Professional Documents
Culture Documents
&
Social Sciences
In Collaboration With
MASTER COACHING ACADEMY (MCA)
(IER) UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
Authors:
Dr. S. A. Ghaffar
Dr. Arbab Khan Afridi
Book:
1st Edition:
May, 2005
nd
2 Edition:
October, 2013
Composer:
Printers:
Quantity:
1000
Price:
150/-
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................I
UNIT-I: ............................................INTRODUCTION
.................................................................1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1
7
8
10
17
20
21
22
22
23
24
26
28
28
35
36
UNIT-4: ..................................................SAMPLING
44
4.1
Rationale of Sampling
46
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Steps in Sampling
Probability Sampling
Non Probability Samples (Non-Representative Samples)
The Size of the Sample (Fundamentals)
The Concept of Sampling Error
46
48
49
50
50
Research Ethics
Technical Issues in Assessment
52
54
63
63
65
68
71
73
75
80
80
81
81
82
84
84
89
92
94
94
ii
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.2.5
Comparative
Correlation
Survey
Secondary Data Analysis
95
97
99
102
iii
Questionnaire
Interviews
Accounts
Observation
Tests and Appraisal Instrument
Personal Construct Theory
Scales
Anecdotal Records
107
116
121
121
124
127
128
131
134
139
145
151
153
BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................155
APPENDIX........................................................159
II. Proposals/Synopses (Specimen)
159
iv
Introduction
UNIT-I: INTRODUCTION
1.1 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Research in education and in social sciences has become basic
requirement of any academic programme at any level. The days
are gone when it was offered optional against any subject or
subjects. The recent trend in research development is towards
skill-orientation than knowledge orientation, towards more on
application of the skill than mere interpretation of theory. This
book is hoped to provide both knowledge and skill to our students
and research workers and also develop their critical attitude
towards understanding and seeking solution of educational and
social problems. The purpose of writing of this book is to enable
our students to become "good researchers" and for becoming
"good researchers" they need to acquire both knowledge and skill
in the fields they are expected to work and produce significant
results.
Good books in educational and social research have been
produced and are available only in libraries of elite institutions to
which access of every student and a faculty member is difficult if
not possible. Moreover, such books have been written in the
specific ideological, social, economic and educational situations of
their own countries. Dealing with our own specific situation in
research matters, will need extra efforts. Such consideration has
been taken in view while making this humble attempt.
Two broad fields as observed from the title of this book education
and social sciences have been integrated in this document with
specific objective of meeting the knowledge and skill needs of
educational as well as of social sciences research. It will not be an
1
Introduction
unnatural discussion, because the basic concepts in education and
in social sciences are common and are interlinked so far as the
goals and ideals of a particular society or a community is
concerned.
Educational research aims at to develop new scientific tools,
techniques, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable
and valid study of human behaviour in teaching-learning situation
in the school or in the classroom, while the social research aims at
to develop new scientific, tools, techniques and theories which
would facilitate reliable, and valid study of human behaviour in
the street i.e. society or social life. Social research like educational
research adopts a systematic method of explaining, analyzing and
conceptualizing social life in order to extend, correct or verify
knowledge. Basically there is no difference in the concept,
approach and in the spirit of these two approaches. The difference
is if any, may be relating to the situation i.e. inside the classroom
and outside the classroom. If an educational researcher seeks to
find explanation to an unsolved educational problem, the social
worker strives to find out explanation to an unexplained social
problem in the society. The educational ideals are inspired by the
ideals of the society for the achievement of which institutions are
established and these institutions are influenced by social, cultural
values and differences of the society. So, there is no 'dichotomy' in
education and social sciences. They are infact. two sides of the
same coin. Mahatma Gandhi once rightly said, "School is the
replica of society" Schools are established for preservation and
promotion of ideological, social, cultural, and also economic and
political ideals of the society. Therefore, the mutual discussion on
educational and social problems and seeking their solution through
Introduction
scientific methods will not be out of place for which the writing of
this book has been attempted.
The content of the book spreads over thirteen units, which are
briefly stated:
Unit-1:
Unit-2:
Unit-3:
Unit-4:
Introduction
Unit-5:
Unit-6:
Unit-7:
Unit-8:
Introduction
extraneous variables, and types of experimental
validity etc have been discussed in this unit.
Unit-9:
Unit-10:
Unit-11:
Unit-12:
Unit-13:
Introduction
this unit is to develop knowledge, and skill in our
students of writing a research report which
observing all the required standard formalities.
Important examples have been given in the form
of Appendices at the end of this book. These
include specimens of preliminary pages and
research proposals or synopsis for our perspective
researchers.
As the writer is associated with Allama Iqbal Open University for
supervising its M.Phil and Ph.D students for a long time, the
material support extended to the writer for this purpose, has
greatly facilitated to enrich the content of this book, for which the
writer is highly indebted.
The important feature of this book is that it is written according to
the courses in research techniques, offered almost in all
departments of Arts and Social Sciences. More particularly the
contents are related to the courses in research in vogue in the
Institute of Education and Research, Sociology and Anthropology
Department, University of Peshawar who have kindly collaborated
in the provision of material for the preparation of this book.
Time and resources were constraints facing the writer. Selection of
content appropriate to the subject was an other problem.
Consequently, large margins have been left for improvement of
this document in future. Therefore, readers are requested to kindly
examine the book critically, identify weaknesses and forward
valuable suggestions for improvement and revision of the book so
that it could be reproduced in a more meaningful and acceptable
manner in future.
Introduction
The writing of this book is mainly attributed to the encouragement
and assistance of the writers colleagues and friends Prof. Arbab
Khan Afridi, M. Arshad Ali, Mohammad Rauf IER and Dr. Rashid
Khan, Sociology and Social Anthropology Department, University
of Peshawar.
1.2 NEED FOR RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
Research is a purposeful activity. It creates new knowledge and
expands the frontier of the existing knowledge. If research adds to
the existing knowledge, it is done in an orderly and systematic
manner. It is tested, validated and generalized and utilized when
need arises.
Research and progress are correlated, interrelated and
interdependent. Research is an essential tool in leading man
towards progress and prosperity. Research infact, has stimulated
socio-economic, scientific and technological development in the
world over. Information Technology (IT) once benefited by
research, is now revolutionizing and innovating research activities.
Research and development (R&D) are now synonymously used by
the policy makers and planners particularly in developing
countries like Pakistan. Even the secret of our cultural
development lies in the promotion of research, which breaks away
the boundaries of ignorance and superstition and open avenues of
enlightment, truth and better ways of life. The "blessings" of
research are evident in the form of countless discoveries and
inventions, which have dramatically changed our individual and
social life. If the goal of research is progress and prosperity,
happier and fuller life, then it must be accorded top priority in the
national plans of development and must be adequately supported
by `political will' and liberal financial resources. The
7
Introduction
discriminatory policy as has been pursued between basic sciences
research and social sciences research, should be given up. 'Human
development' as a human being is more important than the
development of physical infrastructure.
1.3 PROCEDURE/ FORMAT OF EDUCTIONAL
RESEARCH
Various design/format or components of the research plan
or proposal have been suggested by research experts. A few of
them are outlined below:
(i)
a.
Introduction
b.
Statement of problem
Statement of Hypotheses
Method
Subjects
Instrument
Design
Procedure
c.
Data Analysis
d.
Time schedule
e.
Introduction
(ii)
g. A time schedule
(iv)
Introduction
b. Objectives of the study
c. Method
d. Significance of the study
e. Definitions, Abbreviations, assumptions limitations
f.
g. Theoretical framework
h. Hypotheses/key questions
i.
j.
Time schedule
Introduction
events, processes and having stricking likeness or similarities.
There is relative permanency and orderliness in nature and that all
natural phenomena are detennined. All these assumptions have
facilitated the work of a scientist and are playing indispensable
role in research.
1.4.2 Scientific Method
Gone are the days when people acquired knowledge by 'trial and
error' method and when authority, traditions, opinions of scholars
and of experts, deductive and inductive reasoning were the main
source of acquiring knowledge. Now the modem method of
acquiring knowledge is based on observed facts and on the
combination of inductive and deductive thought process.
In scientific method, purposeful facts are collected, premises are
tested and reflective thinking are engaged. According to John
Dewey five stages are involved in the act of problem solving.
a.
b.
c.
d.
A felt difficulty
Location and definition of the felt difficulty
Suggested solution of the problem/hypothesis
Deductively reasoning out the consequences of the
suggested solutions
e. Testing the hypotheses by action
The scientific method of reflective thinking is a tool that
investigators use to solve diverse types of problems. For example,
a pure research worker will try to find out new knowledge about
the mysteries of the universe. An applied researcher will seek to
develop a new product that can immediately improve some
existing condition. A classroom teacher will intend to solve certain
practical problem through undertaking action research.
11
Introduction
Man had made tremendous progress in developing better methods
of seeking knowledge down through the ages and thus
revolutionary advances have been made by scientists in the past
century. The tentative solutions to problems forwarded by
scientific method are accepted with greater confidence. Scientific
method is a purposeful and practical "torchlight for men to use in
lighting the way to the discovery of new truth".
1.4.3 Application of Scientific Method in
Education and Other Social Sciences
As already stated research is a formal, systematic application of
the scientific method to the study of the problems. Educational and
social research is thus a formal, systematic application of the
scientific method to the study of educational and social problems.
However, there are differences between educational and social
research and other scientific research. The difference is of the
phenomena studied. It is considerably more difficult to explain,
predict and control situations involving human beings as the most
complex of all organisms. There are so many variables known and
unknown operating in any educational or social environment that
is extremely difficult to generalize or to replicate findings. The
kinds of controls that can be established and maintained for
example in a biochemistry laboratory are virtually impossible in
an educational or social setting. Observation is also more difficult
in educational and social research. Perhaps it is precisely the
difficulty and complexity of educational and social research that
make them such a challenging and exciting fields.
The main steps involved in conducting research look familiar
since they are directly parallel those of the scientific method such
as there are:
12
Introduction
a.
b.
c.
d.
Introduction
their respective investigations. Some critics argue that
since science differs from one another, each science
requires a different method.
Controversy exists concerning the nature and use of the scientific
method, but most scholars regard this intellectual tools as one of
the most promising instruments that man possesses for pushing
forward the frontier of human understanding and increasing the
accumulation of tested and verified knowledge.
Research is a scientific process. It enjoys all the characteristics of
science and scientific method. These characteristics can be derived
from various definitions described in the preceding section,
however, these are stated separately in the following lines.
a. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
The ultimate goal is to discover 'cause' and 'effect'
relationship between variables.
b. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations,
principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting
future occurrences.
c. Research is based upon observations, experiences or on
empirical evidence.
d. Research demands an accurate observation and
description.
e. Research involves gathering new data from primary or
first hand sources or using existing data for a new
purpose.
f. Research is often characterized by carefully designed
procedures that apply rigorous logical analysis.
g. Research requires expertise.
h. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved
problems and pushing back the frontiers of ignorance.
14
Introduction
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
15
Introduction
collects, analyzes and interprets data and draws conclusion
or makes generalizations.
s. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible
test to validate the procedures employed, data collected
and the conclusion reached. The researcher strives to
eliminate personal feelings and bias. The emphasis is on
testing matter rather than providing the hypotheses.
t. Research is a systematic and objective analysis and
recording of controlled observation that may lead to the
development of a generalization, principles or theories
resulting in prediction.
u. The basic characteristics shared by all types of research
are that they are to be planned, cautions, systematic and
reliable ways of finding out the solution of problems or
deepening understanding of the phenomena under
investigation.
Summary or Key-Points
The characteristics
summarized below.
of
scientific
research
described,
are
Highly purposive
Systematic
Critical, logical and objective
Accurate
Involving formulation and testing of hypotheses
Recording and reporting data in quantitative terms
Discovering general principles or arriving
at
generalization
Requiring expertise
Future and policy-oriented
16
Introduction
1.5
Introduction
c. If hypothesis are involved a
qualitative study is much
more likely to generate
them
d. In qualitative approach
there is no such thing as
value free inquiry
e. At
operational
level
qualitative researchers are
more holistic and process
f. Qualitative
researchers
typically
study
many
variables intensely over a
period of time in order to
find out the way things are,
how and why they come to
be that way and what it all
measure?
Qualitative
researchers
are
more
concerned
with
the
meaning of their findings
g. Qualitative researchers do
not want to intervene or to
control anything they want
to study phenomena as they
are in natural settings
h. Quantitative
researchers
conducted
to
promote
greater understanding of not
just the way things are but
also why?
Introduction
activities?
19
It is manageable
It is researchable
20
22
It is researchable
24
25
27
Chapter-1:
Chapter-2:
Summary of data
29
References
Appendix:
(ii)
Preliminary Pages
Acknowledgement
Table of content
Abstract
B.
Chapter-I:
Introduction
Method
a. Subjects
b. Instrument
c. Design
d. Procedure
Chapter-3:
Results
Title page
Acknowledgement
Table of content
List of tables
List of Figures
Chapter-I:
Introduction
Chapter-3:
Procedure used
Sources of data
Method of gathering data
Description of data gathering instrument used
Chapter-4:
Text
Tables
Figures
Chapter-5:
References Section
Bibliography
Appendex
(iv)" Format Usually Adopted by the Author
with some Modification, is stated below:
A.
Acknowledgement
Table of content
Abstract
B.
Chapter-I:
Introduction
Chapter-2:
Analysis of Data
35
a.
In the words of Dr. JR. Hassan (1990) one of the unholy joys one
feels as Pakistani researcher is the realization that what a fertile
land Pakistan is for research. There are in fact, unlimited number
of problems to be investigated by researcher. Research students
usually are not taking pains to identifS certain important problems
for research. Even they show lack of insight or they are
problem blind. The research proposal may be considered as
responses to a problem, because that is what research really is. The
deficiency or weakness which is usually observed in a research
proposal is the lack of a clear problem statement to define and
guide the inquiry. The problem statement should be adequate to
define, guide and conduct systematic research.
(i)
It is manageable
It is researchable
(ii)
39
Time Schedule
43
Sampling
UNIT-4: SAMPLING
The Basic Minimum Needs (BMN) Project was initiated through
collaborative efforts of the provincial government and WHO in a
small union council of MandorilJabbi in the area of Nizampur
District Nowshera North-West-Frontier Province in 1994. About
14000 people of the area live below the poverty line in the target
area. The village Jabbi having population of 6588 was selected on
the basis of being most backward area and the availability of
potential resources to be developed as the pilot site for the
implementation of BMN programme. Later on the BMN activities
were extended to other five adjoining villages including Mandori.
The BMN is an innovative and bold initiative of human resource
development. It aims at to alleviate the poverty of the people and
promises a better quality of life. The priorities set in the project are
the solution of irrigation problem, introduction of cash crops,
development of diary activities, starting forestation of land in the
target village. So far as education and health are concerned, a
general assessment of the situation has been made by the planners
and grey areas have been identified for improvement. The project
is in its second phase of implementation indicating encouraging
impact on the improvement of socio-economic situation of the
village. Such impact is attributed to the financial support of WHO,
community share, and bottom up planning of self-management
and community participation.
As revealed from the BMN project, Jabbi village holds 1830 (997
male and 833 female) population of schools going children 25.0
percent of which are enrolled in six primary schools (4 for boys
and 2 for girls). The situation is grave. Children dropout for
various reasons. The main contributing factors are poverty,
44
Sampling
malnutrition, other physical disabilities, lack of instructional
facilities, poor scholarship and unstimulating school environment.
Teachers academic and professional preparation is low. The
phenomena of untrained teachers exists in schools. Most of
teachers are matric and have undergone short in-service courses
which are inadequate.
In view of the importance of basic education providing firm
bedrock to the socio-economic development of a poor society, an
integral part of the BMN project, the grave situation that prevails
in the institutions, the interest of UNESCO to provide technical
assistance for its re-orientation in the village seems essential. The
UNESCO therefore approached Institute of Education and
Research (IER) University of Peshawar as a research center to
help it in identifying the orientation mandate for which it could
provide technical assistance in planning and implementation of
reorienting basic education towards poverty alleviation and
improvement of quality of life of the people of village Jabbi.
According to the terms of reference of the TSS-I given to the
researcher i.e. to review the governments poverty alleviation
policy and practices, the basic education delivery system, the
current status of teaching-learning situation with reference to
facilities, teacher preparations, supervision, curriculum,
participation of children and learning achievement problems,
issues affecting basic education and to identify programmes and
kind of intervention that suit reorientation of basic education in
Jabbi. The researchers have been able to conduct a three
dimensional study on the specific educational situation and the
socio-economic conditions of the target group. Both the survey
and field observation provided researchers an insight into the
45
Sampling
crucial issues affecting basic education and the socioeconomic
aspect of life of the people.
The survey had also provided rationale to look for an integrated
approach in which education could play pivotal role towards
poverty alleviation and adopt alternatives for income generation of
the community and mobilization of their human and material
resources and their support in developmental efforts. These are
such issues which have also been addressed in the BMN project.
On the basis of findings of this study, a strategy, will therefore; be
proposed for the implementation of the pilot project in the target
village.
4.1 RATIONALE OF SAMPLING
Sampling is much easy to collect data in terms of saving the
money and time because it is somewhat impossible to collect data
form the whole population while the sampling provides
approximately similar and accurate as the population may elicit.
The sampling provides valid measures of reliability and that is the
main purpose of sampling. The basic and essential purposes of
sampling are
To elicit or provide sufficient information about the traits of
population without evaluating every unit of population
To find the reliability of the expectation obtained from the sample
(Chaudhry.2008).
4.2 STEPS IN SAMPLING
A statistical plan relevant to the steps and process taken in the
sampling comes under the umbrella of sample design. The steps
46
Sampling
which are taken under considerations while selecting sample are
given below:
Sampling
treatment may be suffered resulting in providing inaccurate
conclusions. So the researcher should avoid the problem of
overpopulation in experiments. The best example here is the
number of students in the classroom. If the numbers of the
students are high in a classroom then it adversely affect the impact
of instruction and method of teaching. Similar is the case with the
experimental design. Therefore, smaller treatment groups are
generally preferable.
4.3 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The probability sampling is considered as one of the best sample
because it enhances the likelihood of obtaining samples that
represents of the population(Chaudhry.2008).
Probability Sampling (Representative Samples)
Probability samples are selected in such a way that it represents
the whole population. This sampling procedure provides valid
results because they reflect the overall characteristics of the
population from which they are drawn / selected (e.g., residents of
a particular community, students at an elementary school, etc.).
There are two types of probability samples: random and stratified.
Random Sample
The term random means that each sample unit (individual) in the
selected population has the equal chances of selection.
The key to random selection is that there is no bias involved in the
selection of the sample. Any variation between the sample
characteristics and the population characteristics is only a matter
of chance (Chaudhry.2008).
48
Sampling
Stratified Sample
A stratified sample is a micro replication of the whole
population. Prior to sampling, the population is categorized into
characteristics of interest/ importance for the research. For
example, by gender, social class, education level, religion, etc.
Then the population is randomly sampled within each category or
stratum.
Stratified samples are difficult to develop because for the purpose
of making categorization, the researcher should bear advance
knowledge of the population traits (Chaudhry.2008).
4.4
Quota sample
49
Sampling
Quota samplings are easy to administered, need low cost, and give
abrupt results. This approach is mainly used in public opinions
polls and research surveys (Chaudhry.2008).
Purposive Sampling
Purposive sample is a non random sample in which the selection
of the sampling units mainly depends up on the experts perception
about the population. The purposive sample is not based on
probability theory that is why the measuring of the reliability of
the sample outcomes is lacking and due to this the purpose sample
cannot acts as the basis for statistical inference (Chaudhry.2008).
4.5 THE SIZE OF THE SAMPLE
(FUNDAMENTALS)
Sample units are segments or parts selected from the population
constitute the sample size. A complete list of the students studying
in M.Ed at university level, lists of maps clearly mentioning wheat
fields etc. are the examples of sample selected from the
population. The following are the few traits of sample size:
Complete
Free from errors and omissions
Timely modified
4.6 THE CONCEPT OF SAMPLING ERROR
The error in sampling is the systematic elements of error which
affects the result obtained from the selected sample. There is a
difference in random error and sample error. In case of the random
error, the errors are absorbed or become balanced in the long run
while the sampling error is cumulative and increases when the
50
Sampling
sample size increases. Sampling errors are propagated in the
following approaches.
Intentional Selection
Selection of sample on the basis of personal judgments develops
the errors.
Replacement
Sometimes the sample which is selected for the study is not
accessible or the contact is not developed which results in the
replacement of that unit with the easy or accessible one. This
approach creates errors.
Incomplete Coverage
Errors are developing when the researcher fails to cover all the
selected sample of the study.
Zigzag selection
Irregular or zigzag collection of the data from the respondents also
creates problems. The researcher must be specific in collecting
data from the target sample.
Incomplete Interviewing
Errors also develop when the interview process is inadequate and
misleading. The process of interviewing should be completed with
great care (Chaudhry.2008).
51
i)
Honesty
ii)
Objectivity
52
iii)
Integrity
Keep your agreements and act with sincerity and also strive for
consistency of thought and action.
iv)
Carefulness
v)
Openness
vi)
vii)
Confidentiality
viii)
53
ix)
Non-Discrimination
x)
Face Validity
54
The degree or the extent to which test (are developed and) appears
to measure the purpose for which it is being developed.
The assessment of face validity can be easily judged by the
stakeholders. However this very approach is not a scientific one
but still dwells various components of motivation for the
stakeholders. But if the stakeholders do not believe to measure the
face validity in an accurate way then they become withdraw any
time from the task (Cozby, 2001).
Example
If a measure of science project is encouraged to be created. All of
the projects and items should be related to different elements and
types of science. If the questions are regarding hypothetical
projects, with no reference to any experimental approach, the
stakeholders may not be motivated to give their best effort or
invest in this measure because they do not believe that it is a true
assessment of science appreciation.
a)
Content validity
Construct Validity
Consequential validity
Criterion-Related Validity
Formative Validity
b)
This validity is similar to content validity but here overall links are
measures while in sampling validity only the selected samples are
taken under considerations. It can be defined as the measures that
cover a wide range of area of interest within the concept under
study.
Covering every aspect is a difficult task so the items needed to be
sampled from all the domains. This can be easily accomplished
with the help of experts (Cozby, 2001).
Additionally, a panel can help limit expert bias (i.e. a test
reflecting what an individual personally feels are the most
important or relevant areas).
57
Example:
When designing an assessment of learning in the education, so it
would not be sufficient to only cover topics or issues related to
teaching but other areas like integration of these teaching in their
best practical ways (integration of theory into practice) and the
provision of guidance and counseling should be included. The
content area should be entirely reflected through assessment.
Suggestions for the improvement of validity
The following are the essential measures used to improve
the validity.
The goals and objectives should be clearly defined and
should be operationalized. In addition the expectations of
students should be jot down.
The assessment measures should be matched with the
goals and objectives. Moreover, the test may be reviewed
by faculty at other institutes to obtain the valuable
feedback from an outside party who is less invested in the
instrument.
The students should be involved and the responsibilities of
the student are to assess for difficult wording and other
difficulties.
If it is possible then compare the current measures with
other measures or data that may be available and
important.
58
Reliability
The degree or the extent of the similarities among the results
obtained on several occasion. Or in other words it can be defined
as the degree to which an assessment instruments elicit stable and
consistent plethora results.
Reliability in most cases is concerned with the dependability of
assessment outcomes. If the procedure for the assessment practices
were to be repeated, either by subjecting a test for second time or
by rechecking the whole test procedures. Then the reliability of the
assessment practices can be observed if the results elicited form
the test procedures on different occasion are the same.
In subjective assessment, marks allocated are different and for that
purposes they should be checked by two independent markers /
evaluators and if the results are similar or in approximate, the test
is said to be reliably assessed (Cronbach, 1971).
Factors which affects the reliability
The factors which badly effects the reliability are as under
The examinee: fatigue, burden, lack of motivation,
carelessness
Trait of test: ambiguous items, poorly worded direction,
tricky questions, in familiar format
Conditions of test taking and marking: poor
examination condition, excessive heat or cold,
carelessness in marking, disregards or lack of clear
standards for scoring, computational errors.
59
Types of Reliability
The following are the main types of reliability.
Test-retest reliability
Parallel forms reliability
Inter-rater reliability
Internal consistency reliability
i) Average inter-item correlation
ii) Split-half reliability
Test-retest reliability
When the reliability of the results are to measured, then at that
very situation the test retest approaches are used. In this approach
the test are subjected to the group of students at different periods
of time. The scores obtained form first and second time can be
correlated in order to check the stability and persistency of test.
Example:
A test designed to assess students learning in philosophy of
education could be subjected twice on a group of students, there is
a gap (of suppose one week) between first and the second test
second test. The obtained coefficient of correlation would indicate
the persistency and stability of the scores.
Parallel forms reliability
When the different sets or different parts of a test (suppose
questionnaire A and questionnaire B) are developed but they must
have a linkage (in a sense of knowledge, skills and behaviors) and
then these assessment instruments are subjected on the same
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group. The results obtained from these groups are then correlated
which can show the reliability of the test in regards of the alternate
sets of instruments.
Example:
If the high order learning is required to be assessed among the
students, then the set of items which are to be designed must have
the questions regarding the high order learning. Then this
questionnaire or the tool must be implemented among the students
which would represent the parallel forms of reliability.
Inter-rater reliability
The measures of the reliability about the different judges agree
upon the decisions about the assessment is called inter rater
reliability. The answers cannot effectively interpret by human
observers and for that very purpose the interrater reliability is of
utmost importance.
Example:
Inter-rater reliability might be employed when different judges are
evaluating the degree to which art portfolios meet certain
standards. Inter-rater reliability is especially useful when
judgments can be considered relatively subjective. Thus, the use
of this type of reliability would probably be more likely when
evaluating artwork as opposed to math problems.
Internal consistency reliability
When the reliability of similar results obtained from different
judgment of two different sets of items is measured, it is called as
internal consistency reliability.
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UNIT-6:
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
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b.
b)
c)
Review literature,
d)
Gaining access
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e)
Cultural engagement
f)
g)
Collecting data
h)
Data analysis,
i)
j)
Development of theory
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Philosophical Orientation
According to the phenomenologists view, an individual is an
essential part of an environment. The main focal point of
phenomenological research is to know about people's experience
in gazing to an event and how they interpret their experiences. The
entire phenomenologists agree that not a single reality exist
because every individual has his / her own reality. This is well
thought-out true even of the researchers practice in gathering data
and analysing it. Genuineness is an elucidation of some process
that is why the more communal that interpretation is, the more
accurate it seems to be, thus far it remains of time and cultural
(Hoepfl, 1997).
The following are the important aspects which are generally taken
under consideration are phenomenological researchers:
Lived room (spatiality)
Lived human rapports (relationality)
Lived moment (temporality)
Methodology
One of the most important questions answered by
phenomenologist is What is the meaning of ones subsist
practices. The merely reliable supply of information to answer
the aforesaid questions is the person.
The human attitude or practices requires the person convey the
action to the researcher and then that very conveyed actions can be
interpreted by the researcher.
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Selective Coding
The process of selective coding involves the choosing of one
category to be the core category and relating all other categories to
that category. This means that one category is selected as the super
category and all the other categories are related to the super one.
Memos
Memos are short texts written by oneself as one ensues through
the analysis of a quantity of data. The theoretical notes have the
same importance as the memo bear.
Outcomes
The outcome is an assumption elucidation the incident under
study. The research report subject the theory duly supported by
examples from the data.
6.1.5 CRITICAL RESEARCH
The purpose of scientific research is to articulate something of
added value about reality and its processes; in doing so, it follows
detailed rules regarding the necessity to apply adequate guidelines.
There are four fundamental units which jointly make up a specific
field of explanation and understanding of the processes under
consideration. These are the theoretical introduction, methodology,
information and analysis, and discussion. Research is composed of
these four units, in addition to the technological segment that
accompany them: the title page, the table of contents, and the
references.
This approach is based on a preliminary supposition that to open
the gateway of method is to enable phenomena to enter into the
logic of how it operates and will necessitate fundamental
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Reflexive Critique
Dialectical Critique
Collaborative Resource
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d)
Risk
Plural Structure
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Bibliography
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(b)
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O1
RC=
O2
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(ii)
(iii)
RE= O1 T
O2
RC=03
O4
D= dRE
O 2-
O1
dRC=O4
O3
D=dRE-dRC
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treatments and post test at the end of the treatment. The difference
between the scores on pre-test and post test for the experimental
group is denoted as dRE and is calculated by the use of formula
dRE= 02 0 where as the difference between the scores on pretest and post-test of control group is dRE and is calculated by the
use of formula dRC= 04 03. Thus the gains in experimental and
control group are dRE dRC respectively and can be compared
by calculating the net difference between these two gains i.e. with
the help formula
D= dRE - dRC
It is reasonable to attribute the difference between these two gains
(i.e. capital D) to the treatment (Training to the principals in the
example referred frequently) that one group received and the other
group did not. The gain score may also be compared and subjected
to a test of significance of the difference means. Pre-test scores
can also be used in the analysis of co-variance to statistically
control for any difference between the groups at the beginning of
the study.
Let us take the example of training of principals as discussed in
design 4 where in each of this experimental and control groups is
to be subjected to a pre-test (the same or parallel) before the
conduct of experiment. Then the training component is planned to
be given to the experimental group and the control group is not to
be exposed to treatment (training) After the experimental treatment
is over, the same or parallel test (post-test is to be conducted for
both the groups. The gain (02 - Oi) named as dRE in the
experimental group now has its counterpart dRC which is equal to
(04 03) in the control group and these gains can be compared.
Their difference is D which is equal to dRE dRC or (02 01)
(04 03). It is reasonable to attribute the difference between
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O1
O2
RC
O3
O4
RE
O5
RC
O6
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
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vi.
O1
O2
03
O4
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05 06 07 08
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events becomes more difficult with the passage of time and almost
certainly should be restricted to the preceding month.
Baseline Phase
The baseline phase stand for the period in which the involvement
to be assessed is not presented to the respondents. During the
baseline phase, repeated measurements of the dependent variable
are taken or renovated. These measures reflect the status of the
consumer (agency or community) on the dependent variable
before the accomplishment of the involvement.
The baseline phase measurements provide two aspects of control
analogous to a control group in a group design. First in a group
design, the researchers expect the treatment group to have
dissimilar scores than the control group after the involvement.
Second, in a control group design, random assignment controls for
intimidation to internal validity. In a single-subject design, the
repeated baseline measurements permit the researcher to the
reduction of most intimidation to the internal validity of the
design.
Treatment Phase
The treatment phase stands for the time period during which the
involvement is implemented. During the treatment phase the
repeated measurements of the same dependent variable using the
same measures are obtained. In due course, the patterns and
magnitude of the data points are compared to the data points in the
baseline phase to determine whether a change has occurred. It is
recommended that the length of the treatment phase be as long as
the baseline phase.
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Graphing
The phases of a single-subject design are always summarized on a
graph. Graphing the data make possible the supervising and
assessing the impact of the involvement. In the graph, the Y axis is
often used to represent the scores of the dependent variable while
the X axis represents a unit of time.
7.2 NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
7.2.1 DESCRIPTIVE
A descriptive research includes the collection of data in order to
check the proposed hypothesis regarding the topic of interest. This
research sometimes deals with the existing processes or events
relevant to the preceding one or to check the impact of previous
event on the current. The whole process comprises the collection
and tabulation of the facts, analysis and interpretation, comparison
and contrast among the variables as well as their categorizations
and assessment (Ghaffar, 2005).
The importance of the descriptive research dwells on the fact that
not much advancement can be made in coping up with the
problems unless the researchers contains descriptions of the events
with which they work. Descriptive research is well-liked because a
numerous research studies are descriptive in nature. It so used in
solving varieties of hampers and impedes in education field
because it is majorly concerned with the evaluation of behavior,
notions, background studies (Ghaffar, 2005).
Descriptive research is sometimes called as non experimental
research because it is often used to investigate the relationships
between two variables and the hypothesis drawn (Ghaffar, 2005).
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Cross-Sectional Surveys
Longitudinal Surveys
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Cohort Studies
Cohort studies focus on a particular population taken sample and
studied more than once but the focal point of the cohort studies are
different.
Panel Studies
Panel studies permit the researcher to find out the reason of
changes occurred in the population as the researchers use the same
sample of people every time. That sample is called a panel. Panel
studies elicits extremely specific and useful rationalization but can
be tough job to conduct. They are expensive and take a lot of time
and also may be suffer from high abrasion rates. Abrasion is what
happens when people drop out of the study.
Stages in Survey Design
The following are the important steps often exercised during the
survey study:
Define the objectives;
Decide the kind of survey required;
Formulate research questions or hypotheses;
Decide the issues on which to focus;
Decide the information that is needed to address the
issues;
Decide the sampling required;
Decide the instrumentation and the metrics required;
Generate the data collection instruments;
Decide how the data will be collected;
Pilot the instruments and refine them;
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b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages.
Secondary data helps us understand the condition or status of a
group, but compared to primary data they are imperfect reflections
of reality. Without proper interpretation and analysis they do not
help us understand why something is happening.
The person reviewing the secondary data can easily become
overwhelmed by the volume of secondary data available, if
selectivity is not exercised.
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Research Instruments
Questionnaire Defined
Forms/Kinds of Questionnaire
Research Instruments
Close Form
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It is relatively objective
(iii)
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Research Instruments
They can be used when there are too many potential answer
categories to test on the questionnaire
They are preferable to complex issues that cannot be condensed
into small categories
They allow more opportunity for creativity, thinking and self
expression
They are used for complex questions that could be answered in a
few simple categories but require more detail discussion
(vii)
Disadvantages
Questionnaire
or
Limitations
of
Open
Form
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Scale Items
A scale items is a question to which the respondents expresses his
agreement or disagreement of various levels. Such items have
fixed alternative and the respondent indicates where he stands on
the scale. For example the item indicated earlier relating to
English medium school may be presented as follow:
All English Medium Institutions should be closed forth with.
Strongly agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly disagree
(i)
What is Interview?
Advantages
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To verify hypothesis
ii)
Validation of hypothesis
iii)
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ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
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8.3 ACCOUNTS
Account a tool of collecting data from the topic of interest. The
data is collected by various modes like documents (which bear the
data), books, government documents, official statistics, technical
reports, scholarly journals, trade journals, review articles,
reference books, research organizations, Universities Libraries,
library search engines and computerized databases. The data are
gathered by such approaches are reliable and suitable for the study
of interest.
8.4 OBSERVATION
The Nature of Observation
In an observational study or through un-observational technique,
the current status of a phenomena is determined not by asking but
by observing. Observation is most appropriate approach for
studying the covert behaviour of persons. Observation as a
research technique should be directed by a specified purpose
systematic carefully focused and thoroughly recorded procedure.
Like other methods it should be subjected to checks for accuracy,
validity and reliability.
Observation may be direct or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled.
There are participant observation and non participant observation.
Participant-observation is usually associated with qualitative
research. Naturalistic observation includes both natural
observation and simulation observation and typically involves
observation of human subject.
Here non-participant, naturalistic observation and simulation
observation are briefly described.
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Non-Participant Observation
In non participant observation, the observer is not directly
involved in the situation to be observed. In other words the
observer is on the outside looking in and does not intentionally
interact with, or effect the object of the observation.
Naturalistic Observation
Certain kind of behaviour can only be (or least be) observed as
they occur naturally. In such situation then observer purposefully
controls or manipulates nothing, and infact, works very hard but
not affecting the observed situation in any way. The intent is to
record and study behaviour as it normally occurs. For example,
classroom behaviour of the teacher, behaviour of the students and
the interaction between the teacher and the students can best be
studied through naturalistic observation, often form the foundation
non controlled research in an area. The work of Piaget for
example, involved primarily naturalistic observation of children.
His research which has stimulated researches (in naturalistic
observations) have provided education which many important
findings regarding concept development in children.
Simulation Observation
The simulation observation, the researcher creates the situation to
be observed and tells subject what activities they are to engage in.
the technique allows the researcher to observe behaviour but
occurs frequently in natural situation or not at all. The major
disadvantage of this type of observation is of course that it is not
natural and the behaviour exhibited by subjects may not be the
behavour that would occur in natural setting. However, this is not
a serious problem. Subjects tend carried away with their roles and
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Achievement Tests
Research Instruments
Aptitude Tests
Personality Tests
Research Instruments
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Likert Scale
Likert scales are one of the most commonly used scales in
educational and social science research. A psychologist Rensis
Likert for the first time develops this type of scales. On a survey
or questionnaire, the Likert scale typically has the following
format:
Strongly agree
Agree
Neither agree nor disagree / Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree
It must be noted that the individual who use the questions in this
format are called Likert items while the Likert scale is a sum of
several Likert items. To create the scale, each answer choices are
assigned a score (say 1-5) and the answers for several Likert items
(that measure the same concept) can be summed together for each
individual to get an overall Likert score.
Thurstone Scale
The Thurstone scale was first shaped by Louis Thurstone, is
planned to develop a format for generating groups of indicators of
a variable that have an empirical structure among them. For
example, if the researchers were studying a topic on
discrimination, s/he would put together a list of items and then ask
respondents to assign scores (suppose 1 to 10) to each item. In real
meaning, they are ranking the items in order of which is the
weakest indicator of discrimination all the way to which is the
strongest indicator.
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Purpose
Anecdotes confine the richness and complexities of the moment as
focal person interact with one another and with materials. These
records of focal persons behavior and learning accumulated over
time enhance the narrators understanding of the individual focal
person as patterns or profiles begin to emerge. Behavioral change
can be tracked and documented, and placed in the focal persons
portfolio resulting in suggestions for future observations.
Precautions
The following should be taken under consideration while
conducting an anecdote.
The anecdote should be accurate, objective and specific.
The narrator should not make assumptions or use subjective or
ambiguous words.
The following should ask the narrators from himself / herself
while narrating the event or anecdote.
Am I writing in such a way that anyone else viewing the same
event would the write in exact the same way?
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By closing their eyes, they have the view of the same scene in
their mind?
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Analysis of Data
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Analysis of Data
Analysis of Data
Categorization of Information
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Analysis of Data
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Analysis of Data
Relative Importance
The researcher can count the number of occurrence regarding
some specific theme (s) which comes frequently in the data. From
this the importance of theme(s) can be acknowledged.
Step 5 Interpretation
It seems to very helpful to develop a list of all the key points or
important finding in a data. Develop an outline to present the
results of the study for writing a final report. It is often helpful to
include some quotes or descriptive examples to point up important
points.
Sometimes diagrammatic representations can help all the parts to
fit together. Developing such sculpts / models helps in pointing out
the gaps in the study which are remain unclear.
Foundations of Narrative Analysis
A shift from a bunch of words to a final draft requires modes for
organizing and keeping way to the next. It can be called as
protocols of trimming and arrangement the data.
The management giving preference to the data majorly depends
upon the amount and type of qualitative data. The important tips
regarding the management of data are as under:
Confirm the data
Provides ID number to the respondents
Arrange the data for analysis
Craft copies (keep the original and work in duplicate)
Spot / Recognize all the sources of the data
Spot / Mark key / crucial themes
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Analysis of Data
Analysis of Data
the level of measurement with the data (Maxwell, 1996). The main
levels of measurements are as under:
Nominal data
Types of data which has no logical information and the data act as
the basis of classification.
Example:
Ordinal data
Types of data which has some specific and clear logical order but
the differences between the values are not constant (such that they
raise or lessen with the existence of the traits).
Example:
Interval data
The data is continuous and constant with logical order and the data
has standardized differences between values. The ratios for
interval data are meaningless.
Example: Fahrenheit degrees
One cannot say that today is twice as hot as another day.
Items measured on a Likert scale rank the satisfaction of oneself
on scale of 1-5.
1 = Very Dissatisfied,
4 = Satisfied,
2 = Dissatisfied,
3 = Neutral
5 = Very satisfied
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Analysis of Data
Ratio data
The data is continuous and constant, properly ordered and has
standardized differences between values with a natural
zero sometimes.
Example: height, weight, age, length
Having an absolute zero elicits meaningful outcomes that one
measure is twice as long as another.
For example 20 inches is twice as long as 10 inches.
This ratio hold true regardless of which scale the object is being
measured in (e.g. meters or yards).
Once the researcher identified the levels of measurement, s/he can
begin using some of the quantitative data analysis protocols are
outlined below. Due to the restrictions in sample size, the types of
quantitative methods at the researchers disposal are limited. The
main protocols in the quantitative data analysis are as under:
a)
Analysis of Data
Descriptive data
Analysis of Data
Data Disaggregation
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Analysis of Data
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Acknowledgment
This section includes those individuals or groups which help the
researcher on the fulfillment of the research.
Table of Contents
The table of contents sections includes the overall chapters, major
heading and sub heading followed by page numbers. Generally,
the page number is stated in front of the chapters, heading, and sub
heading.
List of tables and list of figures
This section includes the overall tables and figures or graph used
in the whole research report / study.
Abstract
This portion is just the summary of the whole research/ project
report which mainly includes the hypothesis, procedures, major
findings, suggestions and recommendations. It is generally advised
to use one word substitution in abstract. The abstract must fulfilled
the following questions.
Does it give a clear and brief summary of the research?
Does it clearly state the problem?
Does it quote / mark the literature dealing with the problem?
Does it summarize the key findings of the research?
Main Body
This portion is divided into five major units which include
introduction, review literature, methods and procedure, results and
discussion, and findings, suggestions and recommendations. All of
these are discussed as under:
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Review Literature
The purpose of the review literature is to know about the relevant
and similar research work done prior on the current topic / study.
When the researchers conduct a review literature, it help them a lot
and the researcher came to know about the selected topic that how
much and up to what extent a research has been conducted on his /
her area of interest. The review literatures also help the researchers
to revise their topic and also show the procedures, approaches and
specificity of the problem to the selected research project. The
most important aspect of review literature is that, after completing
a through literature review, the researcher will be able to specify
the research questions and hypothesis and the researcher can get a
clear picture (Jack, 2007).
Methods and Procedures
Sampling
Experiential research always depends upon a sample which is
understood to precisely represent a population. Therefore, the
techniques by which the sample was chosen are crucial to a
discussion the validity of the research findings.
Empirical research methodology measurement
instruments
When particular measurement instruments are used it is often vital
to make clear how those instruments were designed and where and
up to what extent they have formerly been used.
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Recommendations
In this portion, the researcher stated such suggestions to the
problems which are confronted to the individual, to the society, to
the nations etc. the recommendations helps in problem-solving
strategy decisions for implementations.
References
This portion includes all the citations and researchers whose ideas
and notions are used in the study. These may be in chronological
order and usually use APA format. Other formats like MLA,
Chicago, Turabian and SIST02 are also used.
Appendices / Annexure
This portion includes all the maps, concerned letters, research
instruments etc. This section is followed after the references.
10.2 VOICE AND POINT OF VIEW
Point of View
When the researchers are subjected to write the research report,
he / she can opt any of the three approaches in this regard. The
main approaches often taken under considerations are first-person,
second-person and third person.
First-Person Approach
This is a strappingly individualized point of view in which the
researcher draw on his / her own experience and verbalize to his /
her addressees in his / her own voice (using pronouns like I, me,
mine, we, our, and us). This approach highlights the researcher, the
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voice than in passive. Use the active voice unless you have a good
reason for choosing the passive.
Choosing Passive Voice
In scientific writing, passive voice is more eagerly accepted since
using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the
names of particular researchers. This do helps to create the
appearance of an objective, fact-based paper. Even in scientific
writing, the gorge of passive voice or use of passive voice in long
and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or
become confused. That is why the sentences in active voice are
generally, though not always, clearer and more direct than those in
passive voice.
Unnecessary Shifts
Keep away from starting a sentence in active voice and then
shifting to passive.
10.3 PREPARATION OF THE REPORT
While preparing the research report, it is the will of the researcher
that what kind of approach he / she want to opt. However,
deeming some knowledge about the way how other researchers
solve their common errors will be helpful.
Developing preliminary outline and modifying
the report
First the data is collected from the field and then subject that to
test the hypothesis. Most of the reports are crafted after testing the
hypothesis. The researcher make categories of the data for analysis
and after analysis, draw certain explanations and interpretation for
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Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aggraval,
J.C
(1991)
Educational
Research:
An
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Bibliography
156
Bibliography
157
Bibliography
Van
Dalen,
Deolbold
B.
(1985)
Understanding
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Appendix
APPENDIX
II. Proposals/Synopses (Specimen)
(Specimen)
Appendix
160
Appendix
The planners had further pointed out major issues like low
participation and poor standard of education at elementary level,
lack of proper accommodation, absence of permissive atmosphere,
poor teachers training, defective and unrelated curricula,
unattractive text books, lack of proper administration and
supervision, defective methods of recruitment and training,
the shortage of teachers and lack of facilities in schools in rural
areas. Now this project and other similar projects have been
completed. What changes and improvement have been brought
about, needs thorough investigation. The present study
concentrates on such basic issues. To what extent gaps in
education at the fist level in urban and rural areas, and in male and
female education, still exist? What is the nature of such
unbalanced situation? How are such disparities challenging and
demand changes and improvement in future? And how a balanced
education system at elementary level could be developed and
sustained in future? And how can an Action Plan of development
be devised to meet such target by 2010 and 2015? These are such
questions which have stimulated the researcher to undertake such
type of study.
2.
161
Appendix
3.
4.
Appendix
163
Appendix
Assumptions
Appendix
6.
Appendix
7.
a.
Literature Survey/Review
Appendix
9.
Guidelines:
The Questionnaires:
167
Appendix
10.
References
Appendix
12. Government
of
NWFP,
Planning
Environment
and
of
NWFP,
Planning
Environment
and
of
NWFP,
Planning
Environment
and
of
NWFP,
Planning
Environment
and
of
NWFP,
Planning
Environment
and
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