UNIT-IV:

FUEL TECHNOLOGY:
Introduction to Liquid Fuels-Classification of Crude Oil-Fractional DistillationCracking (Thermal &Catalytic), Synthetic Petrol (Fischer-Tropschs & Bergius
Process) - Polymerization-Refining &Reforming Knocking Anti Knocking
Agents-Octane & Cetane Number.
LUBRICANTS:
Principle and functions of lubricants Types of lubrication and mechanism
Thick film or Hydrodynamic lubrication, Thin film lubrication, extreme
pressure lubrication. Classification and properties of lubricants Viscosity,
flash and fire points, cloud and pour points, aniline points, neutralization
number and mechanical strength.
INTRODUCTION TO LIQUID FUELS:
Petroleum or crude oil (petro=rock; ileum=oil) is a dark greenish brown viscous
oil found in earths crust. It is composed of straight chain hydrocarbons, cycloparaffins or naphthalenes, olefins and aromatic compounds together with small
amount of nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.
The average composition is C=79.5 to 87.1 %; H=11.5to 14.8%, S=0.1 to 3.5%;
N+O=0.5%.
CLASSIFICATION OF PETROLEUM OR CRUDE OIL:
1. Paraffinic-base type crude is mainly consisting of saturated hydrocarbons from
C1-C35 and a little of naphthalenes and aromatics.
2. Asphaltic-base type crude is mainly cyclo paraffins with smaller amounts of
paraffins and aromatics.
3. Mixed- base type crude mainly contains both paraffinic and asphaltic
hydrocarbons and also semi-solid waxes.
REFINING OF PETROLEUM:
The crude oil is separated into various useful fractions by fractional distillation and
finally converted into desired specific products. This process is called Refining of
Petroleum. This process involves three steps,
Step-1: Separation of water (Cottrells
process): The crude oil from the oil well is an
extremely stable emulsion of oil and salt water.
This is passed through highly charged
electrodes. The Colloidal water droplets
coalesce to form large drops, which separate
out from the oil.
Step-2: Removal of harmful sulphur
compounds: this involves treating of oil with
copper oxide to form insoluble solid copper
sulphide, which is removed by filtration.
Step-3: Fractional distillation: The Petroleum
oil is then heated to about 400 0C in an Iron
retort, where by all volatile constituents, except
the residue (asphalt or coke) is evaporated. The

hot vapors are then passed up a fractionating Column which is a tall cylindrical
tower containing a number of horizontal stainless steel trays at short distance. Each
tray is provided with a small chimney covered with loose caps. As the vapors go up,
they become gradually cooler and fractional condensation takes place at different
heights of column. Higher boiling fraction condenses first; while the lower boiling
fractions turn-by-turn. Various fractional products are obtained as follows;

Name of fraction

Boiling rangeComposition

Uses

Below 30 0C

C1- C4

As domestic or
industrial fuel (L.P.G)

30-70 0C

C5-C7

As a solvent

40-120 0C

C5-C9

As motor fuel, solvent

Naphtha

120-180 0C

C9-C10

As solvent and in dry

cleaning

Kerosene oil

180-250 0C

C10-C16

As an illuminant, jet
engine fuel

Diesel oil

250-320 0C

C10-C18

As diesel engine fuel

Heavy oil

320-400 0C

C17-C30

For getting gasoline by

cracking process

Uncondensed gas.
Petroleum ether
Gasoline or Petrol

Heavy oil on
refractionation gives:

As lubricant.

(a)Lubricating oil

Used in cosmetics and

medicine.

(b)Petroleum jelly

As a lubricant

Or Vaseline

In candles & boot

polishes.

(c)Grease
(d) Paraffinic wax
Residue
Asphalt

Above 400 0C

Water proofing and road

making

Above C30

Tar
CRACKING:
Cracking is defined as the decomposition of higher hydrocarbon molecules in to
simpler low boiling hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight.
Decane (C10H22)

pentane (C5H12) + Pentene (C5H10)

(B. p = 174 0C)

(B. p. = 36 0C

Cracking is usually takes place to cracks the Heavy oil to form Petrol or gasoline of
high quality and good yield than straight-chain petrol .There are two methods of
cracking.
(1)

THERMAL CRACKING: The heavy oil is subjected at high temperatures and

pressure then the bigger hydrocarbon molecules break down to give smaller
molecules of the paraffins and olefins and hydrogen. This can be done by

(a)

LIQUID PHASE THERMAL CRACKING: The heavy oil is cracked at a

temperature of 475-530 0C and pressure of 100 kg/cm2. The cracked products
are then separated in a fractionating column.The yield is 50-60%

(b)

VAPOR-PHASE THERMAL CRACKING: The cracking oil is first vaporized and

then cracked at about 600-650 0C and a lower pressure of 10 kg/cm2 and this
process is suitable for those oils are vaporized.

(2)

CATALYTIC CRACKING: The quality and yield of gasoline produced by

cracking can be greatly improved by using a suitable catalyst like aluminum
silicate or silicate. There are two methods of catalytically cracking

(a)
FIXED BED CATALYTIC CRACKING: The oil vapors are heated in a preheater
to cracking temperatures and then forced through a catalyst chamber (clay mixed with
zirconium oxide) maintained at 425-460 0C and low pressure. The cracking takes
place and formation of gasoline and 2-4% carbon is formed and is observed by catalyst
bed. The vapors produced are then passed through a fractionating column, where

heavy oil fractions condense. The vapors are then passed through a cooler some gases
are condensed along with gasoline and uncondensed gases are move on. The gasoline
containing gases are passed through a stabilizer where dissolved gases separate out
and pure gasoline is obtained. The catalyst after 8-10 hours stops functioning due to
deposition of carbon black; this is reactivated by burning off deposited carbon.
SYNTHETIC METHODS FOR PRODUCTION OF PETROL:
POLYMERIZATION:
The gases obtained as a by-product from cracking of heavy oils, contains olefins and
alkanes. When this gaseous mixture is subjected to high pressure and temperature,
with or without the presence of catalyst, it polymerizes to form higher hydrocarbons,
resembling gasoline, called polymer gasoline.
CH3.CH=CH2

CH3.CH2.CH=CH2

CH2=CHCH2. CH2. CH (CH3)2

Propene

Butene

5-methyl hexane-1

The polymerization is of two methods:

(a)

THERMAL POLYMERIZATION: It is carried out at 500-600 0C and 70-100

kg/cm2 is employed. The product is gasoline and gas oil mixture, which is
separated by fractionation.

(b)

CATALYTIC POLYMERIZATION: It is carried out in presence of catalyst like

phosphoric acid. In this case lower temperature of 100 - 200 0C is employed.
Products are gasoline and unpolymerised gas. This can be done by two ways.

1.

FISCHERTROPSCHS PROCESS:

Water gas (CO+H2) is mixed with hydrogen. It is purified by passing through

Fe2O3 and then in to a mixture of Fe2O3 + Na2CO3 to remove organic sulphur
compounds. The purified gas is compressed to 5- 25 atmospheres. The compressed
gas is lead through convertor containing mixture of 100 parts of cobalt, 5 parts of
thoria, 8 parts of magnesia and 200 parts of kiesel guhar earth maintained at about
200- 3000c. A mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons is formed.
n CO + 2n+1 H2

Cn H2n+2(saturated hydro carbon) + n H2O

n CO + 2n H2

Cn H2n (unsaturated hydro carbon) + n H 2O

2. BERGIUS PROCESS:
In this process, low ash coal pulverized to fine powder is converted into a paste with
heavy oil and a catalyst nickel oleate is mixed with it. This mixture is sent to the
convertor maintained at 3500c and a pressure of 200-250 atmospheres, where it meets
the hydrogen gas. The hydrogen combines with carbon of the coal giving various
hydrocarbons from heavy oil to gasoline. Reaction carried for one hour.

The gases coming out of the convertor are passed into fractionators to get gasoline,
middle oil and heavy oil. The middle oil is subjected to hydrogenation in presence of
catalyst to produce gasoline. The heavy oil fraction is recycled to male paste with fresh
coal powder.
REFINING OF GASOLINE:
The gasoline obtained either by fractional distillation or synthesis contains
undesirable unsaturated straight-chain hydrocarbons and sulphur compounds. In
order to remove these, a process called refining is followed.
(a) The sulphur compounds are removed by treating gasoline with an alkaline
solution of sodium plum bite with controlled addition of sulphur. This process
is called sweetening and converts sulphur into disulphides. The lead sulphide is
removed by filtration and the disulphide is extracted with a suitable solvent.
2 RSH +Na2PbO2
Pb (SR)2

Pb (SR)2 +

PbS
+
Lead sulphide

2 NaoH
RSSR
disulphide

(b) Olefins and coloring matter of gasoline are removed by fullers earth, which
absorbs the olefins and coloring matter.
(c) After the refining add some inhibitors to retard the oxidation reactions to
improve quality of gasoline.
KNOCKING AND ANTI KNOCKING:
The ratio of the gaseous volume in the cylinder at the end of the suction stroke (intake
stroke) to the volume at the end of the compression stroke of the piston is known as
compression ratio. If the compression ratio is high then the efficiency of the internal
combustion engine is high. When the compression ratio is very high, the rate of
oxidation becomes so great that the last portion of the fuel air mixture gets ignited
instantaneously, producing an explosive violence, known as knocking. The knocking
results in loss of efficiency.
The tendency of fuel constituents to knock is:
Straight-chain paraffins > branched-chain paraffins > olefins > cyclo paraffins>
aromatics.
OCTANE RATING or OCTANE NUMBER:

It was introduced by Edger in 1872. It has been found that n-heptanes knocks very
badly and hence its anti-knock value has arbitrarily been given zero. On the other
hand, isooctane (2, 2, 4- tri methyl pentane) gives very little knocking, so its anti
knock value has been given as 100. Thus octane number of a gasoline (or any other
internal combustion engine fuel) is the percentage of isooctane in a mixture of
isooctane and n-heptanes, which matches the fuel under test in knocking
characteristics. It means, a 80-octane fuel is one which has the same combustion
characteristics as an 80:20 mixture of iso-octane and n-heptanes.
ANTI-KNOCKING AGENTS:
The octane number of fuels can be raised by the addition of some anti-knocking
materials like tetra ethyl lead, (C2H5)4Pb or TEL and diethyl telluride, (C2H5)2Te. During
combustion, the added tetra ethyl lead is converted into lead oxide (PbO). They
combine with hydrocarbons producing free radicals which slow down the explosive
combustion. Thus the anti-knocking characteristics of the fuel are considerably
increased. The lead oxide after combustion is reduced to metallic lead and is harmful
to engine life, therefore a small amount of ethylene dibromide, C 2H4Br2 is added to
convert lead into lead bromide and remove it along with the exhaust gases. Recently
new anti-knock agents which are safe and completely volatile are used rather than
TEL.
CETANE NUMBER:
In a diesel engine, the fuel is not ignited by a spark but the compression of air
increases the pressure and temperature and the incoming fuel should ignite below
compression temperature to have as short an induction lag as possible. This means
that the hydrocarbon molecules in a diesel fuel should be as far as possible the
straight chain ones with minimum admixture of aromatic and side chain
hydrocarbon molecules.
The suitability of a diesel fuel is determined by its cetane value, which is the
percentage of hexadecane (cetane) in a mixture of hexadecane and 2-methyl
naphthalene, which has the same ignition characteristics as the diesel fuel in
question. The cetane number of a diesel fuel can be raised by the addition of small
quantity of certain pre-ignition dopes like ethyl nitrite, isoamyl nitrite, acetone
peroxide etc.
2-Methyl naphthalene (Cetane No. = 0)
n-Hexadecane (Cetane No. = 100)
Ignition quality order among hydrocarbon constituents of a diesel fuel is as follows:
n-alkanes naphthalenes alkenes branched alkanes aromatics
Thus, hydrocarbons which are poor gasoline fuels are quite good diesel fuels.
PRINCIPLE OF LUBRICATION:
All material surfaces, no matter how smooth they are, show many irregularities in the
form of peaks (or asperities) and valleys, which are large when considered on a
molecular scale (see figure below). When two solid surfaces are pressed over each
other a real contact between these surfaces occurs only at a limited number of
asperities i.e. peaks of the upper surface are in contact with peaks of the lower
surface.
Even under small loads, the local pressure at the asperities may be sufficiently
great to cause appreciable deformation in ductile metals. This causes the formation of
welded junctions between the asperities. It is these junction areas that carry the entire
load between the two surfaces. Thus the real or true area of contact is only a small
fraction of the apparent contact area between the two surfaces.

In all type of machines, the surfaces of moving (or) sliding (or) rolling parts rub
against each other. Due to mutual rubbing of one part against another, a resistance is
offered to their moment. This resistance is known as friction. Friction causes a lot of
wear and tear of surfaces of moving parts, and large amounts of energy are dissipated
in the form of heat, thereby causing loss in the efficiency of machine. Moreover, the
moving parts get heated up damaged and even some times results in seizure (welding
of melted surface peaks).
Any substance introduced between two moving/sliding surfaces with a view
to reduce the frictional resistance between them is known as a lubricant. This process
is called as lubrication.
FUNCTIONS OF LUBRICANT:
1.
It reduces surface deformation, wear and tear
2.
Reduces loss of energy in the form of heat
3.
Acts as a coolant.
4.
Reduces waste of energy, so efficiency of machine is enhanced.
5.
Reduces expansion of metal by local frictional heat.
6.
Reduces the maintenance and running cost of the machine.
7.
Avoids the unsmooth relative motion of the moving parts.
8.
In the ICE (Internal Combustion Engine) it acts as a seal (between piston and
cylinder)
And also prevent the leakage of gases under high pressure from the cylinder.
MECHANISM OF LUBRICATION:
There are mainly three types of mechanism by which lubrication is done.
1. Thick-film or Fluid- film or hydrodynamic lubrication.
2. Thin film or Boundary lubrication.
3. Extreme pressure lubrication.
1. THICK FILM OR FLUID FILM OR HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION:
For low load and high speed surfaces, thick film lubrication is used
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

In this, the moving surfaces are separated from each other by a thick film of
fluid (at least 1000 thick), so that direct surface to surface contact and
welding of junctions rarely occurs.
The lubricant film covers the irregularities of the moving surfaces and forms a
thick layer in between them. This consequently reduces wear.
The small friction (if any) occurs is only due to internal resistance between the
particles of the lubricant moving over each other.
In such a system friction depends on the thickness and viscosity of the
lubricant, the relative velocity and area of the moving surfaces.
The coefficient of friction is as low as 0.001 to 0.03 for fluid film lubricant
system.
Hydrodynamic friction occurs in the case of shaft running at a fair speed as well
as in well lubricant bearings, with not too high loads.
In a journal bearing a film of the lubricating oil covers the irregularities of shaft
as well as bearing surface and also the metal surfaces do not come into direct
contact with each other.

Eg. Delicate instruments, watches, guns, scientific instruments etc. are provided with
this type of Lubrication.
(h)
Fluid film lubrication is satisfactorily done by hydrocarbon oils.
(i)
Hydrocarbon oils are generally blended with selected long chain polymers in
order to maintain the viscosity of oil constant in all reasons of year.

(j)

Moreover hydrocarbon petroleum fractions generally contain small quantities of

unsaturated hydrocarbons, which get oxidized under operating conditions
forming gummy products. Hence it is essential that antioxidants (like amino
phenols) to be blended with hydrocarbon oils.

2.

THIN FILM OR BOUNDARY LUBRICATION:

When a continuous film of lubricant cannot be maintained in the moving
machine surfaces due to certain reasons like high load and low speed, then a thin
film lubrication process is applied.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

In this mechanism, a thin layer of lubricant is adsorbed on the metallic

surfaces which avoid direct metal to metal contact.
In this process the lubricant is adsorbed by physical (or) chemical forces (or)
both, on both the metallic surfaces.
In boundary lubrication, the distance between moving surface is very small of
the order of the height of the surface asperities.
The coefficient of friction for thin film lubrication is between 0.05 to 0.15.
Vegetable & animal oils and their soaps possess a property of adsorption and
form a thin film on metal surfaces which acts as a lubricant. However it cannot
withstand high temperatures.
Hence mineral oils (which are thermally stable) are blended with small amounts
of fatty oils or fatty acids so that they can get adsorbed and also withstand high
temperatures.
Graphite and Molybdenum disulphid either as solid (or) as stable emulsion in
oil can also be used as an efficient lubricant in thin film lubrication. These
materials reduce friction between metallic surfaces by forming films on the
surfaces and they can bear compression as well as high temperature.

For boundary lubrication the lubricant molecule should have,

(a) Long hydrocarbon chains
(b) Lateral attraction between chains.
(c) Polar groups or active metal atoms to promote spreading over the surface.
(d) Resistance to heat and oxidation.
(e) Good oiliness
EXTREME PRESSURE LUBRICATION:
(a)
When the moving / sliding surfaces are under very high pressure and speed, a
high local temperature is attained.
(b)
In such a condition liquid lubricants fail to stick on the surfaces, and may
decompose (or) vaporize.
(c)
To meet these extreme pressure conditions special additives are added to
mineral oils. These are called extreme pressure additives.

(d)

These additives form on metal surfaces more durable films, capable of

withstanding very high loads and high temperatures.
(e)
The special additives are organic compounds having active radicals (or) groups
such as chlorine, sulphur or phosphorous.
(f)
These compounds react with metallic surfaces at prevailing high temperatures,
to form metallic Chlorides, sulphide or phosphides.
(g)
These metallic compounds possess high melting points and serves as a good
lubricant under extreme pressure and temperature conditions.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF LUBRICANTS:
On the basis of their physical state lubricants cab be broadly classified as (a) Liquid
lubricants - lubricating oils (b) Semi solid lubricants - Greases and (c) Solid lubricants
(a) LIQUID LUBRICANTS (OR) LUBRICATING OILS:
It provides a continuous fluid film in between the moving surfaces. Good lubricating
oil must possess low pressure (high boiling point), adequate viscosity at service
conditions, low freezing point, high oxidation resistance, heat stability, non corrosive
property and stability. Lubricating oils are further classified as
(i)
Animal or vegetable oils
(ii)
Mineral or petroleum oils
(iii)
Blended oils
i. Animal or vegetable oils: Before discovering the petroleum fractions, animal (or)
vegetable oils are the most commonly used lubricants. They possess good oiliness. But
they are costly, undergo oxidation easily, forming gummy and acidic products & have
some tendency to hydrolyze. So at present they are rarely used as lubricants. Now a
days the animal or vegetable oils are used as blending agent with other lubricating oils
ii. Mineral (or) Petroleum oils: These are obtained by distillation of petroleum
(hydrocarbons). Hydrocarbon chain in petroleum oils varies between12 to 50 carbon
atoms. The shorter chain oils have lower viscosity than the longer chain hydrocarbons.
Now a days these are widely as lubricants because cheap, easily available, and quite
stable under service conditions. Compared to animal or vegetable oils, mineral oil
possesses poor oiliness. Its oiliness can be increased by adding high molecular weight
compounds like oleic acid, stearic acid etc.
iii. Blended oils: Desirable characteristics of lubricating oils can be improved by
adding small quantities of various additives. The oils thus obtained are known as
blended oils or compounded oils. The following additives are employed.
Examples
Additive type
Purpose and function
(Added additives)
Oiliness
Increases the oiliness character of a
Vegetable and fatty
carriers
lubricating oil
acids, coconut oil,
palmitic acid, oleic acid
etc
Antioxidant
Retard oxidative decomposition, they are
Aromatic amines,
particularly added in lubricants used in
Phenolic (or) amino
ICE engines
compounds
Corrosion
They protect the metal from corrosion
Organic Compounds of
preventers
Phosphorous (or)
Antimony
Extreme
These additives contain certain
Organic substance with
pressure
materials, which are adsorbed on the
chloride, sulphur (or)
additives
metal surface (or) react With chemically
Phosphorous group
with metal, producing a surface layer of
low shear strength on metal surface,

b) SEMI SOLID LUBRICANT (OR) GREASES:

Lubricating grease is a semi solid. It consists of a soap being dispersed throughout
liquid lubricating oil [liquid lubricant may be petroleum oil (or) synthetic oil and it
contain additives for specific requirements]. Greases are prepared by saponification of
fat with alkali, followed by adding hot lubricating oil while under agitation. The soap
component forms the gel structure (interconnected network) within which the oil
component resides.
To improve the heat resistance of grease inorganic solid thickening agents are
added. Ex: - carbon black, colloidal silica etc. Greases have higher frictional resistance
than oils and can support much heavier loads at lower speeds. Greases are used
where the lubricating oil cannot serve as a lubricating film due to high load, low
speed, sudden jerks etc. (Ex: - rail axle boxes)
The main function of soap is thickening agent so that grease sticks firmly to the
In bearing and gears that work at high temperatures where the bearings need to be
sealed (The above cases arising in any type machines generally greases are used as a
lubricant), greases stick firmly to the metal surfaces due to the thickening agent of
soap. Depending upon the soap component used in the manufacture of grease, they
are classified as follows:
(i) Calcium based greases (or) cup Greases: It is an emulsion of petroleum oils with
calcium soaps. It is prepared by adding requisite amount of calcium hydroxide to hot
oil, under agitation. These greases are most commonly used, cheap, insoluble in water
(so water resistant) and can be used below 800 C only.
(ii) Soda based greases: These are petroleum oils, thickened by mixing sodium soaps.
They are not water resistant, because sodium soaps are soluble in water. However
they withstand up to 175 0C. Suitable for lubricants in ball bearings.
(iii) Lithium based greases: These are petroleum oils, thickened by mixing lithium
soaps. They are water resistant and suitable for use at low temperatures [up to 15 0C]
only.
(iv) Axle greases: They are very cheap resin greases, prepared by adding lime (or any
heavy metal hydroxide) to resin and fatty oils. Fillers (like mica and talc) are also
added to the. They are water resistant and suitable for less delicate equipments
working under high loads and at low speeds.
c). SOLID LUBRICANTS:
1.
For high load and high velocity of moving parts where liquid and semi-solid
lubricants are not suitable and efficient, the solid lubricants are preferably
used.
2.
Solid lubricants reduce friction by separating two moving surfaces under
boundary conditions. They are used either in the dry powder form (or) mixed
with oil or water.
3.
Low spots on the surface of moving parts are filled by these lubricants, which
form solid films having low frictional resistance.
4.
The usual coefficient of friction of solid lubricants is between 0.005 and 0.01.
5.
Solid lubricants find application in commuter buses, electric generators and
motors, where contamination of grease or lubricating oil is unacceptable.
6.
In internal combustion engines (ICEs) between the piston and cylinder for
increasing compression (combustible lubricants must be avoided).
The two most commonly used solid lubricants are Graphite and Molybdenum
disulphide.

Graphite:
(i)
It is one of the most widely used solid lubricants. It is (i) soapy to touch (ii) Non
inflammable (ii) Not oxidized in air below 375 0 C (iv) In the absence of air, it is
used up to high temperature.
(ii)
Graphite is used either in powdered form or suspension (in oil or waterwith
help of emulsifying agent like tannin).
(iii)
When graphite is dispersed in oil, it is called oil dag and when it is dispersed in
water it is called aquadag. Oil dag is found particularly useful in Internal
Combustion Engines while aquadag is useful where a lubricant free from oil is
needed.
(iv)
Graphite is used as a solid lubricant at General machine shop works, Railway
track joints, Lathe machines tec.
Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2):
(a) It possess very low coefficient of friction
(b) Stable in air up to 400 0C
(c) It is used in powder form (or) along with solvents and greases
PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS:
Some of the properties of lubricating oils are
(a) Viscosity
(d) Cloud and pour point
(b) Flash and fire point
(e) Aniline point
(c) Mechanical stability
(f) Neutralization number
VISCOSITY:
It is the property of a liquid or fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to its own
flow. The force per unit area required to maintain a unit velocity gradient between two
parallel layers is called coefficient of viscosity. The unit of viscosity is Poise. Viscosity
is the most important property of lubricating oil, because it is the main determinant of
the operating characteristics of the lubricant. Viscosity of good lubricating oil should
not change much with change in temperature.
MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY OF LUBRICATING OIL:
Many Instruments are available for measuring viscosity and are known as
viscometers. In a viscometer fixed volume of the liquid is allowed to flow, from a given
height, through a standard capillary tube under its own weight and the time of flow in
seconds is noted. The time in seconds is proportional to true viscosity.
Redwood viscometers (No.1 and No. 2) and Say bolt viscometers are used for
measuring the viscosity of lubricating oil. The essential difference between the two is

Dimensions Red wood-1

of orifice
Length 10mm
Diameter1.62mm
Useful for
Low viscous
oil

Red wood-2
15mm
3.8mm
Higher
viscous oil

Red wood viscometer No.1 consists of the following essential parts

(a) Oil cup (b) heating bath
(c) spirit level
(d)Kohlrausch flask and
(e) leveling screws
Through Redwood viscometer, the viscosity is estimated by the following manner.
1.
The leveled oil cup is cleaned and ball of valve rod is placed on the agate Jet to
close it.
2.
The tested lubricating oil is filled in the cup up to the pointer level.
3.
An empty-Kohlraush flask is kept just below the jet
4.
Water is filled in the bath and side tube is heated slowly with constant stirring
5.
When the oil reaches to desired temperature heating is stopped and the ball
valve is lifted.
6.
The time taken for 50 ml of the oil to collect in the flask is noted and
immediately the valve
Is closed to prevent any over flow of the oil.
7. The result is expressed in Red wood No.1 seconds at the particular temperature.
FLASH AND FIRE POINT:
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which the oil lubricant gives off enough
vapors that ignite for a moment, when a tiny flame is brought near it. Fire Point is the
lowest temperature at which the vapors of the oil burn continuously for at least five
seconds, when a tiny flame is brought near it.
A good lubricant should have flash point at least above the temperature at which it
is to be used. The flash and fire points are usually determined by using Clevelands
open cup or Penskey Martens closed cup apparatus. The apparatus consists of (a)
an oil cup (b) shutter (c) flame exposure device (d) air bath and (e) pilot burner.
Working: The lubricating oil to be tested is
filled up to the mark in the oil cup and
then heated by heating the air bath by a
burner. Stirrer is worked between tests at
a rate about 1 to 2 revolutions per second.
Heat is applied so as to raise the oil
temperature by about 50C per minute. At
every 10C rise of temperature test flame is
introduced for a moment by working the
shutter. The temperature at which a
combination of weak sound and light
appears inside the cup is recorded as the
flash point. The heating is continued and
the test flame is applied as before. When
the oil ignites and continues to burn for at
least 5 seconds, the temperature reading is recorded as the fire of the oil.

CLOUD AND POUR POINT:

When oil is cooled slowly, the temperature at
which it becomes cloudy in appearance is
called its cloud point. The temperature at
which the oil ceases to flow or pour is called it
pour point. Cloud & pour points indicate the
suitability of lubricant in cold conditions. For
machine working at low temperatures, the
lubricating oil should possess low pour point.
With the help of pour point apparatus easily
estimate the cloud and pour point of
lubricating oil.
In the flat bottom test tube the
lubricating oil is taken and it is surrounded by
an air jacket. The jacket is surrounded by a
freezing mixture ( CaCl 2 + ice) contained in a
Jar. A thermostat is introduced in the test tube. As cooling proceeds slowly through
air jacket and observe the lubricating oil in the test tube, at one of the temperature the
cloudiness is noticed, and it is recorded as the cloud point of the lubricating oil. After
this, cooling is continued and the status of the lubricating oil is observed after every 3
0C fall of temperature. The temperature at which oil does not flow in the test tube,
even when it is kept horizontal for 5 seconds is recorded as the pour point.
NEUTRALIZATION NUMBER (OR) ACID NUMBER:
It refers to determinations of acidic (or) basic constituents of oil. Acid number
(or) value is defined as the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free
acids in 1gram of the oil. Generally free acids are not present in lubricants .A
lubricating oil should possess acid value less than 0.1. Value greater than 0.1
indicates that the oil has been oxidized and the use of it internal combustion engine
may lead to corrosion of the parts.
ANILINE POINT:
It is defined as the minimum temperature at which equal volumes of aniline
and oil sample become homogeneous or attain equilibrium. Aromatic hydrocarbons
have a tendency to dissolve natural rubber and certain types of synthetic rubbers. So,
a low aromatic content in the lubricant is desirable when it is used in contact with
rubber sealings and pickings etc. Aniline point gives a rough estimate of aromatic
content in the oil.
The mixture of oil and aniline which is biphasic when the aromatic content is
low becomes homogeneous at certain temperature depending on the amount of
aromatic content. If the aromatic content is really high, it need very low temperatures
(or even room temperature) to become homogeneous. A higher aniline point means a
lower percentage of aromatic hydrocarbons and hence higher percentage of paraffinic
hydrocarbons.
Aniline point is determined by mixing equal volumes of oil and aniline in a test
tube and heating them till a homogeneous solution is obtained. Then it is cooled at a
controlled rate and the temperature at which the two phases (oil and aniline) separate
out is recorded as the aniline point.

MECHANICAL STABILITY:
To know the suitability of a
lubricant under conditions of very high
pressure, different mechanical tests are
carried out. One such test is four-ball
extreme-pressure lubrication test in
which the lubricant under test is poured
in a machine containing four balls. The
lower three balls is stationery while
upper ball is rotated. Load is gradually
increased and the balls are examined at
specific intervals for scale formation etc.
on them. If the lubricant is satisfactory it
will not form any scales otherwise the
heat generated may weld the balls and lead to scratches or scale formation. Thus, this
test enables us to determine the maximum load that can be carried safely by a
lubricant.