Solutions of problems

2.1.

Energies of signals are E1 U 2T , E2 E3 2U 2T . Correlation coefficients are

12 1 / 2 , 13 1 / 2 , 23 0 . According to the cosine theorem the squared
distances between signals d kl2 Ek El 2 Ek El kl appear to be
2
2
2
2
2
d12
5U 2T d max
, d13
U 2T d min
, d 23
4U 2T , and d max / d min 5 .

2.2.

Correlations

of

y (t )

with all three candidate signals are

z1 0, z 2 U T , z 3 U T . Then according to the decision rule (2.8)
z k Ek / 2 has values U 2T / 2, 2U 2T , 2U 2T for k 1, 2, 3 respectively.
Therefore decision will be that signal s1 (t ) is received.
2

2.3.

Bandwidth necessary to run BPSK transmission is of the order of R , i.e. 10

kHz. Widening a bandwidth up to 10 MHz means involving spread spectrum
signals with WT 103 , which has no positive effect on bit error probability
depending on only bit pulse energy.

2.4.

The case (a) is better, since energy per bit for it is higher, while bandwidth
has no effect on bit error probability.

2.5.

All the signals have equal energies, thus pairs are different in only
correlation coefficients within a pair. The third one is antipodal, i.e. having
correlation coefficient 1 . This is an optimal pair, i.e. has no energy loss.
For the first and second pairs correlation coefficients are 1 / 3 and 1 / 3
respectively. Energies equal, squared distance is proportional to 1 .
Therefore energy loss versus the third (optimal) pair for the first pair is
2 /[1 (1 / 3)] 3 (4.8 dB) and for the second 2 /[1 (1 / 3)] 3 / 2 (1.8 dB).

2.6.

There are 4 possible configurations of transmitted pairs of consecutive

pulses: ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) . They correspond to four signal points on
the plane having squared distances 2 E p from the origin and 4 E p from the
nearest other point, where E p is a pulse energy. Bit error happens any time
when a transmitted point is confused with the one of an adjacent quadrant.
Block of m successive pulses is capable to transmit m 1 bits meaning that
E p ( m 1) Eb / m , Eb being energy per bit. Hence, squared minimum
distance for DBPSK is 4(m 1) Eb / m , which is close to the one of BPSK
whenever m 1 . The pulse for DBPSK is m /( m 1) times shorter than that
of BPSK, rate fixed, implying the same bandwidth broadening. Again when
m 1 this is negligible and asymptotically DBPSK and BPSK are
equivalent in both energy consumption and bandwidth.

2.7.

Correlation coefficient between adjacent signals is zero, therefore minimum

2
2 E p , where E p is energy of the manipulated pulse. Since
distance d min
2
4 Eb (the same as for
every pulse transmits two bits, E p 2 Eb and d min
BPSK). For the optimal (simplex) four signals 1 / 3 and
2
d min
2 E p ( 4 / 3) 8 E p / 3 16 Eb / 3 , so that the asymptotic energy loss of QPSK
to the simplex set is 4 / 3 or 1.2 dB.

2.8.

This is possible for no more than eight signals.

2.9.

Squared distances for orthogonal and simplex signals are respectively 2 E

and 2 EM /( M 1) . Therefore energy loss of orthogonal signals is
10 lg[ M /( M 1)] and drops from 3 dB tending to zero as M grows.

2.10. M 2 means transmission of one bit. The best way of doing it is antipodal
pair rather than orthogonal one having 3 dB energy loss versus the first.
2.11. Under the uncoded transmission of two bits minimum squared distance
between two closest blocks of two bits (say 00 and 10) is 4 Eb . In the family
of four orthogonal signals of energy E minimum squared distance is 2 E .
Since those signals bear two data bits E 2 Eb , which makes minimum
squared distances for both transmission modes equal.
2.12. Optimal transmission mode, no bandwidth limits imposed, uses a set of eight
2
simplex signals. Their minimum squared distance is d min
sim 16 E / 7 , while
for 8-PSK with the same signal energy E the closest signals have
correlation coefficient max cos( / 4) 1 / 2 and therefore squared distance
2
d min
2 ) . Then energy loss of 8-PSK to the optimal set is
8 E (2
2
2
d min sim / d min 8 16 / 7(2 2 ) 3.90 or 5.9 dB.
2.13. For M-PSK correlation coefficient between the closest pair max cos(2 / M )
and with pulse energy E p the squared minimum distance
2
2
d min
With the orthogonal
PSK 2 E p [1 cos( 2 / M )] ( 4 Eb log 2 M ) sin ( / M ) .
2
signalling d min ort 2 Eb log 2 M , so that energy loss of M-PSK is
2
2
2
d min
( / M ) M 2 / 2 2 when M 1 . At the same time
ort / d min PSK (1 / 2) sin
bandwidth for M-PSK WPSK R / log 2 M , while for orthogonal coding
bandwidth Wort MR / log 2 M . Therefore Wort / WPSK M and M-PSK may be
recognized preferable if bandwidth economy is more important than energy
saving.
2.14. For orthogonal signals W MR / log 2 M 64 28.8 103 / 6 307.2 kHz.

W MR / log 2 M ,
M / log 2 M W / R (1.2288 / 38.4) 10 3 32 .
2.15. Since
Solution of this equation in M is M 256 orthogonal signals. When signals
are bandpass this number may be doubled by involving quadrature phaseshifted copies of every of them.

2.16. Gain 6 dB is four times, therefore Ga (log 2 M ) / 2 means log 2 M 8 and

M 256 . Then necessary bandwidth W MR / log 2 M 256 10 4 / 8 320 kHz, i.e.
6 dB gain within the bandwidth 320 kHz is achievable with orthogonal
coding.
2.17. Again M / log 2 M W / R 102.4 , which means M 1024 , log 2 M 10 and
Ga (log 2 M ) / 2 5 or 7 dB.
2.18. Gain 10 dB is ten times, therefore from Ga (log 2 M ) / 2 it follows that
5
5
M 2 20 10 6 and necessary bandwidth W MR / log 2 M 10 10 / 2 5 GHz,
which is greater than double the carrier frequency. Of course, it is not
realizable.
2.19. According to the Sylvester rule

H8 H8
,
H 8 H 8
where matrix H 8 may be taken from Section 2.7.3.
H16

2.20. First of all, transpose H T of a Hadamard matrix H is again Hadamard

matrix. Indeed, since rows of H are orthogonal and have squared norms
equalling N ,
1
H
N

1
HH T I ,
N

where I is identity matrix of size N . Hence,

is inverse to H T and

1 T
H H I,
N

meaning that rows of H T are

orthogonal. Then:
(a) Does not effect row orthogonality, the matrix remains Hadamard-type;
(b) Permutation of columns of H permutes rows of H T preserving their
orthogonality. Reverse transpose of H T after row permutation produces
again a Hadamard matrix;
(c) Does not effect inner products of rows, hence leaves the matrix of
Hadamard type;
(d) Does not effect row orthogonality leaving the matrix of Hadamard type;
(e) Does not effect row orthogonality of H T , hence preserves the
Hadamard type of H ;
(f) The inner product of the first row with any other becomes nonzero; a
new matrix is no longer a Hadamard one.

2.21. The inner product of any different rows and squared norm of any row in the
matrix obtained becomes 1 and M 1 respectively, so that correlation
coefficient of any two different rows 1/( M 1) . Thus rows of the new
matrix form simplex signal set. With the data rate fixed, each of M signals
has the same duration as any of M initial orthogonal signals, containing
smaller by one number of chips (first column of Hadamard matrix
dropped!). Hence, simplex set occupies M /( M 1) narrower bandwidth.
Certainly, with M 1 this bandwidth gain of the simplex set is insignificant
as well as energy gain.
2.22. Amplitude A and duration T are energy parameters, the rest being nonenergy ones.
2.23. The best accuracy will be achieved in the case (b). In the case (a) correlation
coefficient is smoother in dependence on , which has negative effect on
estimate precision. In the case (c) the central peak of ( ) is as narrow as in
the case (b), however high sidelobes make abnormal errors quite likely, i.e.
confusion of a true value of with the one distant from it by a sidelobemainlobe space.
2.24. The best is case (c), since (1 , 2 ) drops most quickly in all directions of
(1 , 2 ) -plane, making well distinguishable any signal copies whose
mismatch in (1 , 2 ) goes beyond the shadowed circle. The case (a) is as
good for measuring 2 alone, 1 being known. The case (b) is equally good
for measuring any single of parameters, the second being known.
2.25. All three signals have the same energy
variance of amplitude estimation.

E U 2T

, providing thereby equal

2.26. Standard deviation of estimate is inversely proportional to a square root of

energy E , and E linearly depends on duration. Therefore, to halve standard
deviation signal duration has to be increased four times.
2.27. Energy is proportional to duration and squared amplitude, so halving the
first and doubling the second doubles energy and reduces the standard
deviation of amplitude estimate 2 times.
2.28. Phase estimate accuracy is defined by only signal energy. Thus
(a) Has no effect, since energy does not change;
(b) Energy is two times more, the standard deviation becomes
lower;
(c) Energy drops four times, standard deviation grows two times;

times

(d) Energy does not change; the accuracy remains the same.
2.29. Answer is the same as in Problem 2.25.
2.30. Among those given only amplitude A and duration T will affect phase
estimation accuracy. Increase of A will proportionally lower the standard
deviation of phase estimate; increase of T will lower it proportionally to the
square root of T . The changes pointed will not affect signal energy, i.e. the
standard deviation of phase estimate.
2.31. To make it easiest way, note that ACF is piecewise-linear, so it is enough to
calculate its values at the shifts being multiples of and connect them by
straight lines. The results for 0 are shown in Figure S.1, where E0 U 2 .
2.32. Figure S.2 answers the problem.

R ()

R()

Figure S.2 ACF of signal of Problem 2.32.

0

2E0
E0

3E0

R()

0
a)

E0

4E

R()

2
b)

E0
E0

2
c)

Figure S.1 Autocorrelation functions of signals of Figure 2.34.

3 4

2.33. After the pulse matched filter there has to be a tapped delay-line with delay
between the consecutive taps. Each tap with sign plus or minus is
connected to the adder. Signs of taps (first tap is from delay-line input) at the
adder input are mirror-like to the signs of rectangular pulses of a signal.
Figure S.3 presents an example for signal of Figure 2.34, c. Response of this
matched filter to its own signal is shown by Figure S.1, c.
input

Pulse MF

output

Figure S.3 Matched filter for signal of Figure 2.34, c.

2.34. After the pulse matched filter there should be a delay-line with three taps:
from input and with delay and 2 , first connected to the adder with
minus and two others with pluses. Response to the signal is shown in Figure
S.2.
2.35. The best choice would be (b). For details see answer to Problem 2.23.
2.36. The standard deviation is given by Woodward formula: 1/ 2Wrms q ,
which may be trusted since q 1 . This gives Wrms 1 / 2 q 31.8 kHz.
Since the signal is plain the order of its duration may be estimated as
T 1 / Wrms 31.4 s.
2.37. In order to preserve SNR after reduction of peak-power duration should be
proportionally (i.e. 100 times) increased. But simultaneously to reduce 10
times standard deviation the bandwidth should be 10 times increased. Thus
the time-frequency product equal to one for a plain signal should be
increased 1000 times in total, i.e. made equal to 1000.
2.38. Since the standard deviation is inversely proportional to bandwidth and the
latter (equalling initially frequency deviation of LFM signal) drops to the
one of an unmodulated signal, i.e. 1000 times, precision of time measuring
also drops 1000 times.
2.39. The standard deviation of frequency estimate is inversely proportional to the
product ET , i.e. P (T ) 3 / 2 , where P is signal peak-power. Since P may

be increased only 5 / 4 , i.e. 1.25 times, to reduce standard deviation 10 times

T 3 / 2 should become 8 times greater, which is equivalent to increasing T 4
times.
2.40. Since the standard deviation is inversely proportional to
with increasing T four times it drops 8 times.

ET

or

P (T ) 3 / 2

2.41. Precision of measuring only one parameter, the other being known, is
determined by the extension of ambiguity diagram along the corresponding
axis. From this angle cases (b), (c), and (d) are equally good in time-only
estimation, as well as cases (a), (c), and (d) are equally good in frequencyonly measuring. When both parameters are to be measured the extension of
diagram in any direction has to be small, which means that the case (d) is
best of all.
2.42. It is obvious that SNR remains the same, since four times increase of
duration compensates fully for the 6 dB (4 times) power reduction. This
means that the standard deviation of frequency estimate decreased 4 times
due to duration increase. Since new time-frequency product is 100 with four
times greater duration, bandwidth of the new signal is 25 times wider,
entailing the same reduction of the standard deviation of time-delay
estimate. Note that when both parameters are measured simultaneously these
conclusions may appear not true, if ambiguity diagram of the spread
spectrum signal is not good enough. E.g. for LFM signal estimates of both
parameters are strongly dependent, which makes precision of simultaneous
estimates poor (see Section 6.2).
2.43. The requirements towards the ambiguity function in time-frequency
resolution are quite similar to those in time-frequency measuring. Thus, the
answer repeats the one of Problem 2.41 after changing the measuring to
resolution.
2.44. For a good resolution in time only the ambiguity diagram should have small
extension along -axis. Thus, cases (b) and (c) are equally favourable,
while cases (a) and (d) are poorer since signal ACF for them has high time
sidelobes (side zones along the -axis). The same way cases (a) and (c) are
equally favourable for frequency-only resolution, while (b) and (d) are
worse. When signal copies should be resolved both in time and frequency,
extension of the ambiguity diagram in any direction should be small.
Therefore, case (c) is best, while the rest of ambiguity diagrams have side
zones, corresponding to intense sidelobes, very harmful in resolution (see
also Section 6.1).