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Serfdom

Serf redirects here. For the saint, see Saint Serf. For situations.[8]
the type of magnetometer, see SERF.
United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the
Abolition of Slavery also prohibits serfdom as a form of
Serfdom is the status of many peasants under feudalism, slavery.
specically relating to manorialism. It was a condition
of bondage, which developed primarily during the High
Middle Ages in Europe and lasted in some countries until
1 Etymology
the mid-19th century.
Serfs who occupied a plot of land were required to work
for the Lord of the Manor who owned that land, and in
return were entitled to protection, justice and the right to
exploit certain elds within the manor to maintain their
own subsistence. Serfs were often required not only to
work on the lords elds, but also his mines, forests and
roads. The manor formed the basic unit of feudal society, and the Lord of the Manor and his serfs were bound
legally, economically, and socially. Serfs formed the lowest social class of feudal society.
The decline of serfdom in Western Europe has sometimes
been attributed to the Black Death, which reached Europe in 1347,[1] although the decline had begun before
that date. Serfdom became increasingly rare in most of
Western Europe after the Renaissance, but conversely, Costumes of slaves or serfs, from the sixth to the twelfth cenit grew strong in Central and Eastern Europe, where it turies, collected by H. de Vielcastel from original documents in
had previously been less common (this phenomenon was European libraries
known as later serfdom).
In Eastern Europe the institution persisted until the mid- The word serf originated from the Middle French
19th century. It persisted in the Austrian Empire un- serf and can be traced further back to the Latin servus
til 1848 and was abolished in Russia in 1861.[2] In Fin- (slave). In Late Antiquity and most of the Middle Ages,
land, Norway and Sweden feudalism was not established, what we now call serfs were usually designated in Latin
and serfdom did not exist; however, serfdom-like insti- as coloni. As slavery gradually disappeared and the letutions did exist in both Denmark (the stavnsbnd, from gal status of servi became nearly identical to that of the
1733 to 1788) and its vassal Iceland (the more restrictive coloni, the term changed meaning into our modern concept of serf. Serfdom was coined in 1850.
vistarband, from 1490 until 1894).
According to Joseph R. Strayer, the concept of feudalism
can also be applied to the societies of ancient Persia, ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt (Sixth to Twelfth dynasty), 2 Dependency and the lower orders
Muslim India, China (Zhou Dynasty and end of Han Dynasty) and Japan during the Shogunate. James Lee and Serfs had a specic place in feudal society, as did barons
Cameron Campbell describe the Chinese Qing Dynasty and knights: in return for protection, a serf would re(16441912) as also maintaining a form of serfdom.[3]
side upon and work a parcel of land within the manor
Tibet is described by Melvyn Goldstein to have had of his lord. Thus the manorial system exhibited a degree
serfdom until 1959,[4][5] but whether or not the Ti- of reciprocity.
betan form of peasant tenancy that qualied as serfdom
was widespread is contested.[6][7] Bhutan is described by
Tashi Wangchuk, a Bhutanese civil servant, as abolishing
serfdom ocially by 1959, but Wangchuk believes less
than or about 10% of poor peasants were in copyhold

One rationale held that a serf worked for all while a


knight or baron fought for all and a churchman prayed
for all"; thus everyone had a place. The serf was the worst
fed and rewarded, but at least he had his place and, unlike
slaves, had certain rights in land and property.
1

A lord of the manor could not sell his serfs as a Roman


might sell his slaves. On the other hand, if he chose to
dispose of a parcel of land, the serfs associated with that
land stayed with it to serve their new lord, benetting him
with their long-acquired knowledge of practices suited to
the land. Further, a serf could not abandon his lands without permission, nor did he possess a saleable title in them.

DEPENDENCY AND THE LOWER ORDERS

2. villeins
Lower classes of peasants, known as cottars, generally comprising the younger sons of villeins[10][11] or as
bordars in the British Isles, and slaves, made up the lower
class of workers.
2.2.1 Freemen

2.1

Becoming a serf

A freeman became a serf usually through force or necessity. Sometimes the greater physical and legal force of a
local magnate intimidated freeholders or allodial owners
into dependency. Often a few years of crop failure, a war,
or brigandage might leave a person unable to make his
own way. In such a case he could strike a bargain with a
lord of a manor. In exchange for protection, service was
required: in cash, produce or labour, or a combination
of all. These bargains became formalized in a ceremony
known as bondage in which a serf placed his head in
the lords hands, akin to the ceremony of homage where
a vassal placed his hands between those of his overlord.
These oaths bound the lord and his new serf in a feudal contract and dened the terms of their agreement.[9]
Often these bargains were severe. A 7th-century Anglo
Saxon Oath of Fealty states:
By the Lord before whom this sanctuary
is holy, I will to N. be true and faithful, and
love all which he loves and shun all which he
shuns, according to the laws of God and the order of the world. Nor will I ever with will or action, through word or deed, do anything which
is unpleasing to him, on condition that he will
hold to me as I shall deserve it, and that he will
perform everything as it was in our agreement
when I submitted myself to him and chose his
will.

Freemen, or free tenants held their land by one of a variety of contracts of feudal land-tenure and were essentially rent-paying tenant farmers who owed little or no
service to the lord, and had a good degree of security of
tenure and independence. In parts of 11th-century England freemen made up only 10% of the peasant population, and in the rest of Europe their numbers were small.
2.2.2 Villeins
A villein (or villain) represented the most common type
of serf in the Middle Ages. Villeins had more rights and
higher status than the lowest serf, but existed under a
number of legal restrictions that dierentiated them from
freemen. Villeins generally rented small homes, with or
without land. As part of the contract with the landlord,
the lord of the manor, they were expected to spend some
of their time working on the lords elds. The requirement often was not greatly onerous, contrary to popular
belief, and was often only seasonal, for example the duty
to help at harvest-time. The rest of their time was spent
farming their own land for their own prot.

Like other types of serfs, villeins had to provide other


services, possibly in addition to paying rent of money or
produce. Villeins were tied to the land and could not
move away without their lords consent and the acceptance of the lord to whose manor they proposed to migrate to. Villeins were generally able to hold their own
property, unlike slaves. Villeinage, as opposed to other
forms of serfdom, was most common in Continental EuTo become a serf was a commitment that encompassed ropean feudalism, where land ownership had developed
from roots in Roman law.
all aspects of the serfs life.
A variety of kinds of villeinage existed in Europe in the
Middle Ages. Half-villeins received only half as many
strips of land for their own use and owed a full complement of labour to the lord, often forcing them to rent out
their services to other serfs to make up for this hardship.
Villeinage was not, however, a purely uni-directional exploitative relationship. In the Middle Ages, land within
2.2 Serfdoms class system
a lords manor provided sustenance and survival, and beThe social class of the peasantry can be dierentiated ing a villein guaranteed access to land, and crops secure
into smaller categories. These distinctions were often less from theft by marauding robbers. Landlords, even where
clear than suggested by their dierent names. Most often, legally entitled to do so, rarely evicted villeins because of
the value of their labour. Villeinage was much preferable
there were two types of peasants:
to being a vagabond, a slave, or an unlanded labourer.
Moreover, the children born to a serf inherited at birth
the condition of serfdom. By taking on the duties of serfdom, serfs bound not only themselves but all of their future progeny.

1. freemen, whose tenure within the manor was In many medieval countries, a villein could gain freedom
freehold
by escaping from a manor to a city or borough and liv-

2.4

Rights of serfdom

ing there for more than a year; but this action involved
the loss of land rights and agricultural livelihood, a prohibitive price unless the landlord was especially tyrannical
or conditions in the village were unusually dicult.

The usual serf (not including slaves or cottars) paid his


fees and taxes in the form of seasonally appropriate
labour. Usually a portion of the week was devoted to
ploughing his lords elds held in demesne, harvesting
crops, digging ditches, repairing fences, and often working in the manor house. The remainder of the serfs time
2.2.3 Bordars and cottagers
he spent tending his own elds, crops and animals in order
to provide for his family. Most manorial work was segreIn England the Domesday Book, of 1086, uses bordarii gated by gender during the regular times of the year; how(bordar) and cottarii (cottager) as interchangeable terms, ever, during the harvest, the whole family was expected
cottager deriving from the native Anglo-Saxon tongue to work the elds.
whereas bordar derived from the French.[12]
A major diculty of a serfs life was that his work for his
Status-wise, the bordar or cottager ranked below a serf in lord coincided with, and took precedence over, the work
the social hierarchy of a manor, holding a cottage, gar- he had to perform on his own lands: when the lords crops
den and just enough land to feed a family. In England, at were ready to be harvested, so were his own. On the other
the time of the Domesday Survey, this would have com- hand, the serf of a benign lord could look forward to being
prised between about 1 and 5 acres (0.4 to 2 hectares).[13] well fed during his service; it was a lord without foresight
Under an Elizabethan statute, the Erection of Cottages who did not provide a substantial meal for his serfs during
Act 1588, the cottage had to be built with at least 4 acres the harvest and planting times. In exchange for this work
(0.02 km2 ; 0.01 sq mi) of land.[14] However, the later on the lords demesne, the serfs had certain privileges and
Enclosures Acts (1604 onwards) removed the cottagers rights, including for example the right to gather deadwood
right to any land: before the Enclosures Act the cottager - an essential source of fuel - from their lords forests.
was a farm labourer with land and after the Enclosures
In addition to service, a serf was required to pay certain
Act the cottager was a farm labourer without land.[15]
taxes and fees. Taxes were based on the assessed value
The bordars and cottagers did not own their draught oxen of his lands and holdings. Fees were usually paid in the
or horses. The Domesday Book showed that England form of agricultural produce rather than cash. The best
comprised 12% freeholders, 35% serfs or villeins, 30% ration of wheat from the serfs harvest often went to the
cotters and bordars, and 9% slaves.[13]
landlord. Generally hunting and trapping of wild game
by the serfs on the lords property was prohibited. On
Easter Sunday the peasant family perhaps might owe an
2.2.4 Slaves
extra dozen eggs, and at Christmas a goose was perhaps
The last type of serf was the slave. Slaves had the fewest required too. When a family member died, extra taxes
rights and benets from the manor. They owned no ten- were paid to the lord as a form of feudal relief to enable
ancy in land, worked for the lord exclusively and survived the heir to keep the right to till what land he had. Any
on donations from the landlord. It was always in the inter- young woman who wished to marry a serf outside of her
est of the lord to prove that a servile arrangement existed, manor was forced to pay a fee for the right to leave her
as this provided him with greater rights to fees and taxes. lord, and in compensation for her lost labour.
The status of a man was a primary issue in determining
a persons rights and obligations in many of the manorial
court-cases of the period. Also, runaway slaves could be
beaten if caught.

2.3

The serfs duties

Often there were arbitrary tests to judge the worthiness of


their tax payments. A chicken, for example, might be required to be able to jump over a fence of a given height to
be considered old enough or well enough to be valued for
tax purposes. The restraints of serfdom on personal and
economic choice were enforced through various forms of
manorial customary law and the manorial administration
and court baron.
It was also a matter of discussion whether serfs could be
required by law in times of war or conict to ght for their
lords land and property. In the case of their lords defeat,
their own fate might be uncertain, so the serf certainly
had an interest in supporting his lord.

2.4 Rights of serfdom

Reeve and serfs in feudal England, ca. 1310

Within his constraints, a serf had some freedoms.


Though the common wisdom is that a serf owned only
his bellyeven his clothes were the property, in law, of

HISTORY OF SERFDOM

their lord one day a week, which would be counted as six


days of labour.
Serfs served on occasion as soldiers in the event of conict and could earn freedom or even ennoblement for valour in combat. Serfs could purchase their freedom, be
manumitted by generous owners, or ee to towns or to
newly settled land where few questions were asked. Laws
varied from country to country: in England a serf who
made his way to a chartered town (i.e. a borough) and
evaded recapture for a year and a day obtained his freedom and became a burgher of the town.

3 History of serfdom
Main article: History of serfdom
Social institutions similar to serfdom were known in

Punishment with a knout. Whipping was a common punishment


for Russian serfs.[16]

his lorda serf might still accumulate personal property


and wealth, and some serfs became wealthier than their
free neighbours, although this happened rarely. A wellto-do serf might even be able to buy his freedom.
A serf could grow what crop he saw t on his lands, although a serfs taxes often had to be paid in wheat. The
surplus he would sell at market.
Galician slaughter in 1846. It was a revolt against serfdom, diThe landlord could not dispossess his serfs without legal rected against manorial property and oppression.
cause and was supposed to protect them from the depredations of robbers or other lords, and he was expected to ancient times. The status of the helots in the ancient
support them by charity in times of famine. Many such Greek city-state of Sparta resembled that of the medieval
rights were enforceable by the serf in the manorial court. serfs. By the 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire faced
a labour shortage. Large Roman landowners increasingly
relied on Roman freemen, acting as tenant farmers, instead of slaves to provide labour.[18]
2.5 Variations
These tenant farmers, eventually known as coloni, saw
Forms of serfdom varied greatly through time and re- their condition steadily erode. Because the tax system
gions. In some places serfdom was merged with or ex- implemented by Diocletian assessed taxes based on both
changed for various forms of taxation.
land and the inhabitants of that land, it became adminisThe amount of labour required varied. In Poland, for ex- tratively inconvenient for peasants[18]to leave the land where
ample, it was commonly a few days per year per house- they were counted in the census.
hold in the 13th century; one day per week per household
in the 14th century; four days per week per household in
the 17th century and six days per week per household in
the 18th century. Early serfdom in Poland was mostly
limited on the royal territories (krlewszczyzny).

However, medieval serfdom really began with the


breakup of the Carolingian Empire around the 10th century. During this period, powerful feudal lords encouraged the establishment of serfdom as a source of agricultural labor. Serfdom, indeed, was an institution that rePer household means that every dwelling had to give a ected a fairly common practice whereby great landlords
worker for the required number of days.[17] For example, were assured that others worked to feed them and were
in the 18th century, six people: a peasant, his wife, three held down, legally and economically, while doing so.
children and a hired worker might be required to work for This arrangement provided most of the agricultural

5
labour throughout the Middle Ages. Slavery persisted
right through the Middle Ages,[19] but it was rare.
In the later Middle Ages serfdom began to disappear
west of the Rhine even as it spread through eastern Europe. Serfdom reached Eastern Europe centuries later
than Western Europeit became dominant around the
15th century. In many of these countries serfdom was
abolished during the Napoleonic invasions of the early
19th century, though in some it persisted until mid- or
late- 19th century.

3.1

Russia

Main article: Serfdom in Russia


Serfdom became the dominant form of relation between
Russian peasants and nobility in the 17th century. Serfdom only existed in central and southern areas of the Russian Empire. It was never established in the North, in the
Urals, and in Siberia. According to the Encyclopedia of
Human Rights:
In 1649 up to three-quarters of Muscovy's
peasants, or 13 to 14 million people, were serfs
whose material lives were barely distinguishable from slaves. Perhaps another 1.5 million
were formally enslaved, with Russian slaves
serving Russian masters.[20]

[3] Lee, James; Campbell, Cameron (1998). Headship succession and household division in three Chinese banner
serf populations, 17891909. Continuity and Change 13
(1): 117141. doi:10.1017/s0268416098003063.
[4] Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1986). Re-examining Choice,
Dependancy and Command in the Tibetan Social System'Tax Appendages and Other Landless Serfs. Tibet Journal 11 (4): 79112.
[5] Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1988). On the Nature of Tibetan
Peasantry. Tibet Journal 13 (1): 6165.
[6] Barnett, Robert (2008) What were the conditions regarding human rights in Tibet before democratic reform? in:
Authenticating Tibet: Answers to Chinas 100 Questions,
pp. 81-83. Eds. Anne-Marie Blondeau and Katia Buffetrille. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-52024464-1 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-520-24928-8 (paper)
[7] Samuel, Georey (1982). Tibet as a Stateless Society
and Some Islamic Parallels. Journal of Asian Studies 41
(2): 215229. doi:10.2307/2054940.
[8] BhutanStudies.org.bt, T Wangchuk Change in the land use
system in Bhutan: Ecology, History, Culture, and Power
Nature Conservation Section. DoF, MoA
[9] Marc Bloch Feudal Society: the growth of the ties of dependence.
[10] Studies of eld systems in the British Isles By Alan R. H.
Baker, Robin Alan Butlin
[11] An Economic History of the British Isles By Arthur
Birnie. P. 218

Russias 23+ million privately held serfs were freed from


their lords by an edict of Alexander II in 1861. The own- [12] Hallam, H.E.; Finberg; Thirsk, Joan, eds. (1988). The
Agrarian History of England and Wales: 1042-1350.
ers were compensated through taxes on the freed serfs.
[21]
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 58.
State-owned serfs were emancipated in 1866.
ISBN 0-521-20073-3.

3.2

21st century

[13] Daniel D. McGarry, Medieval history and civilization


(1976) p 242

In 2014 Belarus, under the leadership of Alexander


Lukashenko, enacted legislation that would prohibit
workers on collective farms from leaving the land.[22]

[14] Elmes, James (1827). On Architectural Jurisprudence; in


which the Constitutions, Canons, Laws and Customs etc.
London: W.Benning. pp. 178179.

[15] Hammond, J L; Barbara Hammond (1912). The Village


Labourer 1760-1832. London: Longman Green & Co. p.
100.

Dates of emancipation from serfdom in various countries

[16] Chapman, Tim (2001). Imperial Russia, 1801-1905.


Routledge. p.83. ISBN 0-415-23110-8

See also

[17] Maria Bogucka, Biaogowa w dawnej Polsce, Warsaw,


1998, ISBN 83-85660-78-X, p. 72

References

[18] Mackay, Christopher (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military


and Political History. New York: Cambridge University
Press. p. 298. ISBN 0521809185.

[1] Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003). A pest in the land: new


world epidemics in a global perspective. University of New
Mexico Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-8263-2871-7.
[2] Serf. A Dictionary of World History

[19] Ways of ending slavery


[20] David P. Forsythe, ed. (2009). Encyclopedia of Human
Rights: Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. p. 3.

[21] David Moon, Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: 17621907


(2002)
[22] Taylor, Adam (5 June 2014). Why Belarus wants to bring
'serfdom' back. The Washington Post. Retrieved 10 June
2014.
[23] Richard Oram, 'Rural society: 1. medieval', in Michael
Lynch (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Scottish History
(Oxford: University Press, 2005), p. 549.
[24] J. A. Cannon, 'Serfdom', in John Cannon (ed.), The Oxford Companion to British History (Oxford: University
Press, 2002), p. 852.
[25] Cannon, 'Serfdom', p. 852.
[26] Kfunigraz.ac.at
[27] Emancipation of the Serfs

EXTERNAL LINKS

Vadey, Liana. Serfdom: Western Europe in Peter N. Stearns, ed, Encyclopedia of European Social
History: from 1352-2000 (2001) volume 2 pp 369
78
White, Stephen D. Re-Thinking Kinship and Feudalism in Early Medieval Europe (2nd ed. Ashgate Variorum, 2000)
Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling. Russias age of serfdom 1649-1861 (2008)
Wright, William E. Serf, Seigneur, and Sovereign:
Agrarian Reform in Eighteenth-century Bohemia (U
of Minnesota Press, 1966).
Wunder, Heide. Serfdom in later medieval and
early modern Germany in T. H. Aston et al., Social Relations and Ideas: Essays in Honour of R. H.
Hilton (Cambridge UP, 1983), 249-72

Further reading
Backman, Cliord R. The Worlds of Medieval Europe Oxford University Press, 2003.
Blum, Jerome. The End of the Old Order in Rural
Europe (Princeton UP, 1978)
Coulborn, Rushton, ed. Feudalism in History.
Princeton University Press, 1956.

8 External links
Serfdom, Encyclopaedia Britannica (on-line edition).
Paul Vinogrado (1911).
"Serfdom".
Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.).
Peasantry (social class), Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Bonnassie, Pierre. From Slavery to Feudalism in


South-Western Europe Cambridge University Press,
1991 excerpt and text search

An excerpt from the book Serfdom to SelfGovernment: Memoirs of a Polish Village Mayor,
18421927.

Freedman, Paul, and Monique Bourin, eds. Forms


of Servitude in Northern and Central Europe. Decline, Resistance and Expansion Brepols, 2005.

The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis, discussion and full online text of Evsey Domar
(1970), The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis, Economic History Review 30:1 (March),
pp. 1832.

Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moat, eds. The


World of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England. Glasgow: Cruithne P, 1994.
Gorshkov, Boris B. Serfdom: Eastern Europe in
Peter N. Stearns, ed, Encyclopedia of European Social History: from 1352-2000 (2001) volume 2 pp
37988
Hoch, Steven L. Serfdom and social control in Russia: Petrovskoe, a village in Tambov (1989)
Kahan, Arcadius. Notes on Serfdom in Western
and Eastern Europe, Journal of Economic History
March 1973 33:86-99 in JSTOR
Kolchin, Peter. Unfree labor: American slavery and
Russian serfdom (2009)
Moon, David. The abolition of serfdom in Russia
1762-1907 (Longman, 2001)
Scott, Tom, ed. The Peasantries of Europe (1998)

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

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APB-CMX, Ujalm, NMarkRoberts, Edward321, Andronico, S3000, Aluvia, MartinBot, Poeloq, APT, Uriel8, R'n'B, Matt57, Eliz81, SU
Linguist, J.A.McCoy, Skier Dude, Jayden54, Pyrospirit, Gemena, DadaNeem, Aatomic1, Robertgreer, Natl1, Darkfrog24, HighKing,
CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Black Kite, Ariobarzan, Piotrnikitin, VolkovBot, Andyvphil, DSRH, Je G., Holme053, Bassomatic, Firstorm,
Adrey, Af648, Dojarca, Rightfully in First Place, Andres rojas22, DrewP, Mowsbury, Beyond silence, LeaveSleaves, Dragana666, Cantiorix, Valirpaz, Universaladdress, N4sir389, Coee, Graham Beards, Caltas, Meaghandawson, Mothmolevna, Lachrie, The Unknown
Hitchhiker, Rdacteur Tibet, Granf, Faradayplank, Ptolemy Caesarion, Lightmouse, Fratrep, Belligero, Segregold, Benny the wayfarer,
Adam Cuerden, Owlmonkey, Mygerardromance, Bowei Huang 2, Chignecto, ClueBot, Dakinijones, DionysosProteus, Shujaat Ali Rahi,
Rubeta, Arakunem, Drmies, Timberframe, Parkwells, Neverquick, Ellanow, Philerd, Arcot, Lartoven, Hotgunzzz, Dexterhaven, Rodhat,
Hedrel, Bilbaosr, Bald Zebra, Anon126, Pirags, Miami33139, Glapa, NellieBly, Mifter, Alexius08, Casewicz, Addbot, Legosock, Mohjive, Jdtapaboc, Ashanda, LokiiT, RTG, Favonian, Lemonade100, Ehrenkater, Zimmermana, Pietrow, Zorrobot, Verdi, Legobot, Yobot,
2D, Grebaldar, Amirobot, PMLawrence, Romano-Dacis, QueenCake, Againme, Otiuqok, Bility, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, LlywelynII, Flopsy Mopsy and Cottonmouth, Thefahs33, Bob Burkhardt, MidnightBlueMan, Frankenpuppy, Aqualungs, Xqbot, Medivalmario,
Capricorn42, Ponticalibus, Beeline23, BritishWatcher, LevenBoy, Emily gregg, Frysun, Sophus Bie, Erik9, Dougofborg, Joostik, FrescoBot, Wilfridselsey, Tobby72, Urgos, MathFacts, Westmorlandia, Pinethicket, Bubbleboom1, Tra, Jandalhandler, Dukurs, FoxBot,
Lotje, LilyKitty, Tbhotch, Lovetimes9, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Ripchip Bot, Paluki, Beyond My Ken, John of Reading, THEQUEEN99,
Stubes99, Lobsterthermidor, Triton Rocker, PBS-AWB, Manchester.bw, 1kn0wtruth, Lorzu, Rangoon11, ChuispastonBot, Rare Akuma,
Crown Prince, Gnarristi, Mikhail Ryazanov, Budgie1988, Virillustre, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Regulov, BlueBonnet, Phng Huy,
Zyxwv99, Carlstak, BoboRastafari, CitationCleanerBot, Haymouse, DoctorKubla, Irondome, Mogism, Editorfun, Monkbot, KasparBot
and Anonymous: 375

9.2

Images

File:Abolition_of_serfdom_in_Croatia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Abolition_of_serfdom_


in_Croatia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: self-made photograph Original artist: Ex13
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
Public domain
wikipedia/commons/0/09/Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png License:
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Galician_slaughter_in_1846.
PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work User:Mathiasrex Maciej Szczepaczyk Original artist: Jan Lewicki
File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Tropenmuseum Original
artist: ?
File:Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: this le: scan dated 2009, uploaded (without identication of the source) 12 May 2010 by Ann Scott
(medievalminds.comReeve-and-Serfs.original1.jpg) Original artist: anonymous (Queen Mary Master)

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg


License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

9.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

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