A.

Alaca

Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

MATH 2107 LINEAR ALGEBRA II

LECTURE NOTES
c
Ay
se Alaca
Last modified: January 7, 2014
(These Lecture Notes replace neither the Text Book nor the Lectures)

Section 4.1
VECTOR SPACES and SUBSPACES

Text book:
Linear Algebra and its applications
Fourth Edition
By David C. Lay

These notes may be incomplete or contain errors/typos.

A. Alaca

Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

VECTOR SPACES
Definition: Let V be a set on which two operations (addition) and
 (multiplication) have been defined. If the following axioms hold for all
u, v, w V and for all c, d R, then V is called a real vector space and
its elements are called vectors. It is denoted by (V, , ).
1. u v V

(Closure under addition)

2. u v = v u

(Commutativity)

3. (u v) w = u (v w)

(Associativity)

4. (unique) 0 V such that u 0 = u

5. For each u V , (unique) u V such that u (u) = 0.
6. c  u V

(Closure under scalar multiplication)

7. c  (u v) = c  u c  v

(Distributivity)

8. (c + d)  u = (c  u) (d  u)

(Distributivity)

9. (c d)  u = c  (d  u)
10. 1  u = u
Remark:
Instead of R, if we use C, then (V, , ) is called a complex vector space.
If the scalars belong to Zp , where p is a prime, then (V, , ) is called a
vector space over Zp .

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Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

Theorem: Let V be a vector space, u be a vector in V and c be a scalar.

Then,
(a) 0 u = 0.
(b) c 0 = 0.
(c) (1)u = u.
(d) If c u = 0, then either c = 0 or u = 0.

Proof. (a)
0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u + 0u,
0u + (0u) = (0u + 0u) + (0u)
= 0u + (0u + (0u))
0 = 0u + 0
= 0u

(by axiom (8))

(adding 0u on both sides)
(by axiom (3))
(by axiom (5))
(by axiom (4)).

c 0 = c (0 + 0) = c 0 + c 0,
c 0 + (c 0) = (c 0 + c 0) + (c 0),
= c 0 + (c 0 + (c 0))
0 = c0 + 0
= c0

(by axiom (8))

(adding c 0 on both sides)
(by axiom (3))
(by axiom (5))
(by axiom (4)).

(b)

(c)
0

=
=
=
=
=

0u
(1 + (1))u
1 u + (1) u
u + (1) u
(1)u = u

(by (a))
(by axiom (8))
(by axiom (10))
(by axiom (5)).

(d) Suppose cu = 0 but c 6= 0 (If c = 0, there is nothing to prove). Then,

1
1
1
u = 1u = ( c) u = (c u) = 0 = 0
c
c
c

(by (b)).

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Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

Example : Let V := {(1, x) | x R} with

(1, x) (1, y) = (1, x + y),

c  (1, x) = (1, cx).

Then (V, , ) is a vector space.

Proof.
1. (1, x) (1, y) = (1, x + y) V .
2. (1, x) (1, y) = (1, x + y) = (1, y + x) = (1, y) (1, x).
3.



(1, x) (1, y) (1, z) = (1, x + y) (1, z)

 

= 1, (x + y) + z = 1, x + (y + z)
= (1, x) (1, y + z)


= (1, x) (1, y) (1, z) .

4. (1, 0) V and for all (1, x) V we have

(1, 0) (1, x) = (1, 0 + x) = (1, x).
Hence zero vector of V is (1, 0).
5. (1, x) and (1, x) = (1, x) V . We have
(1, x) (1, x) = (1, x x) = (1, 0).
Hence (1, x) V and 1  (1, x) = (1, x) V .
6. c  (1, x) = (1, cx) V .
7.




c  (1, x) (1, y) = c  (1, x + y) = 1, c(x + y)
= (1, cx + cy) = (1, cx) (1, cy)

 

= c  (1, x) c  (1, y) .

A. Alaca

Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

8.


(c + d)  (1, x) = 1, (c + d)x = (1, cx + dx)
= (1, cx) (1, dx)

 

= c  (1, x) d  (1, x) .
9.


c  d  (1, x) = c  (1, dx) = (1, c(dx)) = (1, (cd)x) = (cd)  (1, x).
10. 1  (1, x) = (1, 1x) = (1, x).

A. Alaca

Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

Example : Let R = R \ {0}. Let V := {(x, y) | x, y R } with

(x, y) (z, w) = (xz, yw),

c  (x, y) = (cx, cy).

Is (V, , ) a vector space ?

Proof.
1. (x, y) (z, w) = (xz, yw) V .
2. (x, y) (z, w) = (xz, yw) = (zx, wy) = (z, w) (x, y).
3.


(a, b) (c, d) (e, f ) = (ac, bd) (e, f )

 

= (ac)e, (bd)f = a(ce), b(df )
= (a, b) (ce, df )


= (a, b) (c, d) (e, f ) .
4. The zero vector of V is (1, 1) V as (1, 1) (a, b) = (1a, 1b) = (a, b).
Remark: We can find the zero vector of V as follows:
Take any (a, b) V . Then a 6= 0 and b 6= 0. We need to find (x, y) V
such that (a, b) (x, y) = (a, b).
Now
(a, b) (x, y) = (ax, by) = (a, b) ax = a and by = b
x = 1 and y = 1 (since a, b 6= 0)
(x, y) = (1, 1).
1
1
R , R, and we have
a
b
1 1  1
1
,
= a , b
= (1, 1).
(a, b)
a b
a
b
1 1
, .
Thus the negative of (a, b) is
a b

5. Let (a, b) V . Then a R, b R ,

A. Alaca

Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

6. c  (x, y) = (cx, cy) V if c 6= 0.

So, the axiom 6 is not true for all c !
Hence (V, , ) is not a vector space.
7.


LHS = c  (x, y) (z, w) = c  (xz, yw) = (cxz, cyw).


 

RHS = c  (x, y) c  (z, w) = (cx, cy) (cz, cw) = (c2xz, c2yw).
Then
LHS = RHS (cxz, cyw) = (c2 xz, c2yw) c2 = c c = 1 or c = 0.
Hence the axiom 7 is not true for all c !
8.


LHS = (c + d)  (x, y) = (c + d)x, (c + d)y .

 

RHS = c  (x, y) d  (x, y) = (cx, cy) (dx, dy) = (cdx2 , cdy 2 ).


LHS = RHS (c + d)x, (c + d)y = (cdx2 , cdy 2),
which is not true for all c, d R and (x, y) V . So the axiom 8 fails !


9. c  d  (x, y) = c  (dx, dy) = (cdx, cdy) = (cd)  (x, y).
10. 1  (x, y) = (1x, 1y) = (x, y).

A. Alaca

Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

Example 1: For any n 1, Rn is a vector space.

For n = 2:


 
 

 

u1
u1
v1
u1 + v1
cu1
uv =

=
, cu = c
=
.
u2
v2
u2 + v2
u2
cu2
 




0
u1
u1
2
0=
(zero vector), If u =
R = u =
R2 and
0
u2
u2

 
 
  
u1
u1
u1 u1
0
u (u) =

=
=
= 0.
u2
u2
u2 u2
0
Example 2: For any positive integers m and n, the set of all m n matrices
form a vector space with the usual matrix addition and scalar multiplication.
This vector space is denoted by Mmn .
Example 3: Let n 0.
Let Pn = { all polynomials of degree n with real coefficients}.
If p(x), q(x) Pn . Then,
p(x) = a0 + a1x + + an xn , q(x) = b0 + b1 x + + bn xn ,
p(x) q(x) = (a0 + b0) + (a1 + b1)x + + (an + bn )xn ,
c  p(x) = ca0 + ca1x + + can xn .
(Pn , , ) is a real space.
The zero vector (zero polynomial) of Pn is
0 = 0 + 0x + + 0xn ,
whose degree is not defined.
The negative of p Pn is (p)(x) = p(x) = a0 a1x an xn .
Example 4: Let F = { All real-valued functions}. Then F is a vector space
with
(f g)(x) = f (x) + g(x),

(c  f )(x) = cf(x).

The zero vector (zero function) is f0 (x) = 0 for all x.

f is defined by (f )(x) = f (x).

A. Alaca

Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

Example 5: Let Z be the set of all integers. Is (Z, +, ) a real vector space?
1
Solution: Take z = 2 Z and c = R. Then
4
cz =

1
1
2 = 6 Z = Z is not closed under .
4
2

Thus (Z, +, ) is not a vector space over R.

Example 6: Let Nn = {A| det(A) = 0} Mnn . Is Nn a vector space?
Soution: Take n = 2. Let




2 0
0 0
, B=
= det A = 0, det B = 0 = A, B N2.
A=
0 0
0 5


2 0
= det(A + B) = 10 6= 0 = A + B 6 N2.
A+B =
0 5
Hence Nn is not a vector space.
Example 7: Let Kn = {A |A is invertible} Mnn . Is Kn a vector space?
Soution: Take n = 2. Let




1 0
1
0
A=
, B=
.
0 1
0 1
= A, B are invertible (A1 = A, B 1 = B) = A, B Kn .


0 0
A+B =
= A + B is not invertible = A + B 6 Kn .
0 0
Hence Kn is not a vector space.
Example 8: Let V = {f |f is differentiable and f 0 (0) = 1}.
Is V a vector space?
Solution: Let f, g V .
Since f and g are differentiable, f + g is also differentiable.
Since f 0 (0) = 1, g 0 (0) = 1,
(f 0 + g 0 )(0) = f 0 (0) + g 0 (0) = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 1 = f + g 6 V.
Hence V is not a vector space.

A. Alaca

Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

10

SUBSPACES
Definition: A subset H of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if H is
itself a vector space with the same scalars, addition, and scalar multiplication
as V .
Theorem: Let V be a vector space and let H be a subset of V .
(i) The zero vector of V is in H,
Then H is a subspace of V (ii) If u, v H = u + v H,
(iii) If u H and c is a scalar = c u H.
Notes:
1. V and {0} are two trivial subspaces of V .
  

x 
2.
 x R is a subspace of R2 .
0


3. y  x, y R is a subspace of R3.

0
2x 
1

0 , 0 is a subspace of R3 .
4.
0  x, y R = Span

0
1
3y

x 

5. 1  x, y R is not a subspace of R3. Why?

y

0
6. 0 is a subspace of R3 .

0

0
7. 0 is a not subspace of R3 . Why?

1

  
x 
8.
 x 0, y 0 is not a subspace of R2. Why?
y

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Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

11

Theorem: If v1, v2, . . . , vp are in a vector space V , then Span{v1 , v2, . . . , vp }

is a subspace of V .

a + 2b c

b
+
2c

 a, b, c R .
Example 1: Let W =
3a 4c

a+b
Then W is a subspace of R4 as

1
2
1

2
1
0

.
W = Span , ,
4
0
3

0
1
1



a b 
Example 2: Let H =
a, b, c R M22 .
c 0
Is H a subspace of M22 ?
Solution:


0 0
H.
(i)
0 0
 
 


a2 b2
a1 + a2 b1 + b2
a1 b1
+
=
H.
(ii)
c1 0
c2 0
c1 + c2
0

 

a b
ka kb
(iii) k
=
H.
c 0
kc 0
Hence H is a subspace of M22 .

A. Alaca

Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

12

Example 3: Let
F = The set of all real-valued functions defined on R = {f : R R},
C = The set of all continuous real-valued functions defined on R
= {f F|f is continuous},
D = The set of all differentiable real-valued functions defined on R
= {f C|f is differentiable},
P = The set of all polynomials = {f : R R|f polynomial}.
Recall that F is a vector space with
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x),

(cf)(x) = cf(x)

( for f, g F and scalars c).

We have
P is a subspace of D,
P D C F and D is a subspace of C,
C is a subspace of F .
Example 4: Let H = {f D|f 0 (1) = 0}.
(i) Zero vector of D is f0 (x) = 0 for all x R. Since f00 (1) = 0, f0 H.
(ii) Let f, g D. Then f 0 (1) = 0 and g 0(1) = 0. So we have
(f 0 + g 0)(1) = f 0 (1) + g 0 (1) = 0 + 0 = 0 = f + g H.
(iii) (cf 0 )(1) = cf 0 (1) = c 0 = 0 = cf H.
Hence H is a subspace of D.

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Linear Algebra II

Vector Spaces

13

Definition: The trace of a square matrix A is the sum of the diagonal entries
in A and it is denoted by trA. That is,
trA =

n
X

aii ,

i=1

where A is an n n matrix.
Properties of the trace:
trA = trAT
tr(A + B) = trA + trB
tr(AB) = tr(BA)
tr(cA) = c trA

Example 5: Let S = {A M22 |tr(A) = 0} . Is S a subspace of M22 .

Solution:


0 0
(i) Clearly trace of the zero matrix O =
is zero. Hence O S.
0 0
(ii) Let A, B S. Then, trA = 0 and trB = 0, and so A, B are of the form






a
b
r
s
a+r
b+s
A=
, B=
= A + B =
.
c a
t r
c + t a r
tr(A + B) = a + r a r = 0 = A + B S.
(iii)

 
ka
kb
a
b
.
=
kA = k
kc ka
c a
= tr(kA) = ka ka = 0 = kA S.


Hence S is a subspace of M22 .