Air Conditioning PDF

Issue 0 - 30 Jan 2003 Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN

PRESSURISATION uk engineering
CONTENTS
4 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION ............... 4-1
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 4-1
4.2 AIR SUPPLY ................................................................................. 4-1
4.2.1 Engine Bleed Air (compression) .................................... 4-1
4.2.2 Air Compressors or Blowers .......................................... 4-2
4.2.3 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) ........................................... 4-2
4.2.4 Ram Air ......................................................................... 4-3
4.2.5 Ground Cart .................................................................. 4-3
4.3 COOLING ..................................................................................... 4-4
4.3.1 Air Cycle Cooling........................................................... 4-4
4.3.2 Vapour Cycle Cooling ................................................... 4-9
4.4 HEATING ...................................................................................... 4-11
4.4.1 Exhaust Heating Systems ............................................. 4-11
4.4.2 Combustion Heating Systems ....................................... 4-12
4.5 TEMPERATURE CONTROL ............................................................. 412
4.6 HUMIDITY CONTROL ..................................................................... 4-14
4.6.1 Water Separation Water Extractor .............................. 4-14
4.6.2 Water Infiltration ............................................................ 4-17
4.7 MASS FLOW CONTROL ................................................................. 418
4.7.1 Mass Flow Controller .................................................... 4-18
4.7.2 Spill Valve Flow Controller ............................................ 4-19
4.8 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ............................................................... 420
4.8.1 Re-circulation Air System .............................................. 4-23
4.9 PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS .......................................................... 423
4.9.1 Control And Indication ................................................... 4-26
4.9.2 The Un-Pressurised Mode ............................................ 4-26
4.9.3 The Isobaric Mode ........................................................ 4-27
4.9.4 The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode ..................... 4-27
4.9.5 Cabin Air Pressure Regulator ........................................ 4-27
4.9.6 Isobaric Control System ................................................ 4-28

4.9.7 Differential Control System ............................................ 4-29
4.9.8 Safety Valves ................................................................ 4-31
4.10 ELECTRONIC PRESSURISATION
CONTROL ...................................... 4-31
4.10.1 Flight Deck Control Panel .............................................. 4-32
4.10.2 Automatic Pressure Controller....................................... 4-33
4.10.3 Outflow Valve ................................................................ 4-33
4.10.4 Inward and Outward Safety Relief Valves ..................... 4-34
4.11 CABIN PRESSURE INDICATION .......................................................
4-35
4.12 SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES ..................................................
4-36
4.12.1 Overheating .................................................................. 4-36
4.12.2 Duct Hot Air Leakage .................................................... 4-37
4.12.3 Excess Cabin Altitude ................................................... 4-37
4.12.4 Smoke Detection ........................................................... 4-37 Pag e 2
B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
JAR 66 CATEGORY B MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-1
4 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere above10,000ft is too thin and cold for normal breathing.
Passenger carrying aircraft, operating above this height need an air
conditioning and pressurisation system. The temperature of the air passing
through the passenger cabin, flight deck and other compartments must be
strictly controlled, as well as flow rate and level of humidity.
Cabin temperature will normally be maintained between 15 and 30 degrees
Celsius. Additionally, a controlled amount of pressurisation is necessary, so
that the air pressure in the passenger cabin and adjacent areas does not
exceed the equivalent of the ambient air pressure at 8000ft.
Air conditioning is also essential for un-pressurised aircraft types.
A typical air conditioning and pressurisation system comprises eight
principle sub-systems:
Air Supplies (Pneumatics ATA 36)
Cooling
Heating
Temperature Control
Humidity Control
Mass Flow Control
Distribution
Pressurisation
4.2 AIR SUPPLY
The source of fresh air supply and arrangement of essential components
will vary between aircraft type and each air conditioning system, but in
general one of the following methods described in the following paragraphs
will be adopted:
4.2.1 Engine Bleed Air (compression)
This method is the most common and is installed on the majority of modern
aircraft types. Very hot air is tapped from the main engine compressor
stages and supplied to the cabin, flight deck and other areas. Before the air
enters the cabin, it is passed through a temperature control system, which
reduces its temperature and pressure. Additionally, a means of flow control
is utilised and in some aircraft, humidity control forms part of the system.
(See Fig 1)
In pressurised aircraft, the discharge of the conditioned air is regulated to
maintain the cabin pressure at the selected pressure altitude. Pag e 4-2 B1
Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003

ECUNRVAUXILIARY POWER UNITNON RETURN VALVESHUT OFF
VALVESFLOW CONTROLLERTEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVEMIXER
UNITTOCABINNRVWATER SEPARATORCOUPLED COMPRESSOR
TURBINERAM AIRPRIMARY HEATEXCHANGERSECONDARY
HEATEXCHANGER
Typical (Compression) Bleed Air System

Figure 1
4.2.2 Air Compressors or Blowers
This method is used on turbo-prop, piston engine or even turbo-jet aircraft
where main engine compressor bleed is unavailable or unsuitable.
Normally the compressor or blower will be mechanically driven from the
accessory gearbox of the main engine and its air supply routed via a
temperature control system, in a similar manner to the engine bleed
method.
4.2.3 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
The APU is a small gas turbine engine, which can be connected into the
main air supply system and provide an independent means of air
conditioning and pressurisation, either on the ground or in flight, when the
main engines cannot supply. It will utilise the engine bleed air principle
outlined above. Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-3
4.2.4 Ram Air

This method is normally found as the primary ventilation system on unpressurised aircraft. A ram air scoop placed directly into the airflow, will
provide the means of air supply as the aircraft moves forward.
Since the air at altitude will be cold, the temperature control system through
which it passes before entering the cabin, will normally be a form of heater.
A self-contained combustion type heater will be employed, or the some
form of exhaust gas heater. The air conditioning ducting will be routed
around the combustion heater casing or around engine exhaust duct to
obtain convection heating.
On pressurised aircraft, a ram air system can be used as a means of
emergency ventilation, following a complete loss of the main system. FUEL
SOLENOID VALVECOMBUSTION HEATING AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEMFUEL SUPPLYOFFOFFONONWARM AIR OUTLETSCOLD AIR
OUTLETSRAM AIREXHAUSTCOMBUSTION
CHAMBERDEMISTERFLOW CONTROL VALVEENGINE DRIVEN AIR
BLOWERAIR SUPPLYONOFF
Typical Combustion Heater System
Figure 2
4.2.5 Ground Cart
This will be an independent means of heating or cooling the passenger
cabin on the ground. It can be used on aircraft that do not have an APU.
The trolley will be connected externally to the aircraft, via a purpose built
inlet into the air conditioning system and normally employs a combustion
type heater and the means to control the output of the air temperature from
a control panel the cart. Pag e 4-4 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
4.3 COOLING
When bleed air is used as the air supply, the air tapped off the engine
compressor can reach a temperature in excess of 300 degrees Celsius.
This is obviously far too hot to be fed directly into the air-conditioned areas,
so it must first be cooled down to around 20 degrees Celsius.
There are two main methods of cooling;
Air Cycle and Vapour Cycle cooling systems.
4.3.1 Air Cycle Cooling
Air cycle cooling relies on three basic principles; surface heat exchange,
expansion and energy conversion.
Surface heat exchange, provides cooling by passing the air tapped from
the engine compressor (charge air) across some form of heat exchanger.
The charge air is subjected to the effect of a colder cross flow, normally
ambient air, scooped by an intake and passed across the heat exchanger
as the aircraft moves forward (ram air). Although 90% of heat is given up in
this way, the charge air temperature can never be reduced below the ram
air temperature by this method alone.
Expansion, provides cooling when the pressure of the charge air is reduced
by increasing its velocity and expanding it across the turbine of a so-called
Air Cycle Machine (ACM) or Cold Air Unit (CAU). In this way, the
temperature of the charge air can be rapidly lowered to zero degrees
Celsius, irrespective of the ram air temperature
Energy Conversion, cools by making the hot air do work. This is achieved
by using the charge air to drive a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to
the compressor or fan within the cold air unit, thus converting heat energy
into kinetic energy. This method will also help to reduce the charge air to
zero degrees Celsius. Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-5
TEMPERATURECONTROL VALVECOMPRESSOR
TURBINESECONDARY HEAT EXCHANGERRAM AIRTOCABINMIXER
UNITPRIMARYHEATEXCHANGERHOT AIR INLETWATER SEPARATOR
Turbo Compressor
Figure 3
4.3.1.1 HEAT EXCHANGERS
These are components within the air conditioning system that transfer heat
from one gas stream to another. Ram air is used as the cooling medium to
cool the very hot charge air ducted from the engine compressor or the
gearbox mounted air compressor or blower.
Depending on where they are placed within the air conditioning system,
heat exchangers are often described as;
A Pre-cooler or Primary Heat Exchanger
An Inter-cooler or Secondary Heat Exchanger
The basic construction is a sealed unit containing a series of cooling
passages; through which the charge air flows and over which the ram air is
directed. Between these passages are thin corrugated strips, that also
serve to dissipate heat as the ram air passes over them. Pag e 4-6 B1 Mod
11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
4.3.1.2 AIR CYCLE MACHINE (ACM) OR COLD AIR UNIT (CAU)

The ACM/CAU is the primary component in an air cycle cooling system. A
number of different types can be found including;
The turbo-compressor, the brake turbine and the turbo-fan.
All three use the charge air to drive the turbine and the major differences
between each type, relates to the overall weight for a given mass flow, the
size and method of dissipating the power output of the turbine. BLEED
AIRTO
INTERCOOLERFROMINTERCOOLERTODISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMCOMP
RESSORDIFFUSERNOZZLE BLADESTURBO COMPRESSOR
Turbo Compressor Cold Air Unit
Figure 4
The turbo-compressor type consists of a turbine driving a centrifugal
compressor and operating in conjunction with an inter-cooler connected
between the compressor and turbine stages.
Its basic construction consists of two main casings, the turbine volute and
compressor volute casings. The two casings are connected together and
enclose a bearing housing with two bearing assemblies, supporting a shaft
upon which the turbine and compressor wheels are mounted. Issue 1 - 20
March 2001 Page 4-7
The turbine wheel revolves within a nozzle ring and the compressor wheel
rotates within a diffuser ring. The very hot charge air from the engine
compressor bleed and routed via the pre-cooler, enters the eye of the
ACM/CAU compressor. It becomes compressed on passing through the
diffuser ring, increasing its temperature and energy.
From the compressor, the hot air is directed across the inter-cooler matrix
over which ram air passes and is then directed into the turbine volute
nozzle ring, where it drives the turbine. The resultant expansion and energy
conversion, rapidly lowers the air pressure and temperature.
It is then directed towards the passenger cabin. (See Fig 3)
The ACM/CAU compressor and turbine wheels rotate at extremely high
speeds, often in excess of 80,000 rpm, so efficient bearing lubrication is
essential to ensure smooth and trouble-free running.
Two lubrication methods are used; Integral wet sump arrangements, or
pressurised air bearings that need no oil lubrication.
The wet sump type normally has a sump containing oil and a means of
metering it to the bearings usually by the use of integral wicks or with an
oil slinger that pumps an optimum oil/air mix to the bearings. This ensures
the correct amount of oil at the bearings at all times. Oil replenishment is
critical however, as too much oil will lead to the charge air being oil
contaminated and too little oil, may result in a premature seizure of the
rotating shaft.
The air bearing type uses a pressurised air supply to support the shaft in a
similar manner to the hovercraft principal. As the rotor floats on a thin
layer of air, it is essential that this type is kept clean and dry and completely
free from oil and grease. RAM AIRTOCABINMIXERUNITHEAT
EXCHANGERCONTROL VALVEAMBIENT AIR
INLETCOMPRESSORTURBINEBLEEDAIRAMBIENT AIR OUTLET
Brake Turbine Cold Air Unit
Figure 5 Pag e 4-8 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
The brake-turbine type of ACM/CAU, has its charge air routed directly from
the pre-cooler to drive the turbine. The air expands across the turbine as
before, resulting in a large temperature and pressure drop. Since this
layout dispenses with the need for an inter-cooler, it results in a greater
efficiency due to weight saving. To safeguard against the turbine rotating
too fast, it is coupled with a compressor, which rotates in ambient air and
consequently acts as a braking medium. Additionally, the slower rotation of
the shaft further improves turbine output efficiency. (See Fig 5) MIXER
UNITBLEED AIRRAMAIRHEATEXCHANGERCONTROL VALVELARGE
FANTURBINERAM AIR OUTLETTO CABINTURBO UNITTURBO FAN
COLD AIR UNIT
Turbo Fan Cold Air Unit
Figure 6
The turbo-fan type is mechanically similar to the brake-turbine
arrangement. In this case however, the turbine drives a large centrifugal fan
instead of a normal compressor. The fan is draws a large quantity of
ambient air over the pre-cooler, which cools the incoming charge air.
The major advantage of this type over the other two, is that with the faninduced airflow over the pre-cooler, it can be used with the aircraft
stationary on the ground with the aircraft engines running. It does not need
to rely solely on ram air as the cooling medium for the pre-cooler. Issue 1 20 March 2001 Page 4-9
4.3.2 Vapour Cycle Cooling

The vapour cycle cooling system can be used as an alternative to the air
cycle cooling system. Although not commonly used these days for air
conditioning systems, the system may be used as the means to remove
heat from electrical and electronic equipment.
The system relies on the principle of the ability of a refrigerant to absorb
heat when changing from a liquid to a gas, through the process of
vaporisation or expansion.
For example, if you were to put a drop of a highly volatile liquid such as
methylated spirits or petrol on the back of you hand, it will feel cold. This is
because the liquid starts to evaporate and draws the heat necessary for
evaporation from your hand. Liquids with a low boiling point have a
stronger tendency to evaporate at normal temperatures than those with a
high boiling point.
Furthermore, the amount of pressure acting on a liquid substance will affect
its state. A sufficient reduction in pressure will cause any liquid to change
state into a vapour or a gas. Conversely, a corresponding increase in
pressure will reverse the process. THERMOSTATICEXPANSION
VALVERECIEVER DRYERCONDENSEREVAPORATORTURBO
COMPRESSORTEMPERATURECONTROL VALVESAIR SUPPLYRAM
AIRAIR DISTRIBUTIONTEMPERATURE SENSORCAPILLARY TUBE
Schematic Vapour Cycle System
The major components of a typical system are a liquid receiver, a

thermostatic expansion valve, an evaporator, a turbo-compressor, a
condenser and a condenser fan. Often these components are mounted
close together to form a line-replaceable refrigeration pack or vapour cycle
cooling pack.
The liquid receiver acts as a reservoir and provides storage for the
refrigerant, normally a highly volatile chemical such as Freon. The
refrigerant will pass from the liquid receiver to a thermostatic expansion
valve where it is metered and released into the evaporator. The very hot
charge air from the main engine bleed flows across the evaporator,
releases heat that vaporises the liquid refrigerant and passes into the
passenger cabin at a much lower temperature.
Meanwhile, the now vaporised refrigerant gas is directed towards the turbocompressor. It is drawn into the compressor wheel, the coupled turbine of
which is driven by the main engine bleed air. (Note: In some cases, an
independent means instead of a turbo-compressor may be used to
compress the refrigerant gas, such as an electric motor, as in a domestic
refrigerator).
The refrigerant gas leaves the compressor at a high pressure and
temperature and passes across the matrix of the condenser. The gas is
cooled by the ram air, flowing across the matrix and so condenses back
into a liquid once again. It then returns to the liquid receiver to repeat the
refrigeration cycle once again.
The condenser fan is used to induce air across the condenser matrix when
the aircraft is stationary on the ground and no ram air is available.
Typical Vapour Cycle System
Figure 8 Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-11
4.4 HEATING
Un-pressurised aircraft use a ram-air system for ventilation. At altitude, the
ram-air passing through the cabin would be very cold, so a heating system
is required.
Heating systems can be generally divided into two types:
Exhaust heating systems
Combustion heating systems
4.4.1 Exhaust Heating Systems
In its simplest form, this type of heating system employs a heater muff that
surrounds the exhaust pipes coming from a piston engine, or the jet pipe of
a turbo-jet. A ram air scoop at the forward end of the heater muff allows
some of the cold air to go to directly to a mixing valve.
The remainder, enters the muff and surrounds the exhaust/jet pipes. Heat
from the pipes is transferred into the ram air and carried to the mixing
valve. The heated air joins the cold air at the mixing valve and the
combined flow is directed into the passenger cabin.
Some form of control lever, operated from within the aircraft and connected
to the mixing valve, allows the proportion of hot and cold air to be
modulated in order to suit the cabin heating requirements.
To cater for the possibility of the ventilation air becoming contaminated from
the exhaust pipes, some aircraft will be fitted with carbon monoxide
detectors within the cabin area. These are indicators filled with brightly
coloured crystals, which turn black if exposed to dangerous levels of
carbon monoxide.
Exhaust System Heater
4.4.2 Combustion Heating Systems

This system uses a purpose built combustion chamber heater assembly to
provide the heat source, rather than the previously described exhaust
heating method. Fuel is directed from the aircraft fuel system, through a
pressure regulating and shut off valve that ensures the fuel is at the correct
pressure for atomisation. Other components include a fuel filter, a fuel
pump and spray nozzle, where it is atomised and ignited with an igniter
plug. The combustion chamber assembly heats up the ram air that passes
around it.
Typical Combustion Heater System
Figure 10
4.5 TEMPERATURE CONTROL
In order to operate the aircraft in an infinite number of climatic and
operating conditions, the temperature in the passenger cabin, flight
compartment and other areas needs to be regulated for comfort.
Temperature regulation for the majority of aircraft that employ the engine
bleed air method is usually accomplished by controlling the proportion of
hot and cold air coming from the air supply system. An electric motor
driving a double butterfly type air mixing valve, regulates the cabin
temperature, by allowing a controlled amount of hot air to by-pass the air
cycle system. This air is then recombined in proper proportions with the
cold air that has been directed through the air cycle system at a down
stream mix chamber. The position of the air-mixing valve is determined by
signals from the temperature control system.
The temperature control system is normally operated automatically or as a
manual system, if the automatic temperature controller should fail. Issue 1 20 March 2001 Page 4-13
During automatic operation, the temperature controller continually monitors

cabin temperatures and repositions the air mixing valve if necessary to
keep the temperature at the selected level.
In order to achieve this, the controller receives signals from temperature
selector on the flight deck (the temperature requested) and from
temperature sensors in the passenger cabin, flight compartment and supply
ducts (the actual temperature). If a difference between the requested and
actual temperatures occurs, the controller will send an output signal, to reposition the air mixing valve until parity exists once more.
During manual operation, the temperature control circuit bypasses the
controller and connects the temperature selector on the flight deck, directly
to the air-mixing valve. Other sensors in the system transmit compartment
temperatures to indicators on the flight deck overhead panel, so that the
actual temperatures and the position of the air-mixing valve can be
monitored.
Temperature Control
4.6 HUMIDITY CONTROL

Humidity control is the means to ensure that the correct amount of water
moisture content is in the air conditioning air within the aircraft cabin. This
is necessary to ensure occupants do not suffer from low humidity levels
that are experienced with high altitude flight.
Humidity control can be achieved two ways;
Water Separation
Water Infiltration
Water separation is the removal of excessive moisture from the charge air,
normally by a water extractor or separator.
Water infiltration is the addition of moisture into the conditioned air as it
enters the cabin using a water pump and spray nozzle.
4.6.1 Water Separation Water Extractor
Water can be introduced into the air conditioning system due to the
compression and expansion of the air in the ACM/CAU and other areas of
the air cycle process.
There are three types of water separator in general use; the
coalescer/diffuser type, the coalescer/bag type and the swirl vane type.
4.6.1.1 COALESCER/DIFFUSER TYPE
This type consists of a coalescer constructed from layers of monel metal
gauze and glass fibre cloth sandwiched between layers of stainless steel
gauze. It is supported by the diffuser cone and held in place by a relief
valve housing. As the air leaves the diffuser and passes over the coalescer,
moisture in the air is converted into water droplets. The droplets enter the
collector shell and are deposited into collector tubes where they drain down
to a collector box from where the water is ejected overboard. PRESSURE
RELIEFVALVEDRAINDIFFUSERCOALESCERCOLLECTOR
SHELLCONDENSERTUBES
COALESCER WATER EXTRACTOR FIGURE 12 Issue 1 - 20 March 2001
Page 4-15
4.6.1.2 COALESCER/BAG TYPE

A porous bag, supported by a shell is fitted within the extractor to convert
moisture into water droplets. A swirl is imparted into the conditioned air and
the centrifugal effect forces the droplets to the outlet shell where it collects
and drains from the component. A bag visual indicator operated by back
pressure, will show when the coalescer bag becomes dirty or blocked. In
this case, a relief valve will open to ensure flow is still available.
BLOCKAGE INDICATORBAGPRESSURE RELIEF VALVEWATER
DRAINOUTLET SHELL
Bag Type Water Extractor
4.6.1.3 SWIRL VANE TYPE

This type uses centrifugal force to spin the moisture-laden air outwards
against the exit shell. The swirl vane, either fixed or rotating imparts the
swirl by rotating the airflow at high speed. The action, separates the
heavier water droplets in the moisture and collects them in a sump, to be
drained away. DRAINSWIRL VANEWATER SUMPSEPARATOR SHELL
Swirl Vane Type Water Separator
4.6.2 Water Infiltration

Humidity control can also include the addition of water into the air
conditioning system. As an aircraft climbs to high altitude, the moisture
level in the air reduces to a much lower amount than at lower levels of
altitude. The reduction in moisture may cause discomfort to the aircraft
occupants. To counteract this, moisture is added into the conditioned air, by
pumping water from a tank to a spray nozzle positioned at the cabin air
inlet. Humidity sensors will detect low humidity conditions and automatically
turn on the controller water pump to restore the humidity to acceptable
levels. CABIN HUMIDITY SENSOROVERFILL DRAIN WATER
SEPARATOR DRAIN COLLECTOR TANK WATER PUMP AND
CONTROLLER SPRAY NOZZLE TO CABIN
Typical Humidity Control System
4.7 MASS FLOW CONTROL

Legislation requires that a minimum amount of fresh air be supplied to
passengers and crew. In addition stale air must be removed and odours
eliminated. Most pressurisation systems rely on the fact that air is delivered
at a constant rate under all conditions of flight in order to function correctly.
Mass flow control systems constantly monitor the velocity and density of
the air supply by either increasing or decreasing the demand upon the
source of supply, or by spilling excess supply air overboard.
The mass of air must be controlled at a constant value regardless of aircraft
altitude or cabin pressure. It must also adjust for changes in main engine
compressor speed in bleed air systems, or changes in rotor speed when a
separate air supply from an accessory gearbox driven blower is
incorporated.
4.7.1 Mass Flow Controller
This type automatically caters for changes in air density, cabin back
pressure and engine compressor supply pressure. At ground level and
during take off and the early stages of flight, the pressure available from the
main engine compressor outlet is high. As altitude increases or when the
engines are set to cruising speeds, the supply pressure drops.
The amount of pressure from the engine compressor bleed acting on an
altitude-compensated piston valve, determines the position the valve will
adopt when opposed by a spring and back pressure from the cabin. The
pressure drop across the valve, will vary the size of outlet ports and will
thus determine the valves degree of opening and closing. This will result in
a constant mass flow downstream of the valve at all times.
Mass Flow Control
4.7.2 Spill Valve Flow Controller

This type receives the charge air supply through a metering duct, which
senses variations in the velocity and density of the air. The metering duct
on sensing these variations, transmits the information to a mass flow
controller, which converts the air pressure signals into electrical signals.
The electrical signals in turn control the position of spill valves. They will
move towards a more open or closed position, to vary the amount of air
spilled overboard, thereby ensuring a constant flow rate into the cabin.
At sea level, with the engines at low power, the absolute capsule D will be
compressed by atmospheric pressure. The contacts A, B and C will be in
the position shown and the spill valve will be towards closed.
With the main engines at take off power, the air velocity through the venture
increases, causing a pressure differential across the controller diaphragm.
This will cause contact B to move towards contact C and when they touch,
the spill valves will be driven towards the open As the aircraft climbs, the
static pressure in the metering duct and controller will decrease. The
absolute capsule will now expand and the position of contacts A and C, will
be adjusted in relation to contact B. When contact B is touched, the spill
valves will move towards closed once more and once again the mass flow
to the cabin will remain constant.
Mass Flow Controller Operations
4.8 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The air distribution system on most aircraft takes cold air from the air
conditioning packs and hot air bleed from the engines and mixes the 2 in a
mixer unit to the required temperature. The air is then distributed to side
wall and overhead cabin vents. On some aircraft the cabin air is then drawn
back into the mixing unit by re-circulating fans where it is mixed with new
air and then re-distributed.
All major components are usually located together in a designated bay for
ease of maintenance. ( Figure 14).
A gasper fan provides cold air to the individual overhead air outlets for the
aircrew and passengers. This air can be drawn direct from outside or from
the cooling packs. Each passenger or crew can control the amount of air
received by controlling the position of the air outlet. This outlet could be a
rotary nozzle or a louvre. WATER SEPARATORGASPER FANMANIFOLD
RELIEF VALVEMIXER VALVESTO OVERHEADDUCTSTO
SIDEWALLDUCTSTO GASPEROUTLETSTO SIDEWALL DUCTSTO
COCKPITCONTROL VALVESELECTOR LINKAGECONTROL VALVES
Air Conditioning Distribution Manifold
Conditioned air systems dispense temperature controlled air evenly

throughout the cabin and crew areas. One duct system supplies the cockpit
(Figure 17) while another supplies the cabin. The cabin ducting is then
divided into 2 systems, the overhead (Figure 15) and the sidewall systems
(Figure 16). The overhead system releases air into the cabin from outlets in
ducting running fore and aft in the cabin ceiling. The sidewall duct system
takes air through ducting between the sidewall and cabin interior linings
and releases it through cove light grills and louvres.
A cockpit controlled selector valve located on the main distribution manifold
allows all overhead, side wall or any combination of the two systems to be
used and varies the flow between the two. GASPER FANFLOOR
EXHAUST DUCTADJUSTABLE AIR OUTLETSDUCTING
Overhead Panel
Figure 19
Duct sections throughout both the cabin and cockpit are joined together
with clamps or clips. Means of equalising the duct pressures and balancing
the air flows are designed into each system. The systems are protected
from excess pressures by use of a spring loaded pressure relief valve
usually located in the main distribution manifold. The main manifold is
located immediately downstream from the mixing units in the air
conditioning bay.
On large aircraft a cockpit controlled dual selector valves divides the air
between cockpit and cabin areas. These butterfly valves are interlinked.
When one is fully open the other is fully closed and vice versa. Pag e 4-22
B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
Air is exhausted from the passenger cabin through grills and outflow valves
in the sidewalls above the floor. This air can then be directed around the
cargo compartment walls where it assists in compartment temperature
control. Some air then flows to the cargo heat distribution duct under the
compartment floor and is then discharged overboard through the outflow
valves. WINDOW DEMISTER FLOOR EXHAUST VENTS WALL FEEDER
DUCTS DISTRIBUTION BOXES DISTRIBUTION DUCT
Sidewall Ducting
Figure 20
Below each floor air exhaust outlet is a flotation check valve. This valve is a
plastic ball held in a cage. If the cargo compartments become flooded the
balls float up the cage and seals off the floor to help prevent water from
entering the cabin. SILENCER FAN ASSY FAN ASSY PRESSURE
SWITCH COOLING FANS FLIGHT DECK TEMPERATURE SENSOR AIR
VENT CABIN TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Cockpit Air Distribution
Aircraft may be separated into zones each with its own air conditioning
system and controls for that zone located in a distribution bay. Some areas
may have a remote heat exchanger and fan assembly in the vapour cycle
system, to allow cooling to specific areas such as avionics bays, fed from
one of the zone packs.
4.8.1 Re-circulation Air System
To improve cabin ventilation and supplement airflow the cabin air is
recirculated back to the main distribution manifold where it is mixed with
conditioned air form the cooling packs. The use of re-circulated air
improves airflow and offloads the air supply system. This off loading of the
air conditioning packs is converted into a fuel saving.
The re-circulation fan will draw air from the cabin area, through a check
valve and filter assembly to remove any smoke and noxious odours before
passing it to the mixer unit for re-distribution. The check valve prevents any
reverse flow through the fan and ducting when the fan is not in use.
4.9 PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS
As aircraft became capable of obtaining altitudes above that at which flight
crews could operate efficiently, a need developed for complete
environmental systems to allow these aircraft to carry passengers. Air
conditioning could provide the proper temperature and supplemental
oxygen could provide sufficient breathable air.
The problem was that not enough atmospheric pressure exists at high
altitude to aid breathing in and even at lower altitudes the body must work
harder to absorb sufficient oxygen, through the lungs, to operate at the
same level of efficiency as at sea level. This problem is overcome by
pressurising the cockpit/ cabin area. Cabin pressurisation is a means of
adding pressure to the cabin of an aircraft to create an artificial atmosphere
that when flying at high altitudes it provides gives an environment
equivalent to that below 10000 feet. The minimum quantity of fresh air
supplied to each person on board must be at least 0.5lb/ minute.
Aircraft are pressurised by sealing off a strengthened portion of the
fuselage. This is usually called the pressure vessel and will normally
include cabin, cockpit and possibly cargo areas. Air is pumped into this
pressure vessel and is controlled by an outflow valve located at the rear of
the vessel.
Sealing of the pressure vessel is accomplished by the use of seals around
tubing, ducting, bolts, rivets, and other hardware that pass through or
pierce the pressure tight area. All panels and large structural components
are assembled with sealing compounds. Access and removable doors and
hatches have integral seals. Some have inflatable seals. Pag e 4-24 B1
Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
Pressurisation systems do not have to move large volume of air. Their

function is to raise the pressure inside the vessel. Small reciprocating
engine powered aircraft receive their pressurisation air from the
compressor of a coupled turbocharger. Larger reciprocating engine
powered aircraft receive air from engine driven compressors and turbine
powered aircraft use compressor bleed air
Small Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft
Turbochargers are driven by the engine exhaust gases flowing through a
turbine. A centrifugal compressor is coupled to the turbine. The
compressors output is fed to the engine inlet manifold to increase manifold
pressure which allows the engine to develop its power at altitude. Part of
this compressed air is tapped off after the compressor and is used to
pressurise the cabin. The air passes through a flow limiter (or sonic venturi)
and then through an inter-cooler before being fed into the cabin. A typical
system is shown at Figure 22.
Sonic Venturi
A sonic venturi is fitted in line between the engine and the pressurisation
system. When the air flowing across the venturi reaches the speed of
sound a shock wave is formed which limits the flow of air to the
pressurisation system OUTFLOW VALVESAFETY VALVERAM
AIRHEATING AIRPRESSURISED AIREXHAUST GASESCOMBUSTION
HEATERRAM AIR SHUTOFF VALVECOUPLED
TURBOCOMPRESSORINTERCOOLERSONIC VENTURI
Small Reciprocating Engine Aircraft Pressurisation System
Large Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft

These aircraft use engine driven compressors driven through an accessory
drive or by an electric or hydraulic motor. Multi engine aircraft have more
than one air compressor. These are interconnected through ducting but
each have a check valve or isolation valve to prevent pressure loss when
one system is out of action.
Turbine Powered Aircraft
The air supplied from a gas turbine engine compressor is contamination
free and can be suitably used for cabin pressurisation (Figure 23). Some
aircraft use an independent compressor driven by the engine bleed air. The
bleed air drives the coupled compressor which pressurises the air and
feeds it into the cabin BLEED AIRENGINEPRESSURE
VESSEL(CABIN/COCKPIT)OUTFLOW VALVEFLUSH AIR INTAKETURBO
COMPRESSOR
Turbo Compressor
Figure 23
Some aircraft use a jet pump to increase the amount of air taken into the
cabin (Figure 24). The jet pump is a venturi nozzle located in the flush air
intake ducting. High velocity air from the engine flows through this nozzle.
This produces a low pressure area around the venturi which sucks in
outside air. This outside air is mixed with the high velocity air and is then
passed into the cabin Pag e 4-26 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
ENGINEFLUSH AIR INTAKEPRESSURE VESSEL(CABIN/COCKPIT)JET
PUMPBLEED AIROUTFLOW VALVE
Jet Pump
Figure 24
4.9.1 Control And Indication
There are 3 modes of pressurisation, un-pressurised, the isobaric mode
and the constantdifferential pressure mode. In the un-pressurised mode
the cabin altitude remains the same as the flight altitude. In the isobaric
mode the cabin altitude remains constant as the flight altitude changes and
in the constant-differential pressure mode, the cabin pressure is maintained
at a constant amount above the outside ambient air pressure.
The amount of differential pressure is determined by the structural strength
of the aircraft. The stronger the aircraft structure the higher the differential
pressure and the higher is the aircrafts operating ceiling.
4.9.2 The Un-Pressurised Mode
In this mode the outflow valve remains open and the cabin pressure is the
same as the outside ambient air pressure. This mode is usually from sea
level up to 5000` but does vary from aircraft to aircraft. Issue 1 - 20 March
2001 Page 4-27
4.9.3 The Isobaric Mode

In this mode the cabin pressure is maintained at a specific cabin altitude as
flight altitude changes. The cabin pressure controller begins to close the
outflow valve as the aircraft climbs to a chosen cabin altitude. The outflow
valve then opens or closes (modulates) to maintain the selected cabin
altitude as the flight altitude changes up or down. The controller will then
maintain the selected cabin altitude up to the flight altitude that produces
the maximum differential pressure for which the aircraft structure is rated.
At this point the constant differential mode takes control.
4.9.4 The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode
Cabin pressurisation puts the aircraft structure under a tensile stress as the
cabin pressure expands the pressure vessel. The cabin differential
pressure is the ratio between the internal and external air pressures. At
maximum constant-differential pressure as the aircraft increases in altitude
the cabin altitude will increase but the internal/external pressure ratio will
be maintained. There will be a maximum cabin altitude allowed and this will
determine the ceiling at which the aircraft can operate.
4.9.5 Cabin Air Pressure Regulator
The pressure regulator maintains cabin altitude at a selected level in the
isobaric range and limits cabin pressure to a pre-set pressure differential in
the differential range by regulating the position of the outflow valve. Normal
operation of the regulator requires only the selection of the desired cabin
altitude and cabin rate of climb the adjustment of the barometric control.
ACTUATORDIAPHRAGMOUTFLOW VALVEBAFFLE
PLATEBASEREFERENCECHAMBERHEADPILOTDIAPHRAGMISOBARI
C METERING VALVEADJUSTER CONTROLBAROMETRIC
CAPSULESTATIC ATMOSHERE
CONNECTIONADJUSTERCONTROLDIFFERENTIALMETERING
VALVESOLENOIDDUMP VALVERESTRICTOR
Cabin Pressure Regulator
The regulator shown in Figure 25 is a typical differential pressure type

regulator that is built into the normally closed air operated outflow valve. It
uses cabin altitude for its isobaric control and barometric pressure for the
differential control. A cabin rate of climb controller controls the pressure
change inside the cabin.
There are 2 main sections to the regulator, the head and reference
chamber and the base with the outflow valve and diaphragm. The balance
diaphragm extends outward from the baffle plate to the outflow valve
creating an air chamber between the baffle plate and the outer face of the
outflow valve. Cabin air flowing into this chamber through holes in the side
of the outflow valve exerts a force against the outer face of the valve which
tries to open it. This force is opposed by the force of the spring around the
valve pilot which tries to hold the valve closed.
The actuator diaphragm extends outward from the outflow valve to the
head assembly creating an air chamber between the head and the inner
face of the outflow valve. Air from the head and reference chamber exert a
force against the inner face of the outflow valve helping the spring to hold
the valve closed.
The position of the outflow valve controls the amount of cabin air that is
allowed to flow from the pressure vessel and this controls the cabin
pressure. The position of the outflow valve is determined by the amount of
reference chamber air pressure that presses on the inner face of the
outflow valve.
4.9.6 Isobaric Control System
The isobaric control system of the pressure regulator shown in Figure 26
incorporates an evacuated capsule, a rocker arm, valve spring and a ball
type metering valve. One end of the rocker arm is connected to the valve
head by the evacuated capsule and the other end of the arm holds the
metering valve in a closed position. A valve spring located on the metering
valve body tries to move the metering valve away from its seat as far as the
rocker arm allows.
When the cabin air pressure increases enough for the reference chamber
air pressure to compress the evacuated capsule the rocker arm pivots
around its fulcrum and allows the metering valve to move away from its
seat an amount proportional to the compression of the capsule. When the
metering valve opens reference pressure air flows form the regulator to
atmosphere through the atmospheric chamber. Issue 1 - 20 March 2001
Page 4-29
Isobaric Control Operation EVACUATED BELLOWSISOBARIC

METERING VALVEOUTFLOW VALVE
Figure 26
When the regulator is operating in the isobaric range, cabin pressure is
held constant by reducing the flow of reference chamber air through the
metering valve. This prevents a further decrease in reference pressure.
The isobaric control responds to slight changes in reference pressure by
modulating to maintain a constant pressure in the chamber throughout the
isobaric range of operation. Whenever there is an increase in cabin
pressure the isobaric metering valve opens which decreases the reference
pressure and causes the outflow valve to open which then decreases the
cabin pressure.
4.9.7 Differential Control System
The differential control system of the pressure regulator (Figure 27)
incorporates a diaphragm a rocker arm, a valve spring and a ball type
metering valve. One end of the rocker arm is attached to the head by the
diaphragm which forma a pressure sensitive face between the reference
chamber and the atmospheric chamber. Pag e 4-30 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30
Jan 2003
METERING VALVEOUTFLOW VALVEATMOSPHERIC
CHAMBERDIAPHRAGM
Differential Pressure Mode

Figure 27
Atmospheric pressure acts on one side of the diaphragm and reference
chamber pressure acts on the other. The opposite end of the rocker arm
holds the metering valve in a closed position. A valve spring located on the
metering valve body tries to move the metering valve away from its seat as
far as the rocker arm allows.
When reference chamber pressure increases to the system differential
pressure limit set above the decreasing atmospheric pressure it collapses
the diaphragm which is set at differential pressure and opens the metering
valve. Air flows from the reference chamber to atmosphere through the
atmospheric chamber, which causes a reduction in the reference pressure.
This reduction in reference pressure causes the outflow valve to open to
reduce the cabin pressure to maintain the system pressure differential.
Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-31
4.9.8 Safety Valves

Cabin Air Pressure Safety Valve
The pressure relief valve prevents cabin pressure from exceeding the
predetermined cabin to ambient pressure differential. A negative pressure
relief valve and pressure dump valve may also be incorporated into this
valve assembly.
Negative Pressure Relief Valve
A pressurised aircraft is designed to operate with the cabin pressure higher
than the outside air pressure. If the cabin pressure were to become lower
than the outside air pressure the cabin structure could fail. Outside air is
allowed to enter the cabin to ensure that this does not happen. It is
basically an inward pressure relief valve.
Dump Valve
This valve is normally solenoid actuated by a cockpit switch. When the
solenoid is energised the valve opens dumping cabin air to atmosphere.
Cabin pressure will decrease rapidly until it is the same as the outside air
pressure and cabin altitude will increase until it is the same as the flight
altitude.
Ditching valve
If any of the cabin control valves were situated below the water level and
the aircraft ditch in the water, the cabin would quickly flood. To prevent this
happening, either a mechanical or electrical ditching selection, can be
made by the crew to seal off all pressurisation valves and inlets.
4.10 ELECTRONIC PRESSURISATION CONTROL
Most modern airliners have the means to electronically control the cabin
pressure automatically for the entire flight, from settings made by the flight
crew before take off.
The pressure control system consists:
a flight deck control panel
an automatic pressure controller with pressure sensing inputs and
outputs to monitoring indicators
an electrically-driven gate-type outflow valve
inward and outward safety relief valves
Pag e 4-32 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
4.10.1 Flight Deck Control Panel

This provides a means for the flight crew to control the cabin pressure by
positioning the outflow valve. There are three mode selections available;
Auto, Standby or Manual.
Figure 28
The desired mode will normally be Auto, where all settings such as
intended cruise (flight) altitude and destination airfield (landing) altitude are
made before flight. This will allow automatic control of cabin pressure for
the whole of that flight.
This is called the fully automatic mode.
Alternatively, Standby or back up mode can be selected, where a cabin
altitude setting must be made for each desired cabin pressure change. The
input setting is then controlled automatically as before.
This is called the semi-automatic mode.
If neither the fully or semi-automatic modes are available, (i.e.: the pressure
controller fails), the outflow valve can be positioned directly from the flight
deck by operating the electric torque motors to drive the valve.
This is called the manual mode and a choice of an ac or dc electrical
supply is available. Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-33
4.10.2 Automatic Pressure Controller

The pressure controller provides output control signals to the outflow
valves ac or dc torque motors. The motors position and modulate the valve
to establish and control actual cabin pressure in accordance with the
controllers pre-programmed climb, cruise or descent schedules. This will
ensure that for every aircraft altitude there will be a particular cabin altitude.
Input signals to the controller are from the flight deck control panel, cabin
and ambient pressure sensors, barometric correction and air/ground
sensing.
Auto Mode Flight Profile
Figure 29
4.10.3 Outflow Valve
The valve has a moving gate designed to cover or uncover an aperture in
the fuselage skin. An increase in the aperture size will cause cabin
pressure to fall (cabin altitude to ascend), whereas a decrease in the
aperture size results in an increase in cabin pressure (cabin altitude to
descend). The gate is driven by one of two electrically driven motors, the
choice of ac or dc motor being determined by flight crew input.
Motor input signals come from the controller when in the auto or standby
modes, or directly from a control panel switch when in the manual mode.
Pag e 4-34 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
Outflow Valve
Figure 30
4.10.4 Inward and Outward Safety Relief Valves
Fuselage frames are designed to accept tensile loads associated with and
outward force from within the pressure cell. Their ability to withstand
compression loads that would occur if the pressure outside the aircraft
were higher than within the pressure cell is poor. Therefore an inward relief
valve will open and equalise the pressure if the inward or negative
differential exceeds about 0.5 psid.
Two outward relief valves are fitted to prevent the maximum outward
differential pressure from exceeding the structural limit. This will typically be
around 8.5psid.
Even though the main pressure control is electronic, the safety relief valves
are mechanical operated and are completely independent of any automatic
control system.
Pressurisation System Valves
4.11 CABIN PRESSURE INDICATION

Most pressurisation systems have three basic cockpit indicators cabin
altitude, cabin rate of climb and the pressure differential indicator. The
cabin altitude gauge measures the actual cabin altitude.
Cabin Altitude Gauge
Figure 32
The cabin rate of climb indicator tells the pilot the rate that the cabin is
either climbing or descending. (I.e. the rate at which the cabin loses or
gains pressure) A typical maximum climb rate is 500ft per minute and the
maximum descent rate is 300ft per minute. The control can be automatic or
manual depending on aircraft type.
Cabin Rate of Climb
The differential pressure gauge (Figure 34) reads the difference between
the cabin and the outside air pressures. This differential pressure is
normally controlled and maintained to a structural limitation around 7psid.
This depends on the aircraft type and the operating ceiling of the aircraft.
The differential pressure gauge may be combined with the cabin altitude
(Figure 35). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 DIFF PX PSI
Differential Pressure Gauge Dual Gauge
Figure 34 Figure 35
4.12 SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES
To ground test the pressurisation system with the engines running, at least
three men are required inside the aircraft for safety reasons.
Both air conditioning and pressurisation systems use safety and warning
devices to protect the aircraft from possible catastrophic failures. Some of
the protection devices may be inhibited in certain stages of flight; landing or
take off where the extra distractions caused by such warnings may be too
much for the crews to deal with safely.
With the air conditioning system the main concerns are with overheating of
the air conditioning packs and extraction and ventilation fans, as well as hot
air leaks from ducting which could damage surrounding structure or
components.
4.12.1 Overheating
Most packs systems are protected from overheating by a thermal switch
downstream of the pack outlet. If the outlet temperature reaches a pre
determined figure the switch will operate causing the pack valves to shut,
preventing air from getting to the packs, as well as sending a warning
signal to the cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning
lights and aural chimes and to illuminate a fault light on the pack selector
switch. Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-37
Once the system has cooled down sufficiently the crew may have an option
to reselect the overheated system. The overheat may have been caused by
a fault in the automatic temperature control system in which case the pilot
may be able to control the system manually via a manual selector switch on
the cockpit controller.
Extraction or ventilation fans will be protected in much the same way. An
overheat will signal the central warning panel with associated
caution/warning lights and aural chimes. The fan may be isolated
automatically or manually. Once the fan has cooled down it may be
possible to re-select if required. Fans may also be protected from over or
under speeding, which will also have an effect on the system temperatures.
Speed sensors on the fan will indicate a fault when over or under speed
limits are reached and a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central
warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes.
4.12.2 Duct Hot Air Leakage
Any ducting that includes joints is liable to leak under abnormal conditions.
A duct protection system will include fire-wire elements around the hot
zones such as engine air bleeds, air conditioning packs and auxiliary power
units if fitted.
The sensing elements will be the thermistor type. As the temperature
around the wire increases the resistance decreases until an electrical
circuit is made. When the circuit is made a warning signal is sent to the
cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and
aural chimes. The leaking duct may be isolated automatically or may
require the pilot to take action to close off the air valves. The faulty system
will then remain out of use.
4.12.3 Excess Cabin Altitude
If the cabin altitude was allowed to increase unchecked the crew and
passengers could unknowingly suffer the effects of hypoxia. This
dangerous condition is obviously undesirable especially for the aircrew.
Most aircraft give a warning on the CWP with associated audio and visual
warnings when the cabin altitude reaches 10000`.
4.12.4 Smoke Detection
Smoke detectors may be fitted within the cabin; avionics bay and cargo
areas to monitor systems, which if become faulty may generate smoke on
overheating, or are may be liable to catch fire. These detectors will send a
signal to the CWP with associated lights and audio warnings. They may
also automatically switch on extractor fans, which will remove the smoke
overboard and away form the cabin and cockpit areas. In this event, the
pilot may have a switch or control lever to operate a valve to isolate the
cockpit air conditioning ducting from the rest of the aircraft to prevent any
smoke from getting to the cockpit. Pag e 4-38 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan
2003
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Issue 0 - 30 Jan 2003 Page 1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN

4.9.6 Isobaric Control System ................................................ 4-28

4 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

JAR 66 CATEGORY B MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN

Typical (Compression) Bleed Air System

4.2.4 Ram Air

4.3.1.2 AIR CYCLE MACHINE (ACM) OR COLD AIR UNIT (CAU)

4.3.2 Vapour Cycle Cooling

The major components of a typical system are a liquid receiver, a

4.4.2 Combustion Heating Systems

During automatic operation, the temperature controller continually monitors

4.6 HUMIDITY CONTROL

4.6.1.2 COALESCER/BAG TYPE

4.6.1.3 SWIRL VANE TYPE

4.6.2 Water Infiltration

4.7 MASS FLOW CONTROL

4.7.2 Spill Valve Flow Controller

4.8 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Conditioned air systems dispense temperature controlled air evenly

Pressurisation systems do not have to move large volume of air. Their

Large Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft

4.9.3 The Isobaric Mode

The regulator shown in Figure 25 is a typical differential pressure type

Isobaric Control Operation EVACUATED BELLOWSISOBARIC

Differential Pressure Mode

4.9.8 Safety Valves

4.10.1 Flight Deck Control Panel

4.10.2 Automatic Pressure Controller

4.11 CABIN PRESSURE INDICATION

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