ALOHA AIRLINES,

BOEING 737-200,
NEAR MAUI, HAWAII
APRIL 1988
8000 meter

03 Dynamic loads
Ir. Vincent Brugemann
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Dynamic loads

Two important types of dynamic loads:

Fatigue
Impact

Related subjects that will be discussed:

Stress variations
Barely Visible Impact Damage
Damage tolerance

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Cyclic bending loads

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

1998: InterCityExpress
Munich to Hamburg
Cracks started at inner side of rim
Promoted by wear

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Fatigue

Dimensioning factor: number of cycles until failure

Happens below yield stress
Depends on:
Type of fatigue load
Constant
Variable

Stress level
Frequency

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Fatigue load
Variable amplitude

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AE1202 Structures and Materials

Fatigue loading
Variable amplitude

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

30
20
10
0
-10

T [C]

stress [MPa]

Flight cycle loading:

-20
-30
-40
0

10

15

20

stress [MPa]

25

30
t [C]

35
40
time [s]
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Fatigue load
Constant amplitude
Parameters:
Waveform (block, sine)
Frequency
Stresses (2 required)
Maximum
Minimum
Amplitude
Mean

Stress ratio:

min
R=
max
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Fatigue load
Constant amplitude
Whler curve (S-N curve)

average stress
sigmam

Fatigue limit: the maximal stress level

without any fatigue during the service life
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Three stages of fatigue

Initiation of cracks
We assume that there are no cracks present if we can not detect
them

Crack growth

Material property

Failure (Residual fracture)

Fracture toughness KIc

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Crack initiation metal

Surface roughness and irregularities give a peak stress at the

surface that lead to microplastic deformations at the surface

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Crack initiation metal

Micro-plasticity causes larger surface disturbances

Increase of stress peaks, initiation of microcracks

first cycle

second cycle
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Fatigue

Electron micrograph of
fatigue fracture surface

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Fatigue

Cracks grow perpendicular

to the loading direction

~2mm
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Dynamic loads

Two important types of dynamic loads:

Fatigue
Impact

Related subjects that will be discussed:

Stress variations
Barely Visible Impact Damage
Damage tolerance

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Impact

The deformation process during the collision of two or more

objects
Typical impacts causing damage to aircraft structures:

Birds
Missiles / Other airplanes
Runway debris
Hail stones
Parts of aircraft
Tools

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AE1202 Structures and Materials

Impact: hailstrike (2003)

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Impact: Birdstrike and

(Un)contained engine failure

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Birdstrike with leading edge of wing

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Blade off experiment

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AE1202 Structures and Materials

Runway debris

Accident in 2000 with the Concorde

Most probable cause: impact of metal object in the fuel tank
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Impact process

Impact speed: Speed of projectile at the point of impact

Impact energy: Kinetic energy at the point of impact
Strain rate: d/dt caused by the impact in the material
impact velocity
[m/s]
<50
50-500
500-1000
1000-3000
3000-12000

strain rate
[s-1]
<10
10-103
103-104
105-106
106-107

>12000

>107

Physical material behavior

Mostly elastic, local plasticity
Plastic
Viscous material strength important
Liquid behavior
Hydro dynamic material behavior,
compressibility
Explosive impact, materials
transform to the gas phase

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Impact: energy transfer

Kinetic energy of projectile transferred in:

Kinetic energy of the structure

Acoustic vibrations (noise)
Deformation energy of the clamping of the structure
Internal elastic and plastic energy
Fracture energy
Damping & Friction (transfer to heat)

The amount of energy that a material will dissipate until fracture

is of importance

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Energy dissipation of materials

Ufracture: surface under stress-strain curve of a material
material
Aramid/epoxy
E-glass/epoxy
Carbon/epoxy
Al 2024-T3
Glare 2

ultimate
MPa

E-modulus
MPa

ultimate
%

Ufracture
10-3 J/mm

1400
1700
1500
450
1230

62500
36500
150000
72000
65600

2.3
4.6
1.0
12
5.1

16.1
39.1
7.5
56
37.8

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AE1202 Structures and Materials

Impact failure modes

delaminations

fracture by bending deformation

plugging

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AE1202 Structures and Materials

Impact testing

Impact test methods; high strain rate testing

Materials:

Charpy test
Izod test
Drop tower (~10 m/s)
Air gun (~100 m/s or higher)

Structures:
Drop tower or air gun
Determination of BVID

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Impact testing
Charpy and Izod test methods

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AE1202 Structures and Materials

Drop tower (Vmax=10m/s)

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AE1202 Structures and Materials

Air Gun
Maximum speed about 100m/s
Air guns can reach higher speeds (up to hypervelocity)

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Dynamic loads

Two important types of dynamic loads:

Fatigue
Impact

Related subjects that will be discussed:

Stress variations
Barely Visible Impact Damage
Damage tolerance

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Stress concentrations

Local disturbance, change in stiffness

e.g. Holes, cut-outs, thickness changes, cracks

Disturbance of stress flow

Two types:
Due to a geometrical notch
Governed by Kt
Stress concentrations

Due to a crack
Governed by K
Stress intensity

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AE1202 Structures and Materials

Stress concentrations

Looking at any cross section of the sheet:

normal stresses are constant
no stress concentrations
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AE1202 Structures and Materials

Stress concentration factor Kt

P
S

W
nom = W-d S

peak
Kt =
nom

nom

peak

P
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Stress concentration

Elliptical hole:
At point A: Kt = 1 +2a/b
At point B: Kt = -1

For a round hole: Kt=3

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AE1202 Structures and Materials

Question

Calculate the stress concentration for these 3 cases:

Kt = 1 +2a/b
Oval
hole
h=3w

Round
hole

Oval
hole
3h=w

d/3
3d

d
A

Kt=3

Kt=1+2d/3d=5/3

Kt=1+2*3d/d=7
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Question

What if the height of the hole decreases to 0?

In other words: when we get a crack in stead of a
hole?

Kt = 1 +2a/b

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Stress intensity

Describing stresses around a crack tip in linear elastic materials

K = Y a
Stress intensity (K) depends on:
Crack geometry (Y)
crack length (a)
nominal stress ()

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Stress intensity factor

Theory is only valid:

For materials that are linear elastic until fracture
When crack growth is perpendicular to the loading

Crack growth rate at a certain K-value depends on material

K = Y a

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

When will failure occur?

K = Y a
When K reaches the critical value
Fracture toughness (KIc) is a material property

Specimen will fail when either:

Critical crack length (acr) is reached for given stress

K Ic
Y a cr

1 K Ic

or a cr =
Y

Critical stress (cr) is reached for given crack length

cr =

K Ic
Y a
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Dynamic loads

Two important types of dynamic loads:

Fatigue
Impact

Related subjects that will be discussed:

Stress variations
Barely Visible Impact Damage
Damage tolerance

40
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Impact damage
Metals
At low impact energy: dent
At high impact energy: dent in combination with cracks (when
stress > ultimate on side opposite impact-side)
With thick plate: plugging
Damage can be detected easily

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Impact damage
Composites
Composites are sensitive for impact damage because of:
relatively low interlaminar strength
relatively brittle matrix and fibers

Impact damage
Low energy, Delaminations most on the side opposite the impact-side
Higher energy, Delaminations, and fiber fracture due to the high
bending stresses

Effect of impact damage:

Reduction of compressive strength
Poor detectability of low energy impact damage
Design for damage tolerance
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Compression after impact

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Composites: BVID

Barely Visible Impact Damage

Impact energy below BVID level creates damage which is difficult to
detect => dangerous situation
In case of damage below BVID, compressive stresses could lead to
unexpected failure of structure

Design for compressive stress level at BVID

Damage can be visibly detected and repaired

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Question

Give examples of impacts on aircraft structures, two at low speed

and two at high speed
Why is the speed range of an impact important?

Answers:
1) Low speed: tool drop, airport collisions
High speed: bird impact, ballistic, engine explosion
2) The speed range governs the type of deformation
Low speed: Elastic deformation dominates
High speed: Energy dissipation by plastic deformation and fracture
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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Regulations

Development of concepts
Damage Tolerance

Fail safe

Safe Life

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Safe life of a structure is that number of events such as

flights, landings, or flight hours, during which there is a low
probability that the strength will degrade below its design
ultimate value due to fatigue cracking.

Fail-safe is the attribute of the structure that permits it to

retain required residual strength for a period of unrepaired use after failure or partial failure of a principal
structural element.

Damage Tolerance: The ability of the structure to sustain

anticipated loads in the presence of fatigue, corrosion or
accidental damage until such damage is detected through
inspections or malfunctions and is repaired.

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Where to fit the B787 and the A350?

No growth concepts?

Safe Life
?

Fail safe

Damage Tolerance

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Damage tolerance

Damage resistance:
Ability to withstand the formation of damage

Damage tolerance:
Effect of damage on the function of the structure
Depends on properties of the structure & of the materials

Residual strength:
Strength of damaged structure

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials

Summary

Fatigue
Three stages: Initiation, crack growth, failure
Occurs below the yield limit due to micro plasticity

Impact
Deformation process during collision
Effect on structure is dependant on kinetic energy of bodies

Alterations to the homogeneous stress state

Concentration due to geometrical notches
Intensity due to cracks

Barely visible impact damage (BVID)

Especially important for composite materials
Design with the strength at BVID (when the damage becomes visible)

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Faculty of Aerospace Engineering

AE1202 Structures and Materials