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Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS) 3 (1): 25-32

Scholarlink Research Institute Journals, 2012 (ISSN: 2141-7016)


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Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS) 3(1):25-32(ISSN: 2141-7016)

Evaluating the Baked Compressive Strength of Produced Sand


Cores Using Cassava Starch as Binder for the Casting of
Aluminium Alloy T-Joint Pipe
1

Opaluwa A. I and 2Oyetunji A

Foundry Engineering Department,


The Federal Polytechnic Idah, Kogi State Nigeria
2
Metallurgical & Materials Engineering Department,
The Federal University of Technology, Akure. Ondo State. Nigeria
Corresponding Author: Oyetunji A
___________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
Sand cores were produced using Ojolofe silica sand and cassava starch ( manihot esculenta crantz) as binder.
This was with the aim of determining their suitability for casting of intricate shapes. To achieve this, various
compositions of starch bonded sand cores were produced. Standard core samples were produced and tested for
green and baked compressive strength. The determination of green and baked compressive strengths was
carried out on a large number of cores containing 6 12% water and 4 12% cassava starch. Core baking was
carried out at temperature between 90 and 200oC for 60 150 minutes. From the results obtained, appropriate
baking conditions and optimum core mixtures were established for cassava starch bonded core. The major
results in the research showed that good cores can be produced using cassava starch as binder. Optimum core
mixture for this purpose was found to be that containing 10% starch and 10% water and at appropriate baking
temperature and time were 180oC and 2 hours respectively. The green compressive strength was 290 N/mm2
and that of baked compressive strength was 4122 N/mm2. The above properties were found to be adequate for
production of strong sand cores using cassava starch as binder for non - ferrous castings. This suitability was
proved by successfully production of a T joint pipe aluminium casting
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Keywords: compressive strength, cassava starch, core mixture, baked strength, green strength
__________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
cores if excessive foundry wastes and machine scraps
The foundry industry in Nigeria is developing so
were to be eliminated (Charles, 2004). Sand grains
there is need to develop appropriate moulding raw
cannot adhere to each other without the introduction
materials such as silica sand, clay, binders and
of binders that cause them to stick together and
additives for effective foundry practices. Before the
produce the cavity into which molten metal is
80s, all foundry works depended exclusively on
introduced (Brown, 1994). Clay is the generalimported raw materials including even the moulding
purpose binder for sand castings and a lot of work has
sand (Ihom et al, 2006). In sand casting operations,
been done in the area of developing suitable clays for
sand is used as a moulding material to form the
sand moulds. Binders are introduced into the
external shape of the cast component or as a core
moulding and core mixtures in order to improve their
material to create internal cavities in castings such as
properties especially the strength (Nwajagu, 1994).
engine blocks (Abdulwahab et al., 2008). When a
While clay has been found to be satisfactorily used as
casting is to be produced with through or dead-ended
a binder for moulding sands, it is largely
holes, cores are used to form these interior surfaces
unsatisfactory when used singly as a binder for core
(Asuquo and Bobojama, 1991) and are made of sand
production. Some of the common binders for core
particles bonded together to form an aggregate. Cores
making are vegetable oil, honey, soya beans, cotton
are generally made of core sand mixtures from sand
seed, ground nut, palm kernel, beniseed, cashew nut
grains and binders. A well formulated mixture gives
and castor oils (Colin, 2008). The use of cassava
good green strength and adequate cured strength to
starch for sand core production has not been
prevent premature collapse during usage.
extensively reported in the literature, and hence the
need to investigate its potential in this respect. Since
There is a great need to be familiar with the
cassava is a cheap source of abundant starch with
utilization, design and production of suitable cores
excellent bonding characteristics, cassava starch has
because cores are crucial to achieving efficient
therefore been chosen for the investigation. This
production of cast products with hollow cavities. In
work aimed at producing sand cores using cassava
fact there are no ways of doing this without the use of
starch as binder and evaluating their suitability in
25

Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS) 3(1):25-32(ISSN: 2141-7016)
terms of their compressive strength for the casting of
aluminium alloy T-Joint pipe. The objectives of this
work are to utilize locally sourced raw materials
(cassava starch and Ojolofe sand) to produce cores;
determine the compressive strength of the produced
cores; compare the observed properties with those of
standard cores and ; and evaluate the suitability of the
produced cores by casting aluminium T-Joint pipes.

METHODOLOGY
Materials and Equipment
Materials used for this work were silica sand
collected from Ojolofe water side in Idah local
government area of Kogi state Nigeria that was used
for the core production. Cassava starch which was
extracted from cassava tubers obtained from Akure
Ondo State Nigeria was also used as binder. Tap
water was used for tempering. Equipment used are
weighing balance, mixer or muller, measuring
cylinder, specimen rammer, permeability meter,
universal strength testing machine, oven, sieve shaker
and sets of sieve, crucible furnace, hack saw machine,
mould box, core box, wire brush and chisel.

This work used locally produced binders, cassava


starch that constitutes no health hazards and is
environmental friendly for the production of sand
cores. In addition, the utilization of these binders will
reduce the dependence on imported materials for the
production of some cast products. In doing this it will
promote the development of indigenous technology
needed for local production of intricate machine parts
such as engine block at reduced costs and for selfreliance. Finally this work will promote economic
growth of the country by generating internal revenue
and preserving foreign earnings for economic
development.

METHODS
(i) Cassava Starch Preparation
Cassava tubers were peeled and properly washed.
The washed tubers were pounded followed by
grinding into pulp. Water was then added to easy the
extraction of starch. On the addition of water, it
formed suspension which was left to stay for 2 hours
before the water above was decanted. The starch
residue was properly dried to white, odorless and
tasteless powder in accordance with Anonim, 2009,
and Narayana, Subramony, 2002.
(ii) Sand Preparation
The sand was collected from the site, washed to
remove clay and other impurities. It was properly
dried and after drying, it was sieved using shaker on
which meshes of different aperture were mounted.
The clay was collected from the site. Pebbles were
removed from it. After drying, it was sent for
mineralogical composition analysis using ED X-ray
Fluorescence Analyzer in accordance with Ayoola
etal, 2010. The results of the mineralogical
composition are as shown in Table 1.

The scope of this work entails production of cassava


starch bonded sand cores using river Niger sand
collected from Ojolofe water side in Idah, Idah local
government area of Kogi State Nigeria. Production
of different cores of various compositions ranges
from 6% to 12% water, and 4% to 12% cassava
starch. Evaluations of green and baked compression
strengths were carried out after baking at different
baking conditions. To be able to establish optimum
baking condition and optimum core mixture, several
cores mixtures were produced at varying baking
times and temperatures for compression strength.

Table 1: Minerological Composition of Ojolofe Silica Sand


Materials
Ojolofe Sand

Percentage Minerals
Si02
Al2 03
K20
94.30
0.55
0.06

Ca0
0.24

Ti02
1.40

Cr203
Mn0
Fe2 03
0.01
0.02
0.35
A.F.S fineness number
Total % sand retained

The sieve analysis was done to determine the grain


fineness number in accordance with Oyetunji and
Omole, 2011; and Ayoola, 2010 and the result is as
shown in Table 2.

1000
710
500
355
250
180
125
90
63
-63
Total

%Retained
(A)
0.6
0.8
1.1
4.0
12.2
13.6
26.4
28.0
11.2
2.1
100

Multiplier
(B)
1180
1180
600
425
300
212
150
106
75
38
-----

Cu0
Na2 0
0.04
Total Product

L0I
2.87

18403/100 =
184.03
(iii) Selection of Core Mixture
A large number of cores from mixtures,
based on the proportion of the constituent of sand,
cassava starch and water, were prepared. The
mixtures contained 6-12% water and 4-12% starch.
The full composition of core mixture is in Table 3
Table 3: Composition of the Core Mixtures

Table 2: The Sieve Analysis of Ojolofe Silica Sand


ISO
aperture(microns)

Mg0
0.16
=

Product
(A B)
708.0
944.0
660.0
1700.0
3660.0
2883.2
3960.0
2968.0
840.0
79.0
18403.2

S/N
1

26

Mixtures
6% water + 4% starch
6% water + 6% starch
6% water + 8% starch
6% water + 10% starch
6% water + 12% starch
8% water + 4% starch
8% water + 6% starch
8% water + 8% starch
8% water + 10% starch
8% water + 12% starch

Mixtures
10% water + 4% starch
10% water + 6% starch
10% water + 8% starch
10% water + 10% starch
10% water + 12% starch
12% water + 4% starch
12% water + 6% starch
12% water + 8% starch
12% water + 10% starch
12% water + 12% starch

Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS) 3(1):25-32(ISSN: 2141-7016)

Green Compressive Strength (Nmm-2)

(iv) Production of Test Specimens


After the mixtures were properly mixed and
blended, 50 test specimens of 50 mm diameter x 56
mm height were made from each of the mixtures.
This was done by ramming the mixture in the sleeves
of 50 mm diameter and to a height of 56 mm.
Ramming was accomplished by dropping a rammer
of 50Kg mass three times from a height of 50 mm
(Jain, 2008) and the core specimen was ejected from
sleeve by a piston.
(v) Core baking Procedure
Core baking was carried out in an electric
fired oven capable of attaining a temperature of
500oC and with capacity for 40 cores at a time. Each
batch of cores was introduced into the furnace on
steel plates after the requisite temperature had been
attained and maintained for a predetermined period.
The oven had an extraction system for removing the
moisture produced during baking. This arrangement

ensures a uniform and standard baking procedure


(Giesseren, 2004).
TESTS
The following tests were performed on the prepared
cores;
(a) Green Compressive Strength Test
Determination of green compressive
strength values was carried out using the universal
sand testing machine. The specimen to be tested was
mounted on a stripping post and a compressive load
was gradually applied by turning a hand wheel until
fracture. The fracture load was automatically
recorded on the attached scale (Jain, 2008) and
Oyetunji et al 2009.. The result of the green
compressive strength is as shown in Figure 1.

290
270
250
230
210
190
170
150
130
110
90
6

10

4% Starch
6% Starch
8% Starch
10% Starch
12% Starch

12

% Water

Green Compressive Strength


(Nmm -2 )

Fig.1: Variation of Green Compressive Strength with


Water content on Starch bonded Cores
(b) Baked Compressive Strength Test
Based on the results from the green strength
values, starch cores of different compositions were
produced using 10% starch and 10% water. The cores
were baked at various temperatures between 90 and
180oC and for different baking periods between 1 and
21/2 hours. Baked compressive strength values were

determined using the universal sand testing machine.


The specimen to be tested was mounted on a
stripping post and a compressive load was gradually
applied by turning a hand wheel until fracture. The
fracture load was automatically recorded on the
attached scale (Jain, 2008). The result of the baked
compressive strength containing 10% water and 10%
starch is as shown in Figure 2.

290
270
250
230
210
190
170
150
130
110
90
6

10

12

4% Starch
6% Starch
8% Starch
10% Starch

% Water

Fig.2: Variation of Baked Compressive Strength with Baking Time for Starch Bonded Cores (10%Starch and
10% Water).
27

Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS) 3(1):25-32(ISSN: 2141-7016)
strength using the universal sand testing machine.
The specimen to be tested was mounted on a
stripping post and a compressive load was gradually
applied by turning a hand wheel until fracture. The
fracture load was automatically recorded on the
attached scale. The results of this is as shown in
Figures 3 to 6

(c) Determination of Appropriate Baking


Temperatures
For the appropriate baking temperature to be
obtained, a large number of cores from a variety of
core mixtures at different water content were
produced and baked at various temperatures of
between 90 and 200oC for a fixed time of two hours.
The baked cores were later tested for compressive

Compressive Strength (Nmm-2)

Fig.3:

Variation of Compressive Strength with Baking Temperature for Starch-bonded Cores (Core mixes of
constant 6% water content but different starch contents)
4250
4000
3750
3500
4% Starch

3250

6% Starch

3000

8% Starch

2750

10% Starch

2500

12% Starch

2250
90

120

150

180

210

Temperature oC

Fig.4: Variation of Baked Compressive Strength with Baking Temperature for Starch-bonded Cores with 8%
water content.

28

Compressive Strength (Nmm-2)

Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS) 3(1):25-32(ISSN: 2141-7016)
4500
4250
4000
3750
3500
3250
3000
2750
2500
2250
2000
1750
1500
1250
1000

4% Starch
6% Starch
8% Starch
10% Starch
90

120

150

180

Temperature

210

oC

Compressive Strength (Nmm-2)

Fig.5: Variation of Baked Compressive Strength with Baking Temperature for Starch-bonded Cores (Core mixes of
constant 10% water content but different starch contents)
3800
3600
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000

4% Starch
6% Starch
8% Starch
10% Starch
12% Starch
90

120

150

Temperature oC

180

210

Fig.6: Variation of Baked Compressive Strength with Baking Temperature for Starch-bonded Cores (Core
mixes of constant 12% water content but different starch contents)
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
The performance evaluation test was carried out by
sand casting of an aluminium T-joint pipe. The Tjoint pattern was carved from wood of 150 x 150 x
100 mm as shown in Plate 1.

To cast this pipe, T-shaped cores, of starch bonded


were produced to create the internal space. A wooden
core box, Plate 2, was made for the production of
cores using the optimum core mixtures determined
for the starch cores. The cores were appropriately
baked.

Plate 1: T-joint Pipe Pattern showing all the


dimensions
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Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS) 3(1):25-32(ISSN: 2141-7016)

Plate 4: Finished Cast product of T-joint pipe


RESULTS
All the experimental results were as presented in
Figures 1 to 6.

Plate 2: Core Box (in two halves showing all the


dimensions)

DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS


Mineralogical Analysis of the Sand
From the mineralogical analysis shown in Table 1,
the Ojolofe sand contains 94.30% Si02 and 0.55%
Al203. The silica content of 94.30% compares well
with the acceptable values of between 80% and 97%
recommended for moulding and core sands. A high
silica value is necessary to withstand the heat of
molten metal during casting (Jain, 2008).

Two moulds were prepared using the recycled sand


after which the cores were properly put in place. 20
kg of aluminum scraps were charged into and melted
in a coal-fired crucible furnace (Charles, 2004).
Tapping and pouring into the moulds were done after
appropriate slag removal. Moulding, melting and
casting processes were carried out in the foundry
shop of the Federal Polytechnics, Idah in Kogi State.
After the molten metal had solidified, the mould was
broken and the cast product brought out with the
riser, the ingate and other unwanted parts still
attached as shown in Plate 3.

Sand Grain Fineness Number


Table 2 shows the sieve analysis of Ojolofe sand used
for the production of the core. The sand has an
average grain size of 184.03 microns which is within
the AFS acceptable size range of between 180 and
250 microns used in Foundry. It is clearly on the fine
side for mould production but specifically suitable for
core making in providing the necessary green and
baked strength values, adequate flowability, and good
mouldability and permeability (Ihom, 2006).
Green Compressive Strength values
From
Figure 1, the starch bonded cores, green
compressive strengths increased with water content
reaching a maximum value at 10% irrespective of the
starch level. The green strength values were generally
high for cores containing 6 10% water and dropped
sharply for all cores with 12% water content. This
sharp drop was because of excessive wetness
resulting not only in low green compressive values,
but also difficulty on moulding (Colin, 2006). The
maximum green compressive strength obtained was
290 N/mm2 at 10% starch and 10% water levels.
From the results of strength values obtained in Figure
1, it is clear that: (i) starch-bonded cores have
adequate strength values. This is in comparison with
the minimum acceptable value of 100Nmm-2 for
organic-bonded cores (ii) the strongest cores were
produced from core mixtures containing 10% starch
and 10% water for the starch-bonded cores.

Plate 3: T-joint pipe as Cast with all the dimensions


The riser, the ingate and other unwanted parts were
removed using hack saw and filing to obtain good
finished products as shown in Plate 4.

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Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS) 3(1):25-32(ISSN: 2141-7016)
Baked Compressive Strength of Starch bonded
Cores
Figure 2 shows the effect of baking temperature and
baking time on the compressive strength of the starch
bonded cores. The results contained in this figure are
for cores produced from mixes of 10% starch and
10% water. These values were based on the
maximum strength values obtained from the green
compressive strength test. From this figure, it is seen
that maximum baked compressive strength was
obtained, when baking was carried out at 180oC for 2
hours. This means that optimum baked compressive
strength values will not be achieved when these cores
are baked outside this specification. The maximum
compressive strength values obtained from this result
was 4122 Nmm-2. These baked strength values agree
very well with standard value of between 4000Nmm-2
and 5000Nmm-2 needed for nonferrous and iron
castings (Ihom, 2004).

excellent quality and good finish. Satisfactory


castings can certainly be produced using the cassava
starch bonded core with 9 to 10% starch and 10%
water level.
CONCLUSION
The results obtained from the research has clearly
shown that using the appropriate foundry sand, good
quality cores can be successfully produced using
cassava starch singly. Cassava starch-bonded sand
cores produced from 6 12% starch and 8 10%
water and baked at the appropriate baking conditions
resulted in cores with the necessary minimum
properties. Baking at 180oC for 2 hours was found to
be most appropriate. Cassava starch-bonded cores
with optimum properties were produced from
mixtures containing 10% starch and 10% water
contents. Green compressive strength = 290 N/mm2.
Baked compressive strength = 4122 N/mm2. The
properties of these cores made them suitable for the
application in the production of ferrous and non
ferrous castings as it was successfully demonstrated
in the casting of aluminium T joint pipe.

The preliminary investigation on the potential of


starch as a core binder has revealed that good cores
can be produced using starch extracted from cassava
(Ihom, 2004) and the followings are the highlights of
the results obtained: (i) highest green compressive
strength of 290 Nmm-2 for cores with 10% starch and
10% water contents. (ii) Highest baked compressive
strength of 4122 Nmm-2 occurs for cores when
baking was done at 180oC for 2 hours (Agarwal et al,
1978).

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Baked Strength versus Baking Temperature for


Starch-bonded Cores
Variation of compressive strength with baking
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