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Natalie Wong
Professor Lynda Haas
Writing 39C
19 July 2015
The Domestication of Dog: A Review of Canine Cognition and Emotion
Since the tradition of canine domestication, owners have witnessed the wide range of
emotions expressed by a dog. Although having a dog comes with a lot of responsibilities, owners
are able to experience and grow accustom to their dogs barking with excitement, seeing their
tails wag, dropping their tails and drooping their ears when being scolded or punished, or
sometimes barking out of jealousy when it is not receiving enough attention. It may be surprising
for some to hear that scientists have only barely began studying canine cognition and cognitive
ethology because the discovery of archaeological remains suggest that dogs have been
domesticated as early as 14,000 years BP (Serpell 10). Prior to any scientific studies of canine
cognition or cognitive ethology officially began, researchers were almost all skeptics who spent
their time wondering if [] animals felt anything (Bekoff xvii). However, this topic of study
has changed dramatically over the past thirty years, because animals are no longer thought to
have no brains, [but] only soul as claimed by Julian Huxley back in 1923 (Mitchell,
Thompson, and Miles 26). It all began with Donald Griffins proposal of cognitive ethology by
recognizing that mental experiences also include feelings, desires, fears, and sensations such
as pain, rage, and affection (Mitchell, Thompson, and Miles 26). Dr. Marc Bekoff, a researcher
of animal behavior and cognitive ethology comments on and extends this sentiment in his book
The Emotional Lives of Animals: A Leading Scientist Explores Animal Joy, Sorrow, and Empathy
and Why They Matter: emotions have evolved as adaptations [] and they serve as a social glue

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to bond animals with one another (xviii). By following this statement by Bekoff, this paper will
focus on scientific studies concerning the process of the domestication of dogs and how
domestication affects canines cognitive abilities and their emotional capacity. First, I will begin
by introducing a 1960 unethical experiment that studied animal cognition. I will then with a brief
explanation of the brain structures found inside animals that permit them to experience emotions,
which will provide a basis for Dr. Marc Bekoffs claim of natural selection as the reason for
anthropomorphism and Alexander Horowitz and Julie Hechts thoughts of anthropomorphism
involvement with cognitive research. After that, I will address the idea of canine umwelt by
Horowitz and Hecht in order to review the history behind the domestication of dogs and the
study of canine cognition. This review seeks to build a bridge to question the ethics behind the
inhumane business of puppy mills by providing some scientific studies.
One of the earliest experiment on animal cognition dates back to 1967, where Martin
Seligman and Steven Maier demonstrated that experience of emotions was indeed possible for
domesticated canines. In this highly unethical study, the canines were conditioned by being
shocked and having no escape routes; eventually the dogs accepted the fact that they could not
do anything about their state and experienced the emotion of depression (Peterson, Maier, and
Seligman). This experiment played a role in diverting the focus of animal cognition and animal
ethology by allowing scientists to not only question why emotions are felt but how, which helps
to demonstrate that [humans] are not the only animals [that] experience pain and suffering
(Bekoff xiii). At the same time, these emotions allowed the animals to survive over time and
eventually evolved through the process of natural selection. Other than this finding, researchers
discovered that our primary emotions of fear, anger, surprise, sadness, disgust, and joy (Bekoff
10) are made possible by the limbic system and the amygdala. Since both these structure are

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found in all mammals, researchers have taken advantage by incorporating animals into their
experiments when attempting to study humans, similar to the study of depression of humans
performed by Seligman, Maier, and Geer. According to Bekoff, the community of scientific
researchers has come to the conclusion that primary emotions are universal because humans and
animals share similar chemical and neurobiological systems (10).
When archaeological evidence were first being discovered, scientists were unaware of the
process of anthropomorphizing dogs and the role it played in forming a relationship between
humans and domesticated dogs. One finding provided by James Serpell, a professor of veterinary
medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, indicated that humans were still hunting, gathering,
and foraging when animals were first domesticated, which dated back to the end of the last Ice
Age (Serpell 10). Anthropomorphism is giving human characteristic to animals, canines in this
case, and it allowed secondary emotions to assist in the establishment of a relationship between
humans and canines for the future (Bekoff xviii). This took place after the scientific community
figured out the universal experience of primary emotions, and turned its interests towards
animals consciousness and thought processing in the cerebral cortex during more complex
feelings known as secondary emotions. Two researchers of animal and canine cognition followed
this curiosity in their research of Looking at Dogs: Moving from Anthropocentrism to Canid
Umwelt. Alexandra Horowitz and Julie Hecht states that dogs secondary emotions are falsely
reported as a result of being anthropomorphized (204). However, Bekoff disagrees by claiming
that anthropomorphism is an evolved perceptual strategy [because] weve been shaped by
natural selection to view animals in this way (10). Although the history behind the process of
domesticating dogs is uncertain, it is no doubt that anthropomorphism played a role in allowing

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the humans to begin developing a bond with domesticated canines as early as 10,000 years BP
(Serpell 10).
Following Serpells thoughts about the relationship between canines and humans, Leslie
Irvine, a professor of sociology and researcher of animal-human interactions demonstrates her
agreement in her book If You Tame Me: Understanding Our Connection with Animals. In order to
explain humans first encounter and interaction with canines, she states that animals were like
humans in many ways, but also different enough to be able to explain and accomplish things that
humans could not (Irvine 35). Besides seeing animals as equals, our ancestors transition into
hunter-gatherers was made possible with the aid of the early canines. Furthermore, Irvine
proposes three different theories as to why dogs were domesticated in the chapter of How and
Why. The first two theories suggested by Irvine involve canines hunting and scavenging
abilities, which is beneficial to humans by offering a symbiotic relationship as well as
commensalism. Humans are not the only ones who profit, because the emotional aspect formed
between canines and humans stimulate the primary emotion of happiness for dogs (Irvine 14).
Unlike the many independent animals we see, bears and tigers to name a couple, canines are
more receptive to humans and socializing as a result of the bond formed between canines and
humans. Lastly, Irvine emphasizes this by supporting the idea of human beings being drawn to
specific physical and social traits by stating: several biological and behavioral factors
predisposed dogs to fit easily within human groups (14-15). Although studies by researchers
such as Seligman and Maier have supported natural selection as the reason why for the
establishment of a canine-human relationship, the canine umwelt introduced by Horowitz and
Hecht has also been reinforced by the study of Irvine. Through Irvines study, we can see that the

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emotional aspect allowed the strong bond between humans and dogs to form including the
launching of domestication of canines.
Just like Leslie Irvine, research scientists Brian Hare and Vanessa Woods of evolutionary
anthropology and animal cognition from the University of Duke have reasoned the evolvement
of human like social skills in domesticated dogs as a by-product of domestication. Similar results
were found in a study conducted by Monique A.R. Udell, Nicole R. Dorey, and Clive D.L Wynne
in the article of Can Your Dog Read Your Mind? Understanding the Causes of Canine
Perspective Taking, in which it demonstrated that dogs ability to follow human actions stems
from a willingness to accept humans as social companions, acquired early in ontogeny, combined
with conditioning to follow the limbs and actions of humans to acquire reinforcement (300). In
this study, humans tested numerous dogs to see if they required the interaction or hand gestures
in order to come to a conclusion of whether or not they will be given food (see Figure 1). The
results of the experiment reflected the domesticated dogs making discriminative choices because
they were were based on past reinforcement histories, in which certain human actions or
orientations served as predictors of reinforcement upon approach (Udell et. al 295). As
mentioned earlier in this review of Irvines theories, Udell et. al supports them by concluding
that the canine-human relationship has been well accepted by pets for beneficial reasons of
survival, food and emotional coping-petting for stress relief. At the same time, Udell et. al study
endorses Irvines third theory by exemplifying that domesticated canines are more receptive to
interaction with humans and enjoy socializing. The socializing behaviors found in canines, allow
them to follow tasks given by humans thru various interactions of gestures or commands.
Undoubtedly, the canine-human relationship established as a result of natural selection after

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humans started domesticating dogs because it benefited both parties; humans got to pick and
breed certain traits while dogs were able to survive.

Fig 1. The Pointing Tasks Layout and Procedure. Domesticated dogs have learned to depend and trust humans
gestures in order to receive food and other pleasure; from Can Your Dog Read Your Mind? Understanding the
Causes of Canine Perspective Taking, 16 July 2015. http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13420-011-00346/fulltext.html

At the end, canines have successfully survived as an entire species, all thanks to the early
evolvement and development of the human-canine relationship at the end of the Pleistocene
Epoch. According to Brian Hare and Vanessa Woods, the first dog breed was not created by
human selection or breeding but by natural selection (2013). However, this is certainly not the
case today, because we have selectively bred dogs based on desirable traits, resulting in over 400
unique dog breeds (Rine 192). The different physical and behavioral traits that appeal to
everyone is not the only why the human-canine relationships still remains, but also for canines
willingness to interact and coexist with humans.

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Although the rate of domesticating dogs and selective breeding purebred dogs is thriving
and increasing, a lot of diseases and genetic problems are introduced at the same time. Since
humans and canines have such a long history together, why are the unethical practices behind the
business of dog breeding and puppy mills ignored and disregarded? Even after the studies of
canine cognition and canine ethology, making profit is of more importance than the thoughtless
breeding and brutal treatment of canine emotions, which is senseless. Although it is a
presumptuous way of thinking, some see humans as the sole reasons of canines survival up to
today. On the contrary, I believe dogs should be taken cared of and be ethically bred solely for
human characteristic of morality. It has been proven that dogs are extremely similar to humans
when it comes to experiencing both primary and secondary emotions and developing bonds,
hence the unethical practices of puppy mills should be terminated ultimately.

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Works Cited
Bekoff, Marc. The Emotional Lives of Animals: A Leading Scientist Explores Animal Joy,
Sorrow, and Empathy--and Why They Matter. Novato, CA: New World Library,
2007. Print.
Hare, Brian, and Vanessa Woods. Are We Having a Conversation? The Genius of Dogs: How
Dogs Are Smarter than You Think. New York: Dutton, 2013. 125-44. Print.
Horowitz, Alexandra, and Julie Hecht. "Looking at Dogs: Moving from Anthropocentrism to
Canid Umwelt." Domestic Dog Cognition and Behavior: The Scientific Study of
Canis Familiaris. 201-15. Springer. Web. 12 July. 2015.
<http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-53994-7_9/fulltext.html>.
Irvine, Leslie. If You Tame Me Understanding Our Connection with Animals. Philadelphia:
Temple UP, 20044. Print.
Mitchell, Robert W., Nicholas S. Thompson, and H. Lyn Miles. Anthropomorphism, Anecdotes,
and Animals. Albany: State U of New York, 1997. Print.
Peterson, Christopher, Steven F. Maier, and Martin Seligman. Learned Helplessness: A Theory
for the Age of Personal Control. Oxford University Press, 1995. Web. 14 July 2015.
Rine, Jasper. Tracking Footprints of Artificial Selection in the Dog Genome. California:
University of California, Berkeley, 2009. Web. 17 July 2015.
< http://www.pnas.org/content/107/3/1160.full.pdf >
Seligman, Martin E., Steven F. Maier, and James H. Geer. "Alleviation of Learned Helplessness
In The Dog." Journal of Abnormal Psychology 73.3, Pt.1 (1968): 256-62. APA
PsycNET. Web. 7 May 2015.
Serpell, James. Origins of the Dog: Domestication and Early History. The Domestic Dog: Its

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Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995.
8-19. Print.
Udell, Monique A.R., Nicole R. Dorey, and Clive D.L. Wynne. Can Your Dog Read Your
Mind? Understanding the Causes of Canine Perspective Taking. Learning and Behavior.
289-302. Springer. Web. 16 July 2015.
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13420-011-0034-6/fulltext.html>