IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No.

3, March 1981

1001

GENERALIZED GENERATION DISTRIBTlrION FACTOFRS

FOR POWER SYSTEM SECURITY EVALUATIONS

Wai Y. Ng
Ontario Hydro, Canada

Abstract - A set of Generalized Generation

Distribution Factors (GGDF's) is developed to replace
the conventional Generation Shift Distribution Factors
(GSDF's). This model relates the line flows with
generations for a given network configuration. Being
in an integral form, new flows on lines' can be
obtained directly without running load flows when
Conforming load
total system generation changes.
change is also demonstrated. These new factors are
especially suitable for constraint formulation in
mathematical programning, such as optimal generation
dispatch with security contingencies 'considered.

1.

calculation and use of GGDF, is given in Section 5,

followed by a conclusion in Section 6. An appendix is
included with the derivation of the GSDF's for the
purpose of completeness.

2.

Introduction

The use of sensitivity methods in system security

and contingency analysis remained very popular [l, 2)
in -fast load flow
despite recent advancements
derivations,
techniques.' Their simplicity in
linearity and physical comprehension remain as their
important appeals for wide acceptance in the utility
industry.
Generation Shift Distribution Factors (GSDF's),
together with the Outage Distribution Factors (ODF's),
are perhaps the two most important sensitivity methods
presently used. We shall concern ourselves here only
with GSDF's.
The
number of GSDF's required for analyses
depends-on the number of lines to be monitored, which
usually is small even in a very large system. Hence,
the use of GSDF's for calculating 'line flows after
shifts of generation is comparatively much simpler
than running a complete load flow. 'This is especially
true when second order multiple security contingency
constraints have to be observed. In this case, a -huge
number of load flow runs is required, which, up to
constraints on the
now, still poses unsurmuntable
system' operation computer.
The GSDF's, besides being linear factors, are not
without limitations. As indicated bty the name,-GSDF's
are only useful for determining line flows when
generations are shifted. 'Whenever the total system
generation changes, a new load flow has to be run to
This is rather
reestablish the initial line flows.
inconvenient because generation level is a foreverchanging quantity in a system.
In order to overcome this limitation on GSDF's,
we shall, in this paper, propose a set of Generalized
Generation Distribution Factors (GGDF's) which can be
flows for
used independently to' establish line

80 SM 591-8 A paper recommended and approved by the

IEEE Power System Engineering Committee of the IEEE
Power Engineering Society for presentation at the
IEEE PES Summer Meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota,
July 13-18,1980. Manuscript submitted January 23,
1980; made available for printing April 23, 1980.

different system generation levels. The basic concept

behind this set of GGDF's will be given in Section 2.
The formal derivation will be presented in Section 3.
the overall
In Section 4, we shall show that
generation change is being absorbed by the system load
in a conforming manner, which is a very desirable
A simple numerical example, illustrating the
result.

The Concept of GGDF

The

GSDF

equations:
A

Fi-k

AG
where:

AGR

can

be def ined by

the

following

AJkA2kAGg

(1)

(2)

AG

change in generation of generator

the
reference
excluding
generator R
g,

A Fj-k

Akg

change in flow on line i-k (from

bus to bus k), due to shifting
AGg
amount of generation from a
predesignated reference generator
R to the generator g

proportional constant, or GSDF,

i-k, due to shift of
generation on generator g

for line

AGR

change in generation
reference generator R

in the

linearity of Equation (1) permits the use of

superpositions, ie, shifting generation from one
generator to any generator via the reference generator
R, provided that the total generation or load of the
system remains unchanged. This can be formulated as a
constraint.

The

E G
g

L.

constant

(3)

i1

where g and i are suned through respectively all the

generators and loads.
It should also be noted that Equation (1) is in
an incremental form. Given all the A's, only the
change in flow on a particular line due to generation
For
calculated.
security and
shifts can be
however, the actual flows
contingency analyses,
instead of their incremental values are required.
Hence, the initial flows on all the lines must be
suplied a priori by running a load flow. The values
of GSDF's, depend only on the network configuration but
are independent of the total generation on the system
and the distribution of generation or load. However,
because the initial line flows must be known, to apply
the GSDF's to generation shift analyses, any change in
1981 IEEE

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1002
total system generation will require that a new load
flow be run to reestablish the initial flows.
Therefore, the GSDF's are useful only when the total
system generation (or load) remains unchanged.
In order to overcome this inconvenience in the
use of GSDF's, we shall propose a new set of GGDF's
defined by the following equation:

Fk = D
G
-k 9g f-k,g g

(4)

where the summation goes through all the generators,

and

= GGDF for line 2-k, due to generator g

The advantage of using GGDF is apparent.

Firstly, no reference generator has been necessary
here, nor the constant total generation constraint as
given by Equation (3). Furthermore, the physical
meaning of Di-k,g is obvious: it represents the
portion of generation supplied by generator g that
flows on line i-k.
It should be pointed out that, in fact, Equation
(4) does not uniquely define the GGDF's. This means
Equation (4) cannot be used to determine the D's by
measuring the F's and G's. However, given the D's and
G's, Equation (4) defines the F's uniquely. We shall
establish that the D's are indeed unique and derive
the D's from the base case load flow, thus reducing
the GSDF method to a special case of GGDF.

1Q-k =

D_kp
Gp
-,p

+ D

I-k

AG

-k

E D

-k, p

2-k,,g

From Equation (4),

j-kp

ED

where F,k

G~

is the

we

AG

D
g

1-k,R

i-k

original line flow.

where p sums over all the generators but R and

to

G = final generation from generator p which

now reduced to zero

GR

i =
F-k
F

(D2-k,g

Yv-k,g

(DI

D,.kR)

Dj-k,R

from

the

is

reference

D-kR CR

(10)

D>-k,R)
D

shifts, contains the

Now GR, after the generation

total system generation, or:

(11)

G =1G
q

with q- surmming through all the generators including R.

After substituting Equations (10) and (11) into
(9) and some rearrangements, we finally obtain:

Fe

Dkq

E A

G
-k,p

p(

(12)

Conforming Load Change

AG,

(7)

AGg

Comparing Equation (7) with Equation (1),

Dek,g

= final generation
generator R

of

4.

it

Fe k

after the shifts

If F -k and G are supplied by a base case load flow

and all the A's are calculated, the calculation of
DJ-k,R for all the lines becomes trivial. Once all
the D2k,R are obtained, the rest of the D's can be
easily calculated using Equation (8).

have:

FQ-k

(9)

F" - ED
2-k 1-k,,p Gp + DT-k,R GR

(6)

AG

Therefore, Equation (6) becomes:

Fyk

i-k

final flow on line

pR

Gp

p # R

On the other hand, from Equation (4):

(5)

gg

where p sums through all the generators, including g.

If we now choose arbitrarily a reference generator R
(with R :' g) as in the case of the GSDF's, and
decrease its generation by the same amount AGg, the
flow on line Q-k after this generation shift will be:
if

EAkA G
p Jkpp

Fek = original flow on line Q-k before shifts

..

From Equation (4), the definition of GGDF, if a

particular generator g is increased in generation by
same amount AG , the flow on line J-k will be:
g

Therefore:

Derivation of GGDF's

F.2ki-=

- F

i-k j -k

where p sums over all the generators but R

= generation of generator g

D}ikg

3.

.,

Fk

= actual power flow on line 2-k

Fi-k
G

factors, we need, therefore, m umore equations.

From
the definition of the GGDF, the flows and generations
in the base case load flow must also satisfy Equation
(4), which now represents a group of m additional
equations for calculating all the D's.
Assuming all the A's are known (calculation of
A's given in the appendix), the solving of these (n x
m) equations is, in fact, very simple. By shifting
all the generations from all the generators to the
reference generator R, ie, AG = -Gp, from Equation
(1), we have:

we

obtain:
(8)

-k,g

For a system of n generators and m transmission

lines, Equation (8) represents a family of mn(n
1)
To fully determine all the (n x m) D
equations.
-

In using GSDF, the total generation in the system

is kept constant. The local load of each bus remains
unchanged in the generation shift process. When using
GGDF, since the total system generation is no longer a
constraint, the net change in generation has to be
absorbed by the system load. We shall show that this
net
system generation change is being absorbed
conformingly.
This, indeed, is a very desirable
result as exactly the same is usually done in a change-

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case load flow to produce the new initial flows when

Specifically, if
system generation level changes.
only shifts of generation occur, the change in each
individual load will be zero, reducing to the case of
using GSDF.

1003
N

i l

After substituting Equation (17) into Equation (16),

we finally have:

AGR

ALy

Ly

Busy
1-y

5.

Ly

Consider a particular bus y in the system with a

local load Ly and a generator injecting power Gy into
Connecting to this bus y are, say, N lines
the bus.
denoted by i-y, where i runs from 1 to N as shown in
Figure 1.
If we denote Fi.y to be the power flow on line iy, from bus i into bus y, we can equate the net power
flow into and out of bus y by the following equation:

i=l

F.

i-y

+ G

Illustrative Exanle

In this section, a simple five-bus system, taken

from Reference [3] , is used to demonstrate the
calculation and usage of the generalized D factors.
Conforming load change will also be illustrated.

FIGURE 1

N
E

(18)

which represents conforming load change in bus y due

to change in generation on bus R. Since the selection
of bus y is arbitrary, all the loads in the system,
including that of bus R, will change conformingly.
Finally, since the choice of bus R is also arbitrary,
the general result of conforming load change is
established.

N-y

Gy

BUS 1
101.5 Zl11.11
110.668
144.0

86.'

BUS 2

98.0Z. 8.00

(13)
N

By considering in the system a bus R where R /d y, we

can differentiate Equation (13) with respect to GR to

obtain:

N
_

AF.

i=l

AL

(14)

=A

BUS 5

Differentiating Equation (4) with respect to

have:

AF.

Diy

GR,

we

98.1. 5.81
rt |

17A

ID

to
N

=RD

Ruto(1)ieby oe
Equation (14) then becomes:
N
E D.
i=l i-y,R

AL

AGR

il Di-y,R G

ALlyGR

BUS 4

97.2Z 6.33

Consider in the original system if all the generations

shifted to the generator in bus R, according to
Equation (4), the definition of GGDF: the flow on
line i-y will be (Di-y,R G), since the generations
from all other generators are reduced to zero. It
follows that total net flow into bus y, will be:

95.3Z/ 15.68

33.07

36.2
j

(16)

BUS3

(15)

and after multiplying both sides of Equation (15) by

G, the total original system generation, we have:

were

(17)

i-y,R

Reactance on 200 MVA base

FIGURE 2

The system configuration is shown in Figure 2.

Voltages and line flows from a base case load flow are
marked, together with the generations, loads and line
reactances used.

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1004

Using Equation (A.3) developed in the Appendix,

the GSDF or A factors were calculated with bus 2 as
the reference bus and are given in Table 1. Also
included in Table 1 are the GGDF or D factors
calculated using Equations (12) and (8).
By shifting 10 MW of generation from bus 1 to bus
3, the new flows on all the lines were calculated
separately using both the A and D factors. The
results recorded in separate columns in Table 2 are
identical as expected.
To illustrate the feature of conforming load
change, the generation in bus 1 was increased by 10 MW
to 154 MW, ie, an increase of 5.28 percent of the
total system generation. The power flow on each line
was then calculated using Equation (4) with the new
generation pattern employing the D factors. The new
loads on each bus were obtained from Equation (13).
In order to screen out the effects of losses in the
comparison, the original load on each bus was
calculated using the base case line flows and Equation
(13).
The change in each individual load was then
calculated. All these results were recorded in Table
3.
In column 7, we note that the change of load in
each bus is very close to 5.28 percent,
thus
demonstrating conforming load change.
In order to compare the predicted line flows
using the D factors method, a full changed case load
flow was run with the new generation in bus 1 and all
loads increased by 5.28 percent.
The results,
tabulated in Table 4, agree extremely well within the
no-loss approximation used in the distribution factors
method.

1-k Ai-k,
1-2
2-5
5-4
2-4
4-3

1
0
0
0
0

GSDF

I-k, 3
0.0000
-0.4773
-0.4775
-0.5228
-1.0000

D-k,

Comparison of power flow on each line using the D

factors and a full load flow after generation in bus 1
changed to 154 MW and all loads increased by 5.28
percent.

Lines

i-k

1-2
2-5
5-4
2-4
4-3
6.

Base Case
Load Flow
58. 00
12.78
-4.77
8.00
-33.07

GGDF

D2

-k, 2
-0 .4544
0.1548
0.0621
0.1378
0.0081

0.5456
0.1548
0.0621
0.1378
0.0081

'j -k,

3
-0.4544
-0 .3225
-0.4154
-0.3850
-0.9919

Table 2

i-k
1-2
2-5
5-4
2-4
4-3

Base Case
58.00

12.78
-4.77
8.00
-33.07

Line Flows (MW)

From GSDF

48.00
8.00
9.55
2.77
-43.07

From GGDF

48.00
8.00
9.55
2.77
-43.07

We have presented here a new set of generalized

sensitivity factors.
Besides replacing all the applications of GSDF's,
the GGDF's, being in integral form, are especially
suitable for formulating constraints in mathematical
progranTring, such as to produce optimum generation
schedules under security and contingency constraints
[4]. Furthermore, fixed flows on certain lines can
easily be maintained.
The GGDF's have also been applied successfully to
large interconnected systems where generation and load
change in only one area is of interest. Full
descriptions of the model and results will be reported
in another paper under preparations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to thank Mr. A.J. Harris and
Mr. P.T. Chan for their critical ccrurnts on the

presentation.

REFERENCES

Load change after generation in bus 1 increased by 10

MW.

Generation (MW)
Old
New
A (MW)
10
144.000
154.000
10.668
0
10.668
0
34.600
34.600
0
0.000
0.000
0.000
0
0.000

63.45
14.33
-4.15
9.37
-32.98

sensitivity factors. In contrast to the conventional

GSDF's, the new GGDF's do not require a reference
generator, nor the invariance of the total system
generation;
the iimediate benefit being the
elimination of running load flows whenever system
generation is changed for reestablishing initial
flows. It has been shown that the GSDF's reduce to a
special case of the more general GGDF. Conforming
load change due to change in total system generation

Table 3

Bus
l
2
3
4
5

From GGDF

Conclusion

Line flows after 10 MW have been shifted froin bus 1 to

bus 3.

Lines

Line Flows (M)

Change-Case
Load Flow
63.46
14.30
-4.22
9.36
-33.07

was also demonstrated as a feature of these new

Table 1

Lines

Table 4

Old
86.00
47.89
0.00
36.30
17.55

Load (MW)
New
90.55
50.42
0.00
38.21
18.47

Al.

5.29
5.28
5.26
5.24

Limner, "Techniques and Applications of

Security Calculation Applied to Dispatching
Computers", Third Power System Computation
ri Conference, Rome, 1969.
12 S.A. Anafeh, "Real-Time Security Assessment with
H1H.D.

Fast Optimum Generation Shift Control", IEEE

Conference Proceedings PICA, May 1977.
E31 L.K. Kirchmeyer, "Economic Operation of Power
Systems", pp 118 to 120, Johns-Wiley and Sons,

[4

1967.

D.M.

Frances

and P.T.

Chan,

"An LP Model for

Economic Power Generation Scheduling Subject to

Transmission Limitations", TIMS/ORSA Conference,
New Orleans, 1979.

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APPENDIX

AP 1

DERIVATION OF GSDF
have:

(1), the definition of GSDF, we

From Equation

-P

dm+l

APm

AFj-k

AG9

Qdm+l

where AI t-k is the change in current in line J-k due

to shift of generation AGg from R to g, and AI is the
at
change in injection current into bus g;
all busses being taken as 1 pu.
Using the definition of the reactance matrix X,
and the dc approximations, we have:

AVk

Xik
Xig .- Xk AIg
Xik

(A.2)

where XI g, Xkg are elements of the reactance matrix

and xik the line reactance.

Substituting (A.2) into (A.1), we obtain finally:

A

1-k, g

=q

Qm+

(V)

-x

kg

7t= [62

Wai Y. Ng (M'80) received his

.
degree in engineering
physics from the University of
in
Toronto in 1967 and Ph.D.
theoretical physics in 1973.
In 1977 he joined Ontario
Hydro

Power

System

Operations

Discussion
F. L. Alvarado, (University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI): The author is
to be complimented for an interesting paper in which he has correctly
perceived the limitations of Generation Shift distribution factors. We
offer two comments, aimed at extending the usefulness of the paper.
(1) We feel that rather than defining new non-incremental distribution factors, as in (4), it is better to stick to the traditional ones as
in (1), but to allow for a dependence of these on the total generation of the system. We thus suggest defining:

(63p
..

m+lIVm+l1 6m+2I Vm+2IF

drPt_*|'~~~~~~~~~~~o
!FJ ZF-k
Vh(PgV PD)P

0L-k,g

...]

d;Y

FtX dPD
;
7

term is very simple in structure: it is a row vector of dimenThe

sion (n-i) + (n-m) with exactly four nonzeros. Through a reasoning
similar to the one in [1] it can be concluded that:

Q1

Qk,g

.t

B.A.S

Division, where he develops new

resource
for
techniques
utilization.
Dr. Ng is also a menber of
the American Physical Society and
a registered Professional Engineer
in the Province of Ontario in
Canada.

for short

Thus, there are n + (n-m) equality constraints and n + (n-m)

unknowns (all the v's plus pD, the total system frequency-sensitive demand). The distribution factors can then be found from:

(A.3)

XSk

= 0

where the l's are the participation factors of the frequencydependent portion of loads and/or generators. The v vector is:

volUages

p+p

tm+lQ D

m+l D + Pm+l (

E7(Pg Iv PD)

or

&Ig

AIi k =A 4

+ 9i

P 1()
( )

ilD

Q1
1 D

(A.1)

g-k

d1

=P0

AP

m+l
A
A-k,g

g1

D
k 1 =
D

DQZk,g

Q1I
p

DQZk,l

aF-k)t
-

From this expression the exact distribution factors are found. J is the ordinary power flow Jacobian matrix. Although D,,, is a vector of dimension
(n-I) + (n-m), we are only interested in the values of D,,, that correspond to
generators. Thus, J should be ordered to keep all generators in the lower righthand corner. This way only a partal back substitutions is required to solve for
each D,k,,,, vector. Note that further simplifications are possible, as in 11].

REFERENCE

[1] F. L. Alvarado, "Penalty Factors from Newton's Method", IEEE

Transactions on PowerApparatus and Systems, NovemberDecember
1978, pp. 2031-2039.

Manuscript received August 11, 1980.

Wal Y. Ng: The author wishes to thank the discusser for his interest in
this paper.
For checking system security, it is the total flow on a line, rather than
its incremental value that is often required. However, the definition of
GGDF given in equation (4) is very general. It can be used to calculate
either the total or incremental flow on a line. When the latter is of interest, the LHS will be the incremental flow and the RHS generations
will be the incremental generations. It should perhaps be noted that the
symbol P,, used in the first equation in the discussion should really be
AP,1

P,

P,,.

The concept of GGDF and its application are independent of its

0
.P
D
+
One method of deriving GGDFs from the conventional
derivations.
+
Fi
=F-k
gi
GSDFs was given in the paper. The alternate approach pointed out by
the discussor for calculating the distribution factors directly from the
transposed Jacobian is enlightening, and probably would be more ac(2) The distribution factors can be calculated from the transposed curate as well, although the physical meaning of generation distribution
Jacobian Equation (15) of [1] expressed the system equations in a factors may be lost within the mathematics.
useful manner. Assume n buses and m generators (no "slack"
generation is needed, but the angle d, is fixed): Manuscript received September 22, 1980.
k