TOPIC 8 ACTION RESEARCH DATA COLLECTION CONSIDERATIONS

QUESTION 1: Explain four purposes of data analysis.

a) Data analysis helps in structuring the findings from different sources of data
collection.
b) Data analysis acts like a filter when it comes to acquiring meaningful insights
out of huge data-set. It helps the researcher to understand the data collected.
c) Data analysis is needed to reduce the data into manageable sets. it is also
needed to sonvert raw data into information. Information is processed data.
d) It helps in keeping human bias away from research conclusion with the help of
proper statistical treatment.
e) Data analsyis helps data to be more orderly
f) Data analysis helps data to be meaningful
(To illustrate just refer back to how we analyse the interview data or the test results
interview data teh trascription; tests the answers of the students)

QUESTION 2: What is meant by internal and external critique in research?

Internal critique
Evaluates worth of data
Internal criticism is to check on the

External critique
Assesses authenticity of data
External criticism applies "science to a

meaning and trustworthiness of the data

document." It involves such physical and

within the document. Much of the internal

technical tests as dating of paper a

criticism is textual criticism.

document is written on, but it also involves

Internal criticism looks within the data itself

a knowledge of when certain things existed

to try to determine truth--facts and

or were possible, e.g. when zip codes

"reasonable" interpretation. It includes

were invented.*

looking at the apparent or possible motives External criticism involves finding out if the
of the person providing the data

source material is genuine and if it

possess textual integrity.

Historical researchers employ internal

External criticism is used to determine the

criticism to assess the degree, if any, of

physical authenticity (i.e., validity) of the

bias within the content of a record,

record, document, or artifact related

document, or artifact. Internal criticism also to its investigation.

seeks to ascertain the historical meaning
and accuracy of an artifacts content.
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QUESTION 3: Can action research results be generalized? Why?

Action research cannot be generalised. This is because
1. Action research does not use random sampling. The sample is is too contextspecific. Also, in msot cases the samples are small.
2. Action research does not carry out statistical analysis. As such the data
collected cannot represent the population.

TOPIC 9 ACTION RESEARCH: DATA ANALYSIS

QUESTION 1: Explain each of the following techniques in qualitative data analysis:
Techniques
Content analysis

Categorising data

Explanation

Examine the data

Highlight important detail that pertain to the research

question
Use to analyse communication content, e.g. the interview

transcription
Can be carried our using frequency or in theme
Focus on the question who, why, how and what
These questions are normally use in qualitative research
Use in observation, interview, narrative data collection,

content analysis and qualitative data

Data is categorised into suitable themes
To reduce data
E.g. researcher categorised the field notes (that jotted down
everything happen in the situation) to answer research

Coding data

question.
Coding -> translation of data, the process of examining the
words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs in your text for
pertinent information related to the research and assign

different codes or labels.

The process of deciding on one or more category systems

and then organizing the data accordingly.

The process in which the researcher see what they have in

the data.
Codes can be based on themes, ideas, terms, keywords
Purpose: reduce data (by grouping data into categories /
common ideas)
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Techniques

Arranging data into

Explanation
In interviews, coding involves categorizing the responses.

An example:

To see clearly the patterns of the data / themes

Can be analysed using tree node
Issues can be identified through the themes found in the

analysis grids

Identifying issues/
themes/ assertions

interview transcription. Patterns and meaning is determined

based on the themes identified.

Each theme is categorised into sub-themes based on the

needs of the research.

Data that has been transcribed categorised, coded, arranged
in grid analysis to determine the issues based on the
research question.

QUESTION 2: How is data analysed quantitatively in an action research?

Answer 1:

Generally data can be analysed quantitatively through either descriptive statistics or

inferential statistics (use of statistical tests). However, in action research inferential
statistics are hardly used. This is because the results are not meant to be generalizable.
Descriptive statistics normally used - frequency, percentage, mean, mode, median,
standard deviation and in forms like graphs, charts and tables. Data arranged in these
ways facilitates interpretation to answer the research questions.

QUESTION 3: State what should be written in an abstract.

What is an abstract?
An abstract is a brief summary of a longer piece of work, usually academic in nature,
which is published in isolation from the main text and should therefore stand on its
own and be understandable without reference to the longer piece.
What should be written in an abstract?
An abstract is made up of 4 parts:
i) Purpose

ii) Methodology

should state the research objective

might contain the research hypothesis

describes the methods used in

conducting the research

should give only as much detail as is

necessary to understand the research

iv) Conclusion

iii) Results
should relate the observations and/or

should state the evaluation or

data collected during the research

should be concise and informative,

analysis of the results

should also briefly state the

implications of these results

might also state whether the driving

and only the most important results

need be included

hypothesis of the experiment was

correct
QUESTION 4: State the contents that should be in an action research report/article.
Contents
Abstract

Explanation
Includes research objective, research issues, target group,
intervention, result of analysis, implication of research,
suggestion for future research, key terms.
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The context

Background of the study, past teaching and learning experience,

Research focus
Action plan
Implementation of

reflection on educational value,

Research issue, research objective and research problem
Description of intervention
Detail explanation of things carried out

action plan
Data collection

State the instruments, how to administer the instrument

methods
Data analysis and

Describe the findings of the research, shows whether the

interpretation
Reflection and

intervention
Summarise the research result, discuss whether the findings

implications
The next step
Bibliography

support the research

Provide suggestion for future research
References used

QUESTION 5: Explain five importance of references.

A citation is both a signpost and an acknowledgement. As a signpost, it signals the

location of your source. As an acknowledgement, it reveals that you are indebted to

that source.
A citation can appear in different formats: within the text (in-text citation) at the
bottom of the page (footnotes), or at the end of the paper (endnotes). Different
disciplines use different formats. The mechanics of citing are complicated, and

vary in each format.

By using citations, you keep the reader always apprised of whose idea or words

you are using at any given time in each sentence and in each paragraph.
It is the basis of academics, that is, the pursuit of knowledge
In the academic endeavour, individuals look at evidence and reason about that
evidence in their own individual ways. That is, taking what is already known,
established, or thought, they use their reasoning power to create new knowledge.
1. Referencing allows you to acknowledge the contribution of other writers and
researcher in your work.
2. Referencing is also a way to give credit to the writers from whom you have
borrowed words and ideas.
3. Referencing is a way to provide evidence to support the assertions and
claims in your own assignments.
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4. References should always be accurate, allowing your readers to trace the

sources of information you have used.
5. They serve to direct the reader to additional and more detailed discussions
relevant to your topic.
6.
7.
8.
9.

We also cite to distinguish our ideas, language and work from that of others
Because failing to cite violates the rights of the person who originated the idea
Because academics need to be able to trace the geneology of ideas
To verify the reliability of the source of information

QUESTION 6: Explain the importance of seminars.

Role of the student is active; it presupposes that student has background
knowledge.
The seminar teaches the method of scientific analysis and techniques of
research.
The group as a whole and the individual students try to solve problems.
Exchange of facts and attempts to crystallize the group opinion which is
sound and workable.
By participation, in the solution of problems, the student becomes more
articulate and develops a more critical point of view and organized, scientific
approach towards issue.
Seminar gives training in self-learning and promotes independent thinking.
Ability to see and solve our own problems is increased because personal
difficulties can be compared with those of the group.
Seminar promotes group spirit and cooperativeness.

QUESTION 7: Explain four ways by which you can disseminate or make action
research data public. Give the strengths and weaknesses for each of the ways.

Ways
Poster

Strengths
Less stress during presentation

Weaknesses
Require certain skills to design

Chances to meet other

poster
Viewed as less important way and

researchers of the same stream

not able to improve researchers

More important compared to

profile
Require seminar skills and

presentation

Presentation of

Ways
paper in
seminar

Article in

Strengths
poster presentation
Improve the researchers profile

Weaknesses
presentation
Questions ask may not be

Face-to-face interaction

answered spontaneously
Limited time for discussion

Wide dissemination

Require language skills and good

Do not need to answer questions

communication skill
Lack of direct discussion with

spontaneously
Improve the researchers profile

audience as in seminar
Number of words is limited.

especially if it is uploaded in ISI

Hence, presentation of results

journal

could not be in detail

No word limit. Discussion can

Less wide dissemination

be in detailed
Can be send to target audience

compared to journal article

High printing cost

journal

Report

because each related person will

Research

receive a copy of the report

Improve research quality

Possibilities to receive wicked

network

through critique to develop the

critique

researcher
One of the forum to discuss

Require good communication

result of the research

skills especially in written form

due to lack of face to face

interaction
Easy to disseminate information
Require ICT skills
(Translated from Modul PGSR Penyelidikan Tindakan I MTE3113)