitwan National Park after the public movement 2006
(2062/63).TheheadquarteroftheParkislocatedinKasarainsidethePark,
whichisabout165km.forfromKathmaduthecapitalcityofNepal.
Therearevariousconservationandpreservationprogramfunctioning
inside the park today. With the help of Frankfort Zoological Society the

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Ghadiyal Conservation Project has started and which established Ghadiyal

BreedingCentreinKasarain1978(2034/35)insidethepark.Thecentrehas
begunfunctioningfrom1981.Likewise,theElephantBreedingCentrehas
established in Khorasora in 1987 (2043/44 B.S.). As well as the vulture
breedingcentrehasestablishedhereinKasaraveryrecentlyin2008(Tripathi,
2008: 1). In 1983/84 this park has enlisted as a world Heritage Site of
UNESCO.SimilarlyIUCNhasclassifiedthisparkinsecondcategory.
MajorAttractionsinsidethePark
500 Asiatic one horned

Bird Watching, Machan

rhinoceros

NightProgram,Junglewalk.

100RoyalBengalTigers
600 plants and 526 birds
species
Different types and various
numberofreptiles
120speciesoffishes.
Ghadial Breeding Centre of
Kasara
Vulture Breeding Centre of
Kasara(establishedin2008).
ElephantBreedingCentrein
Khorasora established in
2043/44.
River activities in Narayani,
RaptiandReuRiver.

89

2.2.CommunityForest
Community forest is another tourism asset of Sauraha Chitwan.
There are three community forests known as Baghamara Community
Forest, Jankauli Community Forest and Kumoroj Community Forest.
Amongthree,firsttwoarelieinBachhauliandremainingthirdoneliesin
KumroseVDC.TheBaghamaraC.F.islocatedatwardno.1andextends
uptowardno.4.Thesecondi.e.JankauliCFislocatedatwardNo.5to
9.Thethirdonei.e.kumrojCFislocatedinKumrojVDC.
In October 1996, tourism was introduced in Baghamara
CommunityforestasjunglewalkandelephantrideintheNationalPark
wasindemandbyquitealotoftourists.Totaketheprivateelephantsin
BaghamaraCF,theownerhavetopayadepositofNRs.15,000/inthe
beginning.ThetouristsaregenerallysenttoBaghamaraandJanakauliCF
forelephantride.InordertogotoKumorojCFonehastogoviaJankauli
forest.
2.3

BufferZone
BufferZoneisanadjoiningareaofChitwanNationalPark,which

isconsideredothertourismassetsofthedestination.Thegovernmentof
Nepalhasestablishedbufferzonein1996.Theareaiscovered35VDC
as well as Bharatpur and Ratnagar two municipalities. The total area
whichiscoveredbythebufferzoneisabout75000hectors.Aslikethe
areaisextendedin750squark.m.Theheadquaterofthebufferzonelies
inKasarainsidetheChitwanNationalPark.
2.4

TharuCulture
TharucultureisoneoftheimportanttourismassetsofSauraha.

TharusarethemainindigenousethnicgroupsofSauraha.Tharuhave
their own unique culture and tradition, which makes them differ than

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other ethnic groups. They have various traditional festivals in their

community. Among them 'Fagu' (festival of Colors), 'Jitiya (Festing
ceremony) and 'Soharai' are very popular in the Tharu community of
Sauraha Chitwan. Twice a year, the people of Sauraha perform two
ritualsintheirvillageshrinecalled'baramthani'theyare'esaribaran'and
'leuribarana'.TheseritualsareobservedinJulyandOctoberrespectively.
Whichareperformedbythevillagepriestcalled'gurau'.TheTharuof
Chitwan has their own traditional different types of equipments and
utensils.ButalmostthematerialcultureofSaurahaisalreadyreplacedby
themodernmaterials.Thisdaytheirtraditionalmaterialsandthepictures
ofthelifecanonlybeobservedintothemuseum,whichislocatedin
BachhauliVDC2Saruahavillage.
2.5.

TharuCulturalProgram
TharuCulturalprogramisconsideredanothersignificantproduct

of Sauraha Among the various cultural assets of Tharus in Sauraha

traditional dance is important one. From 1998 on ward, after the
translocation of the Tharus of Bhakatha, two goups from Patra and
DorangivillageshavestartedgivingculturalprogramsinSauraha.Since
theprogramwasintroducedatculturalhousein1998,majorityofthe
guides andhotel managers feelitconveninent totake their individual
guestsatthecentre.AsforastheTharuculturalprogramisconcerned,
amongthedifferentitemsofdancesthefirst'bhajeti'inwhichtheyplay
withlargesticks,thesecond'dhampu'whichisplayedontheoccasionof
'fagui'festival,thethird'thekara'isplayedonsameoccasion,theforth
itemis'thili'aretheimportanceitemsoftheirtraditionaldances.
2.6.

TharuCulturalMuseum

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Tharu cultural museum is another important tourism product of

SaurahaVillage.ItislocatedatSaurahavillageofBachhauliVDCward
no2.Themuseumwasestablishedin2005A.D.withthefinancialand
technical support form National Trust for Natural Conservation, Bio
diversity Conservation Center (NTNC / BCC) under the Tiger Rhino
Conservation Project, founded by UNDP/ GEF. The construction of
TharuculturalmuseumisacollaborativeeffortbetweenNTNC/BCC,
Chitwan National Park, Mrigakunja Buffer Zone, Management
Committee,HariyaliYouthClub,BufferZoneUserCommittees,andthe
localcommunity
TheTharuculturalmuseumofferstovisitoraglimpseofTharu
Cultureandtraditionstheyperformedthatarequicklydisapperingintheir
community.Themuseumharborsamosaicofculturaltraditionsofthe
Tharupeopleduringthethreeperiodi.e;Premartial,maritalandPost
martialoftheirlifecycle.Itoffersvisitorsauniqueopportunitytoview
existent Tharu Community along the way to the museum, where the
museum showcases culture and traditions as a replica. The museum
containswealthinformationregardingtheTharucultureandtraditions
thataredepictedinpaintingsanddisplaymaterialsthatareshowcasedin
themuseum.Itpresentsagriculturalpractices,variousritualsperformed
by the community during their lifecycle accompanied by displays
antiquates,equipmentinstrumentandsoon.
The museum is always open 8.00 am to 5.30. Pm in everyday. The
museumismanaged3categoriesofitsentrancefeesforthevisitors.In
thisrespect,NepalesevisitorshouldpayonlyRs.5/andSAARCand
othercountriesshouldpay10&15Nrsfortheirentrancerespectively.

92

SimilarlythevisitorswhoholdstheStillCamerathoseshouldpayextra
15NrsfortheirCamera.
2.7.

Villagetour
VillagetouristheimportantassetsoftourisminSauraha.From

Sauraha village to Churia hill, Kasara, Khagendraman, Badremi (a

famous spot for rhino) trekking can be carried on enjoing with wild
animals.Villagetourismadebybullockcartoronfoot.Thetourcovers
most of the villages of Bachhauli VDC and Patna, Marchauli and
DhindauliofPadamprVDC.Incourseofthevillagetourprogram,the
guidestakethetouriststoodra,Malpur,Badreni,Bachhauli,Saurahaand
Darangi villages inhabited by the Tharus, Gurung, Tamangs, Botes,
Danuwars,Magar,DhobisBahunChhetrisandDamais.Besidesitsthe
destination offers bird watching, elephant ride, jungle drive or safari,
bullock cart ride,sunset view, elephantbreeding centretour,elephant
stable tour,jungle walk, night walk, tower night,swimming program,
meditation program, Machan night program, Bicycle visit to 20,000
lakes,Canoestripetctothevisitors.
Like as, in tourism activity night trekking and walking is
considerateanalternativeformofbusiness.Campfire,singing,dancing,
trekking,nightdrinksandsoonallthesetypesofactivitiesaredonewith
togetherbythehostsandguestsinthisformoftourism.Nighttrekkingor
walkingisanalternativeconceptbecauseittirestousethenighthoursfor
business purpose of the local people. It is believed that this type of
activitiescanhelpearningmoreforstakeholdersandprolongsthevisitors
stay. The objective of this type of tourism is to attract more foreign
touristsintheparticulardestination.

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2.7

TourismFestivals(ParayatanMahotsav)
TourismFestivalsorParyatanMahotsavisanotherproductofthe

site,whichcanplaytheimportantroletopromotethetourismbusinessin
thecountry.Thesetypesoffestivalsalsohelptoimprovethesocialand
economicstatusofthelocalpeoples,whichhandtohandprogram,been
celebrating since last five years targeting both the domestic and
internationaltourists.OnbehalfofNepalTourismBoardanditshandto
handprogramwithlocalcommunitiestotakeinitiationtoorganizesuch
typesoffestivalsandrequestNTBtohelpthem.Actuallyitsopportunity
toexposewhatadestinationpossess,whatpeculiaritieshaveandhow
they can be further pushed up. Since last five years various tourism
festivals like elephant polo, International elephant racing competition,
Tharuculturalfestival,SaurahaMahotsav2060,StreetFestival,Sauraha
Food Festival, Christmas Festival, New Year Festival have been
celebratinginSaurahaChitwancontinuously.
3.

Conclusion

Sauraha a village of Bachchauli VDC located adjoining area of the

Chitwan National Park. Tourist activities have started in Chitwan since
1964 with a few hundred tourists per year. The available data have
informed that, the Chitwan National Park is the third most important
destination to tourists visiting Nepal. There are so many places and
activities in Sauraha which are quietly concerned to tourism. Among
them, Jungle safari, Elephant safari, Jungle drive, Village tour, Tharu
culutural program, Tharu cultural museum, bullock cart ride, sunset view,
water activities, elephant Breeding centre, crocodile breeding centre,
vulture breeding centre and so on are highly realized important tourism
product of Sauraha of Chitwan. Thus Sauraha village, Chitwan, is
94

definitely one of the very important and exotic tourist destinations of

Nepal.

Therefore Sauraha of Chitwan is compared with the Thamel of

Kathmandu, the lakeside of Pokhara and Goa of India today.

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95

Case study of ethnic groups

Tharus (see the class notes and the book entitled people of
Nepal of D.B. Bista as well)
Magars (see the class notes and the book entitled People of
Nepal of D.B. Bista as well)
Sherpas (see the class notes and the book entitled Fire of Himal
of R.R.Kunwar as well)
Newars (see the class notes and the book entitled The Newars
of G.P. Nepali as well)

96