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Japan

Nipponredirects here. For other uses, see Japan constitutional monarchy with an Emperor and an elected
(disambiguation) and Nippon (disambiguation).
legislature called the National Diet.
JPNredirects here. For the album, see JPN (album).
Japan is a member of the UN, the G7, the G8, and the
G20. Japan is a great power.* [11]* [12]* [13]* [14] The
Japan (/dpn/; Japanese: Nippon [nipp] country has the world's third-largest economy by nomior Nihon [nih]; formally
Nippon-koku or nal GDP and the world's fourth-largest economy by purNihon-koku, State of Japan) is an island country in chasing power parity. It is also the world's fth-largest
East Asia. Located in the Pacic Ocean, it lies to the east exporter and fth-largest importer. Although Japan has
of the Sea of Japan, the East China Sea, China, North ocially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains
Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea a modern military with the world's eighth largest miliof Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan tary budget,* [15] used for self-defense and peacekeeping
in the south. The kanji that make up Japan's name mean roles. Japan is a developed country with a high standard
sun origin, and Japan is often called theLand of the of living, and the country is ranked high in the Human
Rising Sun.
Development Index. The Japanese population enjoys the
in the world and the
Japan is a stratovolcanic archipelago of 6,852 islands. highest life expectancy of any country
*
*
third
lowest
infant
mortality
rate.
[16]
[17]* [18] Japan
The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, and
*
Shikoku, which make up about ninety-seven percent of ranked rst in the Country Brand Index. [19] Japan is
ranked Asian country in the Global Peace InJapan's land area. Japan's population of 126 million is the highest
*
dex.
[20]
the world's tenth largest. Approximately 9.1 million people live in Tokyo,* [10] the capital city of Japan, which is
the second largest city proper in the OECD. The Greater
Tokyo Area, which includes Tokyo and several surround- 1 Etymology
ing prefectures, is the world's largest metropolitan area
with over 35 million residents and the world's largest ur- Main article: Names of Japan
ban agglomeration economy.
Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The rst
written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts
from the 1st century AD. Inuence from other regions,
mainly Imperial China, followed by periods of isolation,
later from Western European inuence, has characterized Japan's history. From the 12th century until 1868,
Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns
who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered
into a long period of isolation in the early 17th century, which was only ended in 1853 when a United States
eet pressured Japan to open to the West. Nearly two
decades of internal conict and insurrection followed before the Meiji Emperor was restored as head of state in
1868 and the Empire of Japan was proclaimed, with the
Emperor as a divine symbol of the nation. In the late
19th and early 20th centuries, victories in the First SinoJapanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World War I
allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period of
increasing militarism. The Second Sino-Japanese War
of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941,
which came to an end in 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since adopting its revised constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary

The English word Japan possibly derives from the early


Mandarin Chinese or Wu Chinese pronunciation of the
Japanese name, , which in Japanese is pronounced
Nippon listen or Nihon listen . Japanese people refer
to themselves as Nihonjin () and to their language
as Nihongo ().
From the Meiji Restoration until the end of World War
II, the full title of Japan was Dai Nippon Teikoku (
), meaning the Empire of Great Japan". Today
the name Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku () is used
as a formal modern-day equivalent; countries like Japan
whose long form does not contain a descriptive designation are generally given a name appended by the character
koku (), meaning country, nationor state.
The character nichi () means sunor day"; hon
() meansbaseororigin. The compound means
origin of the sunor sunrise(from a Chinese point
of view, the sun rises from Japan); it is a source for the
popular Western description of Japan as the Land of
the Rising Sun. Before Nihon came into ocial use,
Japan was known as Wa () or Wakoku ().* [21]
The English word for Japan came to the West via early
trade routes. The Old Mandarin or possibly early Wu
1

Chinese ( ) pronunciation of Japan was recorded by


Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese, a Wu
dialect, the pronunciation of characters 'Japan' is
Zeppen [zpn]. The old Malay word for Japan, Jepang,
was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect,
probably Fukienese or Ningpo,* [22] and this Malay word
was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the
16th century. Portuguese traders were the rst to bring
the word to Europe.* [23] An early record of the word in
English is in a 1565 letter, spelled Giapan.* [24]

History

HISTORY

primarily inuenced by China.* [33] Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and
gained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period (592710).* [34]
The Nara period (710784) of the 8th century marked
the emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered on an
imperial court in Heij-ky (modern Nara). The Nara
period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent
literature as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired
art and architecture.* [35] The smallpox epidemic of 735
737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of
Japan's population.* [36] In 784, Emperor Kammu moved
the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-ky before relocating
it to Heian-ky (modern Kyoto) in 794.

Main article: History of Japan

2.1

Prehistory and ancient history

Samurai warriors face Mongols, during the Mongol invasions of


Japan. The Kamikaze, two storms, are said to have saved Japan
from Mongol eets.

The Golden Hall and ve-storey pagoda of Hry-ji, among the


oldest wooden buildings in the world, National Treasures, and a
UNESCO World Heritage Site

This marked the beginning of the Heian period (794


1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese
culture emerged, noted for its art, poetry and prose.
Murasaki Shikibu's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of
Japan's national anthem Kimigayo were written during
this time.* [37]

Buddhism began to spread during the Heian era chiey


through two major sects, Tendai by Saich, and Shingon
by Kkai. Pure Land Buddhism (Jdo-sh, Jdo ShinA Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC constitutes the sh) greatly becomes popular in the latter half of the 11th
rst known habitation of the Japanese archipelago. This century.
was followed from around 14,000 BC (the start of
the Jmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semisedentary hunter-gatherer culture, who include ancestors 2.2 Feudal era
of both the contemporary Ainu people and Yamato people,* [25]* [26] characterized by pit dwelling and rudi- Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence
mentary agriculture.* [27] Decorated clay vessels from and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai.
this period are some of the oldest surviving examples of In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan in the
pottery in the world. Around 300 BC, the Yayoi people Genpei War, sung in the epic Tale of Heike, samurai
began to enter the Japanese islands, intermingling with Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed shogun and esthe Jmon.* [28] The Yayoi period, starting around 500 tablished a base of power in Kamakura. After his death,
BC, saw the introduction of practices like wet-rice farm- the Hj clan came to power as regents for the shoguns.
ing,* [29] a new style of pottery,* [30] and metallurgy, in- The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China
troduced from China and Korea.* [31]
in the Kamakura period (11851333) and became popu*
Japan rst appears in written history in the Chinese Book lar among the samurai class. [38] The Kamakura shoguof Han.* [32] According to the Records of the Three King- nate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, but was
doms, the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago dur- eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo
ing the 3rd century was called Yamataikoku. Buddhism was himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336.
was rst introduced to Japan from Baekje of Korea, but Ashikaga Takauji established the shogunate in Murothe subsequent development of Japanese Buddhism was machi, Kyoto. This was the start of the Muromachi Pe-

2.3

Modern era

Samurai could kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were
widely feared by the Japanese population. Edo period, 1798

Re-engraved map of Japan

riod (13361573). The Ashikaga shogunate achieved


glory in the age of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, and the culture based on Zen Buddhism (art of Miyabi) prospered.
This evolved to Higashiyama Culture, and prospered until the 16th century. On the other hand, the succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyo), and a civil war (the nin War) began in
1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period (Warring States).* [39]

2.3 Modern era

On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the


"Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention
of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with Western
countries in the Bakumatsu period brought economic and
political crises. The resignation of the shogun led to the
Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state
During the 16th century, traders and Jesuit missionaries nominally unied under the Emperor (the Meiji Restorafrom Portugal reached Japan for the rst time, initiating tion).* [44]
direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan
and the West. This allowed Oda Nobunaga to obtain Eu- Adopting Western political, judicial and military instiropean technology and rearms, which he used to con- tutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introquer many other daimyo. His consolidation of power be- duced the Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial
Diet. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empire
gan what was known as the AzuchiMomoyama period
(1573-1603). After he was assassinated in 1582, his suc- of Japan into an industrialized world power that pursued military conict to expand its sphere of inuence.
cessor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unied the nation in 1590 and
launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894
1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (19041905), Japan
and 1597.
gained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half of
Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Sakhalin.* [45] Japan's population grew from 35 million
and used his position to gain political and military sup- in 1873 to 70 million in 1935.* [46]
port. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans
in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taish
shogun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate democracy" overshadowed by increasing expansionism
at Edo (modern Tokyo).* [40] The Tokugawa shogunate and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, on the
enacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code of side of the victorious Allies, to widen its inuence and
conduct to control the autonomous daimyo;* [41] and in territorial holdings. It continued its expansionist policy by
1639, the isolationist sakoku (closed country) pol- occupying Manchuria in 1931; as a result of international
icy that spanned the two and a half centuries of ten- condemnation of this occupation, Japan resigned from
uous political unity known as the Edo period (1603 the League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japan
1868).* [42] The study of Western sciences, known as signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, and
rangaku, continued through contact with the Dutch en- the *1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis PowJapan negotiated the SovietJapanese
clave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave ers. [47] In 1941,
*
[48]
Neutrality
Pact.
rise to kokugaku (national studies), the study of Japan
by the Japanese.* [43]
The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China

3 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Japanese ocials surrendering to the Allies on September 2, 1945


in Tokyo Bay, ending World War II

Emperor Meiji (18681912), in whose name imperial rule was


restored at the end of the Tokugawa shogunate

Chinese generals surrendering to the Japanese in the SinoJapanese War of 18941895

in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War


(19371945). The Imperial Japanese Army swiftly captured the capital Nanjing and conducted the Nanking
Massacre.* [49] In 1940, the Empire then invaded French
Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.* [50] On December 78, 1941, Japanese
forces carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, attacks on British forces in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong
Kong and declared war, bringing the US and the UK
into World War II in the Pacic.* [51]* [52] After the
Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an
unconditional surrender on August 15.* [53] The war cost
Japan and the rest of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere millions of lives and left much of the nation's
industry and infrastructure destroyed. The Allies (led
by the US) repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from

colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely


eliminating the Japanese empire and restoring the independence of its conquered territories.* [54] The Allies
also convened the International Military Tribunal for the
Far East on May 3, 1946 to prosecute some Japanese
leaders for war crimes. However, the bacteriological research units and members of the imperial family involved
in the war were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by
the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers despite
calls for trials for both groups.* [55]
In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupation
ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952* [56] and
Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in
1956. Japan later achieved rapid growth to become the
second-largest economy in the world, until surpassed by
China in 2010. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan
suered a major recession. In the beginning of the 21st
century, positive growth has signaled a gradual economic
recovery.* [57] On March 11, 2011, Japan suered the
strongest earthquake in its recorded history; this triggered
the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, one of the worst
disasters in the history of nuclear power.* [58]

3 Government and politics


Main article: Government of Japan
Japan is a constitutional monarchy whereby the power
of the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial gurehead, he is dened by the constitution as the symbol of
the State and of the unity of the people.Power is held
chiey by the Prime Minister and other elected members
of the Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese

5
rubber stamp of the Emperor. The Constitution requires
that the Emperor promulgate legislation passed by the
Diet, without specically giving him the power to oppose
legislation.* [59] Japan's court system is divided into four
basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower
courts.* [63] The main body of Japanese statutory law is
called the Six Codes.* [64]

4 Foreign relations and military


Main articles: Foreign relations of Japan and Japan SelfDefense Forces
Japan is a member of the G8, APEC, and "ASEAN
Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko

people.* [59] Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan;


Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in line
to the Chrysanthemum Throne.
Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, seated in
Chiyoda, Tokyo. The Diet is a bicameral body, consisting of a House of Representatives with 480 seats, elected
by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and
a House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly
elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal
surage for adults over 20 years of age,* [2] with a secret
ballot for all elected oces.* [59] The Diet is dominated
by the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan and the
conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). The LDP
has enjoyed near continuous electoral success since 1955,
except for a brief 11-month period between 1993 and
1994, and from 2009 to 2012. It holds 294 seats in the
lower house and 83 seats in the upper house.
The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government
and is appointed by the Emperor after being designated
by the Diet from among its members. The Prime Minister
is the head of the Cabinet, and he appoints and dismisses
the Ministers of State. Following the LDP's landslide victory in the 2012 general election, Shinz Abe replaced
Yoshihiko Noda as the Prime Minister on December 26,
2012* [60] and became the country's sixth prime minister
to be sworn in 6 years. Although the Prime Minister is
formally appointed by the Emperor, the Constitution of
Japan explicitly requires the Emperor to appoint whoever
is designated by the Diet.* [59]
Historically inuenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.* [61]
However, since the late 19th century the judicial system
has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese government established a civil code based on a draft of the
German Brgerliches Gesetzbuch; with the code remaining in eect with postWorld War II modications.* [62]
Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature and has the

JDS Kong (DDG-173), a guided missile destroyer, launching a


Standard Missile 3 anti-ballistic missile in 2007.

Plus Three", and is a participant in the East Asia Summit. Japan signed a security pact with Australia in March
2007* [65] and with India in October 2008.* [66] It is
the world's third largest donor of ocial development
assistance after the United States and France, donating
US$9.48 billion in 2009.* [67]
Japan has close economic and military relations with the
United States; the US-Japan security alliance acts as the
cornerstone of the nation's foreign policy.* [68] A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has
served as a non-permanent Security Council member for
a total of 20 years, most recently for 2009 and 2010. It is
one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in
the Security Council.* [69]
Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its
neighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril Islands, with

GEOGRAPHY

South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with China and


Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands, and with China over
the EEZ around Okinotorishima.* [70] Japan also faces
an ongoing dispute with North Korea over the latter's
abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons
and missile program (see also Six-party talks).* [71]
Japan maintains one of the largest military budgets of
any country in the world.* [72] Japan contributed noncombatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces.* [73] The Japan Maritime Self-Defense
Force (JMSDF) is a regular participant in RIMPAC maritime exercises.* [74]
Japan's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which
renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military
force in international disputes. Accordingly, Japan's SelfDefence force is a usual military that has never red
shots outside Japan.* [75] It is governed by the Ministry
of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground
Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan Maritime SelfDefense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-Defense
Force (JASDF). The forces have been recently used in
peacekeeping operations; the deployment of troops to
Iraq marked the rst overseas use of Japan's military since
World War II.* [73] Japan Business Federation has called
on the government to lift the ban on arms exports so that
Japan can join multinational projects such as the Joint
Strike Fighter.* [76]
In May 2014 Prime Minister Shinz Abe said Japan
wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since
the end of World War II and take more responsibility for
regional security. He said Japan wanted to play a key role
and oered neighboring countries Japan's support.* [77]

Administrative divisions

Further information: Administrative divisions of Japan

Topographic map of the Japanese archipelago

from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and


Kyushu. The Ryukyu Islands, which includes Okinawa,
are a chain to the south of Kyushu. Together they are
often known as the Japanese Archipelago.* [80]
About 73 percent of Japan is forested, mountainous,
and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential
use.* [2]* [81] As a result, the habitable zones, mainly located in coastal areas, have extremely high population
densities. Japan is one of the most densely populated
countries in the world.* [82]
The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone on
the Pacic Ring of Fire. They are primarily the result of
large oceanic movements occurring over hundreds of millions of years from the mid-Silurian to the Pleistocene as
a result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the continental Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plate
to the south, and subduction of the Pacic Plate under the
Okhotsk Plate to the north. Japan was originally attached
to the eastern coast of the Eurasian continent. The subducting plates pulled Japan eastward, opening the Sea of
Japan around 15 million years ago.* [83]

Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseen


by an elected governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy. Each prefecture is further divided into cities,
towns and villages.* [78] The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the
Japan has 108 active volcanoes. During the twenticities, towns and villages with each other. This process
eth century several new volcanoes emerged, including
will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative
Shwa-shinzan on Hokkaido and Myjin-sh o the
regions and is expected to cut administrative costs.* [79]
Bayonnaise Rocks in the Pacic. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times
each century.* [84] The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed
6 Geography
over 140,000 people.* [85] More recent major quakes are
the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Thoku
Main articles: Geography of Japan and Geology of Japan earthquake, a 9.0-magnitude* [86] quake which hit Japan
Japan has a total of 6,852 islands extending along the on March 11, 2011, and triggered a large tsunami.* [58]
Pacic coast of East Asia. The country, including all Due to its location in the Pacic Ring of Fire, Japan
of the islands it controls, lies between latitudes 24 and is substantially prone to earthquakes and tsunami, hav46N, and longitudes 122 and 146E. The main islands, ing the highest natural disaster risk in the developed

6.2

Biodiversity

world.* [87]

sonal wind. The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation
is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.* [88]

6.1

The average winter temperature in Japan is 5.1 C (41.2


F) and the average summer temperature is 25.2 C
(77.4 F).* [89] The highest temperature ever measured
in Japan40.9 C (105.6 F)was recorded on August
16, 2007.* [90] The main rainy season begins in early May
in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north until reaching Hokkaido in late July. In most of Honshu,
the rainy season begins before the middle of June and
lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn,
typhoons often bring heavy rain.* [91]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Japan

6.2 Biodiversity
Cherry blossoms of Mount Yoshino has been the subject
of many plays and waka poetry

Autumn maple leaves (momiji) at Kongbu-ji on Mount


The Japanese macaques at Jigokudani hot spring are notable for
Kya, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
visiting the spa in the winter.

The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but


varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:
Hokkaido, Sea of Japan, Central Highland, Seto Inland
Sea, Pacic Ocean, and Ryky Islands. The northernmost zone, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climate
with long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers.
Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop
deep snowbanks in the winter.* [88]

Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from
subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryky and
Bonin Islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to
temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.* [92] Japan has over 90,000
species of wildlife, including the brown bear, the
Japanese macaque, the Japanese raccoon dog, and the
Japanese giant salamander.* [93] A large network of
national parks has been established to protect important
areas of ora and fauna as well as thirty-seven Ramsar
wetland sites.* [94]* [95] Four sites have been inscribed
on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding natural value.* [96]

In the Sea of Japan zone on Honshu's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall. In the summer,
the region is cooler than the Pacic area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of
the foehn wind. The Central Highland has a typical inland
humid continental climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day
and night; precipitation is light, though winters are usually snowy. The mountains of the Chgoku and Shikoku 6.3 Environment
regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds,
Main article: Environmental issues in Japan
bringing mild weather year-round.* [88]

The Pacic coast features a humid subtropical climate


that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall In the period of rapid economic growth after World
and hot, humid summers because of the southeast sea- War II, environmental policies were downplayed by

7 ECONOMY

the government and industrial corporations; as a result,


environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and
1960s. Responding to rising concern about the problem,
the government introduced several environmental protection laws in 1970.* [97] The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the ecient use of energy because of Japan's
lack of natural resources.* [98] Current environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change,
chemical management and international co-operation for
conservation.* [99]

7.1 Economic history

As of 2012, Japan is the third largest national economy in


the world, after the United States and China, in terms of
nominal GDP,* [109] and the fourth largest national economy in the world, after the United States, China and India, in terms of purchasing power parity.* [7] As of 2014,
Japan's public debt was estimated at more than 200 percent of its annual gross domestic product, the largest of
any nation in the world.* [110] In August 2011, Moody's
rating has cut Japan's long-term sovereign debt rating one
notch from Aa3 to Aa2 inline with the size of the country's decit and borrowing level. The large budget decits
and government debt since the 2009 global recession and
followed by earthquake and tsunami in March 2011 made
the rating downgrade.* [111] The service sector accounts
for three quarters of the gross domestic product.* [112]

Some of the structural features of Japan's economic


growth developed in the Edo period, such as the network of transport routes, by road and water, and the
futures contracts, banking and insurance of the Osaka
rice brokers.* [104] During the Meiji period from 1868,
Japan expanded economically with the embrace of the
market economy.* [105] Many of today's enterprises were
founded at the time, and Japan emerged as the most developed nation in Asia.* [106] The period of overall real
economic growth from the 1960s to the 1980s has been
called the Japanese post-war economic miracle: it averAs of June 2015, more than 40 coal-red power plants
aged 7.5 percent in the 1960s and 1970s, and 3.2 percent
are planned or under construction in Japan. The NGO
in the 1980s and early 1990s.* [107]
Climate Action Network announced Japan as the winner
of itsFossil of the Dayaward fordoing the most to Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s during what the
Japanese call the Lost Decade, largely because of the
block progress on climate action.* [100]
after-eects of the Japanese asset price bubble and doJapan ranks 26th in the 2014 Environmental Performance
mestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses
Index, which measures a nation's commitment to environfrom the stock and real estate markets. Government ef*
mental sustainability. [101] As a signatory of the Kyoto
forts to revive economic growth met with little success
Protocol, and host of the 1997 conference that created
and were further hampered by the global slowdown in
it, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon
2000.* [2] The economy showed strong signs of recovdioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate
ery after 2005; GDP growth for that year was 2.8 perchange.* [102]
cent, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European
Union during the same period.* [108]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Japan

7.2 Exports

The Tokyo Stock Exchange, the largest stock exchange in


Asia* [103]

Japan has a large industrial capacity, and is home to some


of the largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronics, machine tools, steel
and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances, textiles, and processed foods. Agricultural businesses in
Japan cultivate 13 percent of Japan's land, and Japan accounts for nearly 15 percent of the global sh catch, second only to China.* [2] As of 2010, Japan's labor force
consisted of some 65.9 million workers.* [114] Japan has
a low unemployment rate of around four percent. Some
20 million people, around 17 per cent of the population,
were below the poverty line in 2007.* [115] Housing in
Japan is characterized by limited land supply in urban ar-

7.4

Science and technology

9
would be importing shale natural gas.* [125]

7.4 Science and technology


Main article: Science and technology in Japan
Japan is a leading nation in scientic research, partic-

A plug-in hybrid car manufactured by Toyota, one of the world's


largest carmakers. Japan is the second-largest producer of automobiles in the world.* [113]

eas.* [116]
Japan's exports amounted to US$4,210 per capita in
2005. As of 2012, Japan's main export markets were
China (18.1 percent), the United States (17.8 percent),
South Korea (7.7 percent), Thailand (5.5 percent) and
Hong Kong (5.1 percent). Its main exports are transportation equipment, motor vehicles, iron and steel products, semiconductors and auto parts.* [117] Japan's main
import markets as of 2012 were China (21.3 percent), the
US (8.8 percent), Australia (6.4 percent), Saudi Arabia
(6.2 percent), United Arab Emirates (5.0 percent), South
Korea (4.6 percent) and Qatar (4.0 percent).* [2]

7.3

Imports

Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment,


fossil fuels, foodstus (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries. By market share
measures, domestic markets are the least open of any
OECD country.* [118] Junichiro Koizumi's administration began some pro-competition reforms, and foreign investment in Japan has soared.* [119]
Japan ranks 27th of 189 countries in the 2014 Ease of
doing business index and has one of the smallest tax revenues of the developed world. The Japanese variant of
capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprises
are inuential, and lifetime employment and senioritybased career advancement are relatively common in the
Japanese work environment.* [118]* [120] Japanese companies are known for management methods like "The
Toyota Way", and shareholder activism is rare.* [121]

The Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) at the International


Space Station

ularly technology, machinery and biomedical research.


Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billion
research and development budget, the third largest in
the world.* [126] Japan is a world leader in fundamental
scientic research, having produced nineteen Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine,* [127]
three Fields medalists,* [128] and one Gauss Prize laureate.* [129] Some of Japan's more prominent technological contributions are in the elds of electronics, automobiles, machinery, earthquake engineering, industrial
robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals.
Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, possessing more than 20% (300,000 of 1.3 million) of the
world's industrial robots as of 2013* [130]though their
share was historically even higher, representing one-half
of all industrial robots worldwide in 2000.* [131]

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is


Japan's space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and
aviation research, and leads development of rockets and
satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was added
to the station during Space Shuttle assembly ights in
2008.* [132] Japan's plans in space exploration include:
launching a space probe to Venus, Akatsuki;* [133]* [134]
Magnetospheric Orbiter to be
Some of the largest enterprises in Japan include Toyota, developing the Mercury
*
launched
in
2016;
[135]
and building a moon base by
Nintendo, NTT DoCoMo, Canon, Honda, Takeda Phar*
[136]
2030.
maceutical, Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba, Sharp, Nippon
Steel, Nippon Oil, and Seven & I Holdings Co..* [122] On September 14, 2007, it launched lunar explorer
It has some of the world's largest banks, and the Tokyo "SELENE" (Selenological and Engineering Explorer)
Stock Exchange (known for its Nikkei 225 and TOPIX on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket from
indices) stands as the second largest in the world by Tanegashima Space Center. SELENE is also known as
market capitalization.* [123] As of 2006, Japan was home Kaguya, after the lunar princess of The Tale of the Bamto 326 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 16.3 boo Cutter.* [137] Kaguya is the largest lunar mission
percent.* [124] In 2013, it was announced that Japan since the Apollo program. Its purpose is to gather data on

10

8 DEMOGRAPHICS

the moon's origin and evolution. It entered a lunar orbit


on October 4,* [138]* [139] ying at an altitude of about
100 km (62 mi).* [140] The probe's mission was ended
when it was deliberately crashed by JAXA into the Moon
on June 11, 2009.* [141]

7.5

Infrastructure

Main articles: Energy in Japan and Transport in Japan


As of 2011, 46.1 percent of energy in Japan was pro-

Japanese trains are known for their safety and punctuality.* [150]* [151] Proposals for a new Maglev route between Tokyo and Osaka are at an advanced stage.* [152]
There are 175 airports in Japan;* [2] the largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, is Asia's second-busiest airport.* [153] The largest international gateways are Narita
International Airport, Kansai International Airport and
Chbu Centrair International Airport.* [154] Nagoya Port
is the country's largest and busiest port, accounting for 10
percent of Japan's trade value.* [155]

8 Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Japan, Japanese people
and Ethnic issues in Japan
Japan's population is estimated at around 127.1

A high-speed Shinkansen Bullet train

duced from petroleum, 21.3 percent from coal, 21.4 percent from natural gas, 4.0 percent from nuclear power,
and 3.3 percent from hydropower. Nuclear power produced 9.2 percent of Japan's electricity, as of 2011, down Ainu, an ethnic minority people from Japan
from 24.9 percent the previous year.* [142] However, by
May 2012 all of the country's nuclear power plants had
been taken oine because of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in
March 2011, though government ocials continued to
try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least
some of Japan's 50 nuclear reactors to service.* [143] As
of November 2014, two reactors at Sendai are likely to
restart in early 2015.* [144] Given its heavy dependence
on imported energy,* [145] Japan has aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy eciency.* [146]
Japan's road spending has been extensive.* [147] Its 1.2
million kilometers of paved road are the main means of
transportation.* [148] A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and
is operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and used
cars are inexpensive; car ownership fees and fuel levies
are used to promote energy eciency. However, at just
50 percent of all distance traveled, car usage is the lowest
of all G8 countries.* [149]
Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major
companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corporation, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. Some 250
high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities and

A Japanese wedding at the Meiji Shrine

million,* [2] with 80% of the population living on


Honsh. Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous,* [156] composed of 98.5% ethnic
Japanese,* [2] with small populations of foreign workers.* [156] Zainichi Koreans,* [157] Zainichi Chinese,
Filipinos, Brazilians mostly of Japanese descent,* [158]
and Peruvians mostly of Japanese descent are among the
small minority groups in Japan.* [159] In 2003, there
were about 134,700 non-Latin American Western and
345,500 Latin American expatriates, 274,700 of whom

8.1

Religion

11

were Brazilians (said to be primarily Japanese descen- US took in 76,000.* [177]


dants, or nikkeijin, along with their spouses),* [158] the Japan suers from a high suicide rate.* [178]* [179] In
largest community of Westerners.* [160]
2009, the number of suicides exceeded 30,000 for the
The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato twelfth straight year.* [180] Suicide is the leading cause
people; primary minority groups include the indigenous of death for people under 30.* [181]
Ainu* [161] and Ryukyuan peoples, as well as social minority groups like the burakumin.* [162] There are persons of mixed ancestry incorporated among the Yam- 8.1 Religion
ato, such as those from Ogasawara Archipelago.* [163] In
spite of the widespread belief that Japan is ethnically ho- Main article: Religion in Japan
mogeneous (in 2009, foreign-born non-naturalized work- Japan has full religious freedom based on Article 20 of
ers made up only 1.7% of the total population),* [164]
also because of the absence of ethnicity and/or race
statistics for Japanese nationals, at least one analysis describes Japan as a multiethnic society, for example, John
Lie.* [165] However, this statement is refused by many
sectors of Japanese society, who still tend to preserve the
idea of Japan being a monocultural society and with this
ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally rejected any
need to recognize ethnic dierences in Japan, even as
such claims have been rejected by such ethnic minorities as the Ainu and Ryukyuan people. Former Japanese
Prime Minister Tar As has once described Japan as being a nation of one race, one civilization, one language
and one culture.* [166]
Japan has the second longest overall life expectancy at
birth of any country in the world: 83.5 years for persons
born in the period 20102015.* [17]* [18] The Japanese
population is rapidly aging as a result of a postWorld
War II baby boom followed by a decrease in birth rates.
In 2012, about 24.1 percent of the population was over
65, and the proportion is projected to rise to almost 40
percent by 2050.* [167]
The changes in demographic structure have created a
number of social issues, particularly a potential decline
in workforce population and increase in the cost of social security benets like the public pension plan.* [168]
A growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remain childless.* [169] In 2011, Japan's population dropped for a fth year, falling by 204,000 people to
126.24 million people. This was the greatest decline since
at least 1947, when comparable gures were rst compiled.* [170] This decline was made worse by the March
11 earthquake and tsunami, which killed nearly 16,000
people with approximately another 2,600 still listed as
missing as of 2014.* [171]

The torii of Itsukushima Shrine near Hiroshima, one of the Three


Views of Japan and a UNESCO World Heritage Site

its Constitution. Upper estimates suggest that 8496 percent of the Japanese population subscribe to Buddhism
or Shinto, including a large number of followers of a
syncretism of both religions.* [2]* [182] However, these
estimates are based on people aliated with a temple,
rather than the number of true believers. Other studies have suggested that only 30 percent of the population
identify themselves as belonging to a religion.* [183] According to Edwin Reischauer and Marius Jansen, some
7080% of the Japanese do not consider themselves believers in any religion.* [184]

Nevertheless, the level of participation remains high, especially during festivals and occasions such as the rst
shrine visit of the New Year. Taoism and Confucianism
from China have also inuenced Japanese beliefs and customs.* [185] Japanese streets are decorated on Tanabata,
Obon and Christmas. Fewer than one percent of Japanese
are Christian.* [186] Other minority religions include
Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Judaism, and since the
Japan's population is expected to drop to 95 million
mid-19th century numerous new religious movements
by 2050;* [167]* [172] demographers and government
have emerged in Japan.* [187]
planners are currently in a heated debate over how to
cope with this problem.* [169] Immigration and birth
incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to
8.2 Languages
provide younger workers to support the nation's aging
*
*
population. [173] [174] Japan accepts a steady ow of
Main articles: Languages of Japan and Japanese language
15,000 new Japanese citizens by naturalization () per
*
year. [175] According to the UNHCR, in 2012 Japan accepted just 18 refugees for resettlement,* [176] while the More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japanese
as their rst language.* [2] Japanese is an agglutinative

12

9 CULTURE

language distinguished by a system of honorics reect- best in the world.* [197]


ing the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb
forms and particular vocabulary indicating the relative
status of speaker and listener. Japanese writing uses kanji 8.4 Health
(Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries
based on cursive script and radical of kanji), as well as
Main articles: Health in Japan and Health care system in
the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.* [188]
Japan
Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages (Amami,
Kunigami, Okinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama, Yonaguni),
In Japan, health care is provided by national and local
also part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in
governments. Payment for personal medical services is
the Ryukyu Islands chain. Few children learn these lanoered through a universal health insurance system that
guages,* [189] but in recent years the local governments
provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a govhave sought to increase awareness of the traditional lanernment committee. People without insurance through
guages. The Okinawan Japanese dialect is also spoken in
employers can participate in a national health insurance
the region. The Ainu language, which has no proven relaprogram administered by local governments. Since 1973,
tionship to Japanese or any other language, is moribund,
all elderly persons have been covered by governmentwith only a few elderly native speakers remaining in
sponsored insurance.* [198] Patients are free to select the
Hokkaido.* [190] Public and private schools generally rephysicians or facilities of their choice.* [199]
quire students to take Japanese language classes as well
as English language courses.* [191]* [192]

8.3

Education

9 Culture

Main article: Culture of Japan


Main article: Education in Japan
Primary schools, secondary schools and universities were See also: Japanese popular culture
Japanese culture has evolved greatly from its origins.

Announcement of the results of the entrance examinations to the


University of Tokyo

introduced in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration.* [193] Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan
comprises elementary and middle school, which together
last for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high
school, and, according to the MEXT, as of 2005 about
75.9 percent of high school graduates attended a university, junior college, trade school, or other higher education institution.* [194]
The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the
University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.* [195]* [196]
The Programme for International Student Assessment
coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall
knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as sixth

Kinkaku-ji or 'The Temple of the Golden Pavilion' in Kyoto,


Special Historic Site, Special Place of Scenic Beauty, and UNESCO World Heritage Site; its torching by a monk in 1950 is the
subject of a novel by Mishima.

Contemporary culture combines inuences from Asia,


Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts
include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware,
swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh,
dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen,
Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system for
the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures.* [200]
Nineteen sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO
World Heritage List, fteen of which are of cultural signicance.* [96]

9.3

9.1

Literature

Art

13
the sixteenth.* [206] Western classical music, introduced
in the late 19th century, now forms an integral part of
Japanese culture. The imperial court ensemble Gagaku
has inuenced the work of some modern Western
composers.* [207]
Notable classical composers from Japan include Toru
Takemitsu and Rentar Taki. Popular music in post-war
Japan has been heavily inuenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop,
or Japanese popular music.* [208] Karaoke is the most
widely practiced cultural activity in Japan. A 1993 survey
by the Cultural Aairs Agency found that more Japanese
had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional pursuits such as ower arranging (ikebana) or tea
ceremonies.* [209]

19th-century Ukiyo-e woodblock printing The Great Wave o


Kanagawa, one of the best recognized works of Japanese art in
the world.

9.3 Literature

Further information: Japanese art, Japanese architecture, Main articles: Japanese literature and Japanese poetry
The earliest works of Japanese literature include the
Japanese garden and Japanese aesthetics
The Shrines of Ise have been celebrated as the prototype of Japanese architecture.* [201] Largely of wood,
traditional housing and many temple buildings see the
use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down
the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor
space.* [202] Japanese sculpture, largely of wood, and
Japanese painting are among the oldest of the Japanese
arts, with early gurative paintings dating back to at least
300 BC. The history of Japanese painting exhibits syn12th-century illustrated handscroll of The Tale of Genji, a
thesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetNational Treasure
*
ics and adaptation of imported ideas. [203]
The interaction between Japanese and European art has
been signicant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement
known as Japonism, had a signicant inuence on the
development of modern art in the West, most notably
on post-Impressionism.* [203] Famous ukiyo-e artists include Hokusai and Hiroshige. The fusion of traditional
woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation
of manga, a comic book format that is now popular
within and outside Japan.* [204] Manga-inuenced animation for television and lm is called anime. Japanesemade video game consoles have been popular since the
1980s.* [205]

9.2

Music

Main article: Music of Japan


Japanese music is eclectic and diverse.
Many
instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in
the 9th and 10th centuries. The accompanied recitative
of the Noh drama dates from the 14th century and the
popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from

Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles and the Man'ysh


poetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in
Chinese characters.* [210]* [211] In the early Heian period, the system of phonograms known as kana (Hiragana
and Katakana) was developed. The Tale of the Bamboo
Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.* [212]
An account of Heian court life is given in The Pillow Book by Sei Shnagon, while The Tale of Genji by
Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's rst
novel.* [213]* [214]
During the Edo period, the chnin townspeople
(
) overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers
of literature. The popularity of the works of Saikaku, for
example, reveals this change in readership and authorship, while Bash revivied the poetic tradition of the
Kokinsh with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the poetic
travelogue Oku no Hosomichi.* [215] The Meiji era saw
the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western inuences. Natsume Sseki and
Mori gai were the rst modernnovelists of Japan,
followed by Rynosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichir Tanizaki,
Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami.
Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors Yasunari
Kawabata (1968) and Kenzabur e (1994).* [212]

14

11

9.4

Cuisine

Breakfast at a ryokan or inn

Main article: Japanese cuisine


Japanese cuisine is based on combining staple foods, typically Japanese rice or noodles, with a soup and okazu
dishes made from sh, vegetable, tofu and the like to
add avor to the staple food. In the early modern era ingredients such as red meats that had previously not been
widely used in Japan were introduced. Japanese cuisine
is known for its emphasis on seasonality of food,* [216]
quality of ingredients and presentation. Japanese cuisine
oers a vast array of regional specialties that use traditional recipes and local ingredients. The Michelin Guide
has awarded restaurants in Japan more Michelin stars than
the rest of the world combined.* [217]

9.5

Sports

Main article: Sport in Japan


Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national

REFERENCES

spread through the education system.* [219] Japan hosted


the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964. Japan has
hosted the Winter Olympics twice: Sapporo in 1972 and
Nagano in 1998.* [220] Tokyo will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, making Tokyo the rst Asian city to host
the Olympics twice.* [221] Japan is the most successful
Asian Rugby Union country, winning the Asian Five Nations a record 6 times and winning the newly formed IRB
Pacic Nations Cup in 2011. Japan will host the 2019
IRB Rugby World Cup.* [222]
Baseball is currently the most popular spectator sport
in the country. Japan's top professional league, now
known as Nippon Professional Baseball, was established
in 1936.* [223] Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football
has also gained a wide following.* [224] Japan was a
venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004
and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.* [225] Japan has one of the most successful football
teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times.* [226]
Also, Japan recently won the FIFA Women's World Cup
in 2011.* [227] Golf is also popular in Japan,* [228] as
are forms of auto racing like the Super GT series and
Formula Nippon.* [229] The country has produced one
NBA player, Yuta Tabuse.* [230]

10 See also
Tourism in Japan
Outline of Japan
Index of Japan-related articles

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Sumo wrestlers form around the referee during the ring-entering


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*

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12 FURTHER READING

[202] Kazuo, Nishi; Kazuo, Hozumi (1995). What is Japanese [219] Culture and Daily Life. Embassy of Japan in the UK.
Architecture?: A Survey of Traditional Japanese ArchitecArchived from the original on March 17, 2007. Retrieved
ture with a List of Sites and a Map. Kodansha. ISBN 978March 27, 2007.
4-7700-1992-9.
[220] Olympic History in Japan. Japanese Olympic Com[203] Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard (2010). Modernism and the
mittee. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
Museum: Asian, African, and Pacic Art and the London
Avant-Garde. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19- [221] IOC selects Tokyo as host of 2020 Summer Olympic
959369-9.
Games
[204] A History of Manga. NMP International. Retrieved [222] rugbyworldcup.com. Retrieved November 1, 2013.
March 2, 2014.
[223] Nagata, Yoichi; Holway, John B. (1995).Japanese Base[205] Herman, Leonard; Horwitz, Jer; Kent, Steve; Miller,
ball. In Palmer, Pete. Total Baseball (4th ed.). Viking
Skyler (2002). The History of Video Games (PDF).
Press. p. 547.
GameSpot. Archived from the original on February 3,
2014. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
[224]Soccer as a Popular Sport: Putting Down Roots in Japan
(PDF). The Japan Forum. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
[206] Malm, William P. (2000). Traditional Japanese music
and musical instruments (New ed.). Kodansha Interna- [225] Previous FIFA World Cups. FIFA. Retrieved January
tional. pp. 3145. ISBN 978-4-7700-2395-7.
7, 2011.
[207] See for example, Olivier Messiaen, Sept haka (1962),
[226] Team Japan. Asian Football Confederation. Retrieved
(Olivier Messiaen: a research and information guide,
March 2, 2014.
Routledge, 2008, By Vincent Perez Benitez, page 67) and
(Messiaen the Theologian, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2010, [227] Japan edge USA for maiden title. FIFA. July 17, 2011.
page 243-65, By Andrew Shenton)
Retrieved July 17, 2011.
[208] Campion, Chris (August 22, 2005). J-Pop History.
[228] Varcoe, Fred.Japanese Golf Gets Friendly. Metropolis.
The Observer (London). Retrieved April 1, 2007.
Archived from the original on September 26, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
[209] Martinez, D.P., ed. (1998). The worlds of Japanese popular culture: gender, shifting boundaries and global cultures
(Repr. ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 76. ISBN [229] Clarke, Len. Japanese Omnibus: Sports. Metropolis. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007.
978-0-521-63729-9.
Retrieved April 1, 2007.
[210] Keene, Donald (2000). Seeds in the Heart: Japanese Literature from Earliest Times to the Late Sixteenth Century. [230] Hoop Dreams Yuta Tabuse,The Jordan of Japan"".
Consulate General of Japan in New York. December
Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11441-7.
2004 January 2005. Archived from the original on De[211] Asian Studies Conference, Japan (2000)". Meiji Gakuin
cember 3, 2010. Retrieved January 19, 2009.
University. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
[212] Windows on Asia Literature : Antiquity to Middle
Ages: Recent Past. Michigan State University. Archived
from the original on October 11, 2007. Retrieved December 28, 2007.

12 Further reading
Main article: Bibliography of Japanese history

[213] Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.).


Blackwell. pp. 126127. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
[214] Royall, Tyler, ed. (2003). The Tale of Genji. Penguin
Classics. pp. iii, xii. ISBN 0-14-243714-X.
[215] Keene, Donald (1999). World Within Walls: Japanese
Literature of the Pre-Modern Era, 16001867. Columbia
University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11467-7.
[216] A Day in the Life: Seasonal Foods, The Japan Forum
Newsletter No.September 14, 1999.
[217] 2011
14 54 198
(in Japanese). Michelin Japan. November 24, 2010.
Retrieved February 7, 2011.
[218] Sumo: East and West. PBS. Retrieved March 10,
2007.

Flath (2000). The Japanese Economy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-877503-2.
Henshall (2001). A History of Japan. Palgrave
Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-23370-1.
Iwabuchi (2002). Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism. Duke
University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2891-7.
Jansen (2000). The Making of Modern Japan. Belknap. ISBN 0-674-00334-9.
Kato et al. (1997). A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'Yoshu to Modern Times. Japan
Library. ISBN 1-873410-48-4.

21
Pilling, David (2014). Bending Adversity: Japan
and the Art of Survival. London: Allen Lane. ISBN
978-1-846-14546-9.
Samuels (2008). Securing Japan: Tokyo's Grand
Strategy and the Future of East Asia. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-7490-6.
Silverberg (2007). Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: The
Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times. University
of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22273-3.
Sugimoto et al. (2003). An Introduction to Japanese
Society. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52152925-5.
Taggart Murphy, R. (2014). Japan and the Shackles of the Past. Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-84598-9.
Varley (2000). Japanese Culture. University of
Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2152-1.

13

External links

Government
Kantei.go.jp, ocial site of the Prime Minister of
Japan and His Cabinet
Kunaicho.go.jp, ocial site of the Imperial House
National Diet Library
Public Relations Oce
Tourism
Japan National Tourist Organization
Japan travel guide from Wikivoyage
General information
Japan entry at The World Factbook
Japan from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Japan at DMOZ
Japan prole from BBC News
Energy Prole for Japan from the US Energy Information Administration
Japan from the OECD
Key Development Forecasts for the Japan from
International Futures

22

14

14
14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses


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Cantus, Rick Block, Niteowlneils, Revth, Gilgamesh~enwiki, FrYGuY, Gildong7, Per Honor et Gloria, Iota, Aalahazrat~enwiki, Enkrates,
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Quadell, Ran, Antandrus, Craig Fryer, Onco p53, Margana, Ravikiran r, MistToys, Piotrus, Kusunose, Cjewell, PDH, ShakataGaNai,
Jossi, Noirum, MacGyverMagic, Rdsmith4, Oneiros, Nzpcmad, Kesac, Mikko Paananen, OwenBlacker, Bumm13, Kevin B12, SimonLyall,
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Sesse, KarlaQat, Pmsyyz, Qutezuce, Pjacobi, Rama, Vsmith, Spundun, Vapour, HeikoEvermann, Smyth, Liblamb, Mjpieters, Carsonman,
Zazou, Dbachmann, Josephycc, Paul August, MarkS, SpookyMulder, WegianWarrior, Tsujigiri~enwiki, Bender235, ESkog, Flapdragon,
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Izalithium, El C, Lycurgus, Kwamikagami, Kross, Aude, Shanes, Sietse Snel, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Matteh, Bendono, Deanos, Aaronbrick, Thunderbrand, Kotuku33, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Iamunknown, Vanished user sdfkjertiwoi1212u5mcake, Circeus, NetBot, Ypacara,
Feitclub, Mochi~enwiki, Reinyday, BrokenSegue, Shenme, Dpaajones, Vortexrealm, ZayZayEM, AllyUnion, Cohesion, Jguk 2, Sophia
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Andrewpmk, Paleorthid, Bathrobe, Craigy144, Ronline, Andrew Gray, Davenbelle, ATG, Damnreds, ABCD, Riana, Sade, Photojpn.org,
Bz2, Lectonar, Calton, T-1000, SlimVirgin, Water Bottle, Lightdarkness, Viridian, JinFX, Sligocki, Mailer diablo, InShaneee, Dark Shikari,
Gblaz, Cdc, CJ, Hu, Malo, Katefan0, Bart133, Yau~enwiki, Bootstoots, Mbimmler, Schaefer, Shinjiman, BanyanTree, Helixblue, Cburnett, Yuckfoo, Suruena, Evil Monkey, Tony Sidaway, TonySapphire, RainbowOfLight, Randy Johnston, Sciurin, Joshbrez, Computerjoe,
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Nuggetboy, Rocastelo, Lapunkd, Guy M, Raidentherv, Bratsche, Sympleko, BoLingua, NOR, JeremyA, Brentdax, Zaorish, Miss Madeline, Arsha Nos Mondelle, Lawe, Acerperi, Alyssalover~enwiki, Pashan~enwiki, Hbdragon88, Privacy, Wikiklrsc, Bbatsell, Chris Lincoln, Damicatz, Terence, Optichan, Steinbach, Sengkang, John Hill, MiG, Male1979, Philbarker, Zzyzx11, Kralizec!, Jon Harald Sby,
Daniel Lawrence, Toussaint, Cedrus-Libani, Wilson Tam, Formeruser0910, Karam.Anthony.K, Marudubshinki, Dysepsion, Paxsimius,
Kakashi-sensei, Graham87, Jack Cox, Magister Mathematicae, TAKASUGI Shinji, Cianpeco~enwiki, Mdeering, Jalada, BD2412, Sydneyphoenix, MC MasterChef, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Charles Hawkins, Dpr, Icey, Miss Pippa, Electionworld, Krymson, Edison, Canderson7, Ketiltrout, Intimidated, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Tim!, Fieari, Demian12358, Koavf, Rogerd, Zbxgscqf, Dontbeakakke,
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Brendan Moody, OrbitOne, Kuribosshoe, Alphachimp, Malhonen, Consumed Crustacean, McDogm, Juhanedang, Ytsunenori, Jefu, King
of Hearts, WEKS, Urzeitlich, Chobot, DTOx, Clardan, Rewster, Benlisquare, Bornhj, Rikoshi, JesseGarrett, Gdrbot, Korg, Igordebraga,
334a, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Digitalme, Gwernol, E Pluribus Anthony, Wjfox2005, Check two you, Larus.r, XtremeSplitter, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, X5Dragon, RobotE, Extraordinary Machine, Eraserhead1, Sceptre, Wester, Hairy
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Lee D, MarcK, Wikimachine, Royalbroil, Nis81, Alynna Kasmira, PaulGarner, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Nahallac Silverwinds, Smash, Wiki
alf, UCaetano, Bachrach44, Msikma, CensorBot, NW036, Test-tools~enwiki, Grafen, Thatdog, Chick Bowen, NickBush24, Deskana,

14.1

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23

Jaxl, Johann Wolfgang, Snkcube, Virek, Stompbox, Rjensen, Howcheng, Piratesswoop, Journalist, Dogcow, Irishguy, Esthurin, Gunmetal, Banes, Cholmes75, DAJF, CaliforniaAliBaba, Larry laptop, Number 57, Mikeblas, 93JC, AdiJapan, Scs, Snagglepuss, Wombat007,
Ospalh, Bucketsofg, Sir Edgar, Aaron Schulz, Mkill, Neptuneam, AdamProcter, Lockesdonkey, RedForge, Gadget850, Helvete~enwiki,
Bota47, Geoi, Caspian, Kewp, Everyguy, Jpeob, Dan Austin, Martinwilke1980, Siyavash, Closet geek, Robertbyrne, Nlu, Oy Maatsulu,
Neonexis, Wknight94, Searchme, Crisco 1492, Kmusser, Intershark, FF2010, Sadistik, Cursive, Bdell555, Calaschysm, Numba1xclusive,
Dru, Zzuuzz, Homagetocatalonia, Lt-wiki-bot, Chesnok, Nipplemaster5000, Bayerischermann, Barryob, Nikkimaria, Chase me ladies,
I'm the Cavalry, Theda, Mechajedi, Closedmouth, Chery, Arthur Rubin, Fang Aili, Chanheigeorge, Bamse, BorgQueen, GraemeL, Jecowa,
Aeon1006, JoanneB, TBadger, Shawnc, Daiju~enwiki, Dannychoo, Peter, SndrAndrss, Scoutersig, Thelb4, Kevin, Spliy, Wikipedianinthehouse, Garion96, Staxringold, Che829, Ryoske, PMHauge, Kungfuadam, Ief, RG2, Bernd in Japan, A.Nath, Asterion, Matsuhito,
Jasongetsdown, Rb345, Kirby of Doom, Appleby, 2t56, Indiana Fats, Sam Chen, DVD R W, CIreland, One, Kf4bdy, SaveTheWhales,
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Ga, Commander Keane bot, Xaosux, Aksi great, PeterSymonds, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Steverich, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Oscarthecat, Skizzik, Polaron, Cs-wolves, Daysleeper47, Andy M. Wang, Rmdsc, Gh46, Surin~enwiki, CanbekEsen, KD5TVI,
Teemu Ruskeep, Chris the speller, Dids, Master Jay, Endroit, Bluebot, Kurykh, Bidgee, Keegan, Sle3per, Taelus, Persian Poet Gal,
Movementarian, Ian13, Robertyhn, MK8, Ksenon, Cattus, Rick7425, SeanWillard, MalafayaBot, Greatgavini, Kamosuke, Juansheng,
GabrielPere, BrendelSignature, Marsonline, JoeBlogsDord, Akanemoto, Bazonka, Zachkudrna18@yahoo.com, Nbarth, Baronnet, DHNbot~enwiki, Ned Scott, Cassivs, Worthawholebean, Wisden17, Chr.K., Firetrap9254, Niigata seagull, Gracenotes, CharonM72, GWatson,
GoodDay, John Reaves, Ahassan05~enwiki, Rheostatik, Zsinj, Xchbla423, Kotra, Sneltrekker, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, SillyAlgebraist, MyNameIsVlad, Scott3, White Wolf, Neutronium, GerenoIII, Zleitzen, Open-box, Pedroshin, KaiserbBot, MJCdetroit, Avb, Folksong, DayKart, Thisisbossi, TheKMan, Rrburke, TonySt, Homestarmy, Hakubishin, Dmoon1, Nikostar, WMXX, Flubbit, Milner77, NombreAqui, Sparkzilla, SundarBot, Gizwidget, Rarelibra, AgentFade2Black, Khoikhoi, Constants, Joshua 70448, Krich, Multivariable, Flyguy649, NoIdeaNick, Hateless, Cybercobra, DChiuch, Nibuod, Nakon, Savidan, Underbar dk, Caniago, Magore, RJN, Treima, RaCha'ar,
Zawthet, Sokolesq, WoodElf, BinaryTed, Twoheadeddog, Colby Peterson, Wizardman, Morio, Powelldinho, Kotjze, Bdiscoe, Didigo10,
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OldRightist, Rory096, AThing, Green01, Harryboyles, Giovanni33, Franc13, Zahid Abdassabur, Dbtfz, Kuru, John, Fanx, AmiDaniel,
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Bluej33, Serious Business, Mr. Lefty, RomanSpa, Thegreatdr, Deviathan~enwiki, Devinkuhn, Ekrub-ntyh, Ckatz, Dale101usa, FrostyBytes, Nutcracker, Rizzlebon, JHunterJ, Mjump, Konklone, Crazytail2, Astuishin, Hvn0413, TFNorman, Shangrilaista, Rob 06-07,
Ro, Rodneybf, Sandb, Godfrey Daniel, Samaster1991, Kyoko, Vaniba12, AxG, Xiaphias, Dbertman, Enohpesrep, SandyGeorgia, Interlingua, Neucular, Doczilla, Wright123, Pel99, Moner, Whomp, Ryulong, Onetwo1, Peter Horn, Andrwsc, Pseudoanonymous, Elb2000,
Skinsmoke, Jose77, Slyang, Mr simpson, Regulus marzo4103, Jesit, Doug Johnson, Redcomusic, Politepunk, Mackan, TheFarix, Levineps,
Balderdash707, Afkbot, OnBeyondZebrax, Seqsea, Fan-1967, ILovePlankton, Iridescent, Spinnick597, V6g3h7, Jjok, HertzaHaeon,
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HongQiGong, Dp462090, Sam Li, Domitori, Tortfeasor, O1ive, Civil Engineer III, Az1568, Anger22, WakiMiko, Thricecube, LittleTree, Hoptoit, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Daniel5127, Ouishoebean, Nquotes, IronChris, AbsolutDan, Mrmaroon25, Yung Wei, Zenjin, MightyWarrior, YanShen, Roxi2, CalebNoble, Komplex16, Benau, Alexthe5th, Neoyoda, SkyWalker, JForget, Hamish2k, Vega84,
ScottW, Sakurambo, Fentona, Sohebbasharat, Phillip J, CmdrObot, Le savoir et le savoir-faire, Calimos, Deon, Cxw, Wafulz, Insanephantom, Van helsing, Kevin McE, Aherunar, Alex Shih, SupaStarGirl, LordoftheFLIES, JohnCD, Unit~enwiki, Umedard, Twintone, Virgule82, Jcaragonv, Basawala, GHe, Usgnus, NaBUru38, Yarnalgo, Sundsvalltour, MarsRover, Saito Hajime, Lyrics~enwiki, Shizane,
Otashiro, Moreschi, Casper2k3, Zurkhardo, Ares1991, Pnatt, Lord of the Puns, TJDay, Rudjek, Bball485, Tomjc, DOMINAT3, Neonlife,
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Marek69, Schola64, West Brom 4ever, John254, Esemono, Java13690, Merbabu, Remort, Bluerfn, Stoshmaster, Havenstone, Alientraveller, Mnemeson, Plumcherry, Dagvadorj, Dfrg.msc, Nictius, Hcobb, Celldea, Dgies, CharlotteWebb, Therequiembellishere, Bethereds,
Whoda, Himawarichan, Tocino, TangentCube, Heroeswithmetaphors, MichaelMaggs, Okkakii, Sean William, Natalie Erin, Hsolimany,
Foreastwest, RCT Locomotion Wikipedia, Komekome~enwiki, Northumbrian, Dollarfty, Escarbot, Narato, Nox10, Junmai, MurphiaMan, Lizzleguy, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Questionfromjapan, Ais523, The Obento Musubi, HaradaSanosuke, Insulanus, Cultural
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Mythologia, Prolog, Doc Tropics, Iyokan~enwiki, 17Drew, Regulusmarzo@hotmai.l.com, Chris25, Vic226, Sydlexic, Ejoty, Kwjdh1324,
Mr Grim Reaper, Penser, Fayenatic london, Sumoeagle179, Poetic Decay, Dylan Lake, LibLord, Danger, Credema, MECU, Gdo01, Alphachimpbot, Kzaral, The Vindictive, DTAD, Falsedef, Elaragirl, Myanw, Zealous Zebra, Damool, Parande, Shogo Kawada, JAnDbot,
Gavinrew, Deective, Husond, Roman clef, Vip001, Felipe Menegaz, Barek, MER-C, BlindEagle, The Transhumanist, Luis wiki, Avaya1,
Samuel Webster, Arch dude, Tohru Honda13, Davespice, Hoplites, Honette, Objectiveye, Ipien, Hut 8.5, Airbreather, 100110100, Flying
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Recurring dreams, Thunderhead~enwiki, Critik~enwiki, AppleSay, Brionies~enwiki, Bleh999, Eiyuu Kou, Tasermon's Partner, SSZ, Mr.
D Vega, IkonicDeath, EagleFan, Haohao 1221, M3rrick, User86654, Westwind273, Bhsoul1, Teisei666, Joe routt, Adrian J. Hunter,
Sammalin, Tenjikuronin, Theallens, ShinjukuXYZ, Bharathiya, Ilha Youn, DerHexer, Histor~enwiki, JdeJ, Pan Dan, DeadGyroEater,
Tulip19, Dkriegls, Death2her x, Jap Bizarre, Nowletsgo, TheRanger, Wayne Miller, Goodynotion, Tyrant Rex, Patstuart, AOEU, Stur-

24

14

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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RaGnaRoK SepHr0tH, Engunneer, Ferrett-oniichan, Coolxal, Gurchzilla, Paulbkirk, Bubble94, Mrg3105, RaptorRobot, RobertsonGlasgow, Laboewe, Smartandgeeky, Wiki1609, Plasticup, Hut 6.5, Darrendeng, Number1balla, NewEnglandYankee, Amorwuu, SJP,
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Pker thief, ^demonBot2, Seb az86556, PDFbot, Sushiya, Wily wonka, Animeyay, Nicholas.goder, Lawrence H K, Whutes, Quindraco,
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AlleborgoBot, Danny137, LuigiManiac, Pooppantslicker, Kylehasnopenis, Noballs6599852224546521, Youngjoon Shin, MasniDahlia,
Delndakila, Signsolid, EmxBot, Eggy62, Dingbat46, Slasher4242, LOTRrules, Murkee, The Random Editor, Bonehelm, Aznixiboy,
SieBot, Kazuse, Louis88~enwiki, Black bear is.cool, Rikudemyx, Moonriddengirl, BotMultichill, Jauerback, Shawnlandden, WTucker,
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Plmnbvcx, Xmrcanadax, 8xJohnx8, Magison, Mekang, Enti342, Bobchawowow, Robster1983, Manylevel, SailorMan10001, Black lupin,
Telcourbanio, Black re dragon, Ljpernic, Webfan29, Mustache4me, Thysko, Bates14, Lovelifeloveliv, Add001, Ilovebooks19, MR2driver,
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Golem, JTBX, Stephaniemiller01, Elsweyn, Hafspajen, Luisztdt, Panapp, Axel8, Shannon bohle, Pekin Republican, Grandgrawper~enwiki,
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Madereugeneandrew, Mardenpb1, Geo0910, Notthe600, Darren23, Samantha555, Dragonman30564, AHRtbA==, Tezero, MelonBot,
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Yoyoyohippie, MrZoolook, 666Heaven, Jafeluv, Realxutao, Jeremyn.2, Eichikiyama, Blethering Scot, I Got A's, Locksmoon, Nintendog
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Luckas-bot, Yobot, VengeancePrime, JJARichardson, Ptbotgourou, Legobot II, Nirvana888, Corsicanman, DemitreusFrontwest, Eurotuber, Shinkansen Fan, KamikazeBot, DarkKunai, Reindra, TheThomas, Universal Life, LLTimes, Bentecbye, Anonymous from the 21th
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Ularevalo98, Gc9580, LlywelynII, Buzzexpress, Crecy99, Asdnhk, Josephus37, Materialscientist, Bukubku,
, ImperatorExercitus,
Tintero, Citation bot, Twiceuponatime, Dewan357, ArthurBot, PeachPurin, Cliftonian, Yoenis14, Xqbot, Jack332, Burbs101, Neurocod,
Timir2, WikiEditor 09111, Ssola, SLIMHANNYA, Kaleidoscorpion, Khajidha, Poetaris, Jerey Mall, Emperor1982, MikeeNewton,
Smim90, BritishWatcher, Srich32977, Photoguy439, , GrouchoBot, Chiharu2shi, Foreverprovence, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Einsteinomic7, Amaury, Erujiu12, Spesh531, Kurauchi, Hastyo, HelloDex, Tokiohotelover, GhalyBot, Moxy, Tonyelsnow, Shadowjams, Geolion117, WebCiteBOT, Iggymwangi, PM800, A. di M., 31.415.926.535 (GuD), Khalidshou, Koreanj03, A7xandquantumtheory,
Thehelpfulbot, PublicLibrarian, Nuiop729, Lilelectrowade, George2001hi, FrescoBot, Cervelo21, , Fortdj33, Scoutstr295, Paine

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Ellsworth, Klobis, Gudo, Chronus, Tobby72, Csiew88, Seibun, Norville Rogers, Firekraag, CepterX, Bambuway, Roakr, Louperibot,
Kuzmaxster, Leeinipoh, Overclax, Citation bot 1, Neyagawa, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, Kim-Zhang-Hong, Oxana879, Elockid, Darrenmule, Azips, Rahlgd, Fat&Happy, Leewsb, EllieTea, MastiBot, Jaguar, SpaceFlight89, Nomi149, Phoenix7777, Columbia clipper,
Rlawldn94, Tbagger69, Jenifarhszsz, Mitt313, Ibugcutie, Nirinsanity, Nd24, Celyndel, Ouyuecheng, Lightlowemon, Brandonshim184,
FoxBot, Dsz4, TobeBot, PiRSquared17, Vinay84, DriveMySol, Lotje, , RoadTrain, Nobita.TW.Luo, Extra999, Begoon, Tadashie,
Canuckian89, Diannaa, Underlying lk, Trikemike, Horsemeister, Tbhotch, NederlandsNederlands, Helpspoke, Stephreef, M3chung, The
Utahraptor, RjwilmsiBot, Anycent, Chipmunkdavis, Generalboss3, Bento00, Vellidragon, Korpio8, NerdyScienceDude, Jimtaip, Polylepsis, Carsf, DASHBot, Tradartrd, Mevlt Kl, Kaiserble, EmausBot, Straatmeester, SuperDuy, Nima1024, WikitanvirBot, Swcfer, Ashton
29, Desertroad, Filipdr, JarredTheYoutuber2, Taurrem, Creatureinthesky, Distal24, Blizzardstep0, Britannic124, RA0808, Mesgul82,
Halfd, Bull Market, BaseballPie, Sp33dyphil, Slightsmile, Michaeltobbylee, P. S. F. Freitas, Yattum, The Blade of the Northern Lights,
Tanner Swett, Eurasiatic, Kkm010, HiW-Bot, ZroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Jack solomon, MithrandirAgain, Houseorbehoused, Correctus2kX, Hereforhomework2, Kevz1140, Greatpowers, AvicAWB, Idh0854, Everard Proudfoot, DrZygote214, H3llBot, Wiooiw, SporkBot,
Raiolu, Zhenhaili000286, Luisfrois, Enopy, Bridgetansel, Futongrab, Calvin Lourdes He, Tyhlerb, Morgan Hauser, Kanon und wikipedia,
Gray eyes, Brandmeister, Kirothereaper, L Kensington, Icct Hedrix, Divaygoel, Jarjarbinks10, MAN3212, Japonfa, Hephatsheput, Erget2005, Gsarwa, Irrypride, 11evansj, Quite vivid blur, Heralder, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, MakmoudHassan, Lacobrigo, Martin david brown,
Rackas321, Kris159, Anonimski, Vzomg, ElockidAlternate, Khlee560~enwiki, Sheepy124, GermanJoe, Italiano111, Cesher, Ang15,
Australian cowboy, Hylian Auree, Czeror, Senator2029, Lguipontes, Newtrend19, , Estheroliver, Will Beback Auto,
ClueBot NG, ZambiblasianOgre, 2move2, Michaelmas1957, Gilderien, Bulldog73, Movses-bot, Kman665, Jokeroler, Iritakamas, MusicGeek101, Frietjes, Delusion23, Elvonudinium, Twillisjr, Hazhk, NyuclearTrigger, Househelps, AritaMoonlight81, Hiroshi Okimura,
Rats-Pasngeld Rennab, Jrobin08, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ek132, Maculosae tegmine lyncis, Tokyoship, Ephert, BG19bot, Joshtheeditor,
Keivan.f, Wahtung, M0rphzone, 00small, Rainbowzom, HIDECCHI001, Interchangeable, Tjl1128, Calvin Marquess, Cold Season, Midnight Green, Earth'sbuddy, SugarRat, FutureTrillionaire, Cadiomals, Yerevantsi, Altar, Death4, Earth Wikipedian, Ollieinc, Sovereign8,
Mythic Writerlord, Risingstar12, Ernio48, Mitchitara, Polmandc, Isokiho, Scuppers1, AntanO, Nerotaso, Lieutenant of Melkor, Slowlikemolasses, Tangled nest spider, Shredder2012, Horai 551, Nicdb, BattyBot, Factsearch, TheInfernoX, Rwenonah, Arizonatsunami,
JoshuSasori, Deadmarsh20, ChrisGualtieri, SkyTree90, Adnan bogi, EnzaiBot, Enemyusuar, Logographicthings, Atakuzier, BrightStarSky,
Onepebble, Dexbot, Mr. Guye, Mogism, MarioZelda128, Hto9950, Hoshigaki, Harishrawat11, Athomeinkobe, WiHkibew, Faisal 1918,
Seqqis, CsDix, The Awesome 10, Melonkelon, Joey.atienza, Lssrn, EvergreenFir, Dustin V. S., Supersaiyen312, Tresmegistus, Lindenhurst
Liberty, Transphasic, Mr. Lama, BBio-Wiki, MJ Soquerata, Meepsterbanana, Hoggardhigh, 1, Gixce93, Japa3, Othello95, Kind Tennis Fan, LuiYo9362, Gokul.gk7, Szekszter, Blondeguynative, Liz, OccultZone, Rtedb, Allen2, Esquin, Stufroguk, Stopedits11, Knsn57,
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Ryopus, Runawaysquash, Mikehistory, Monopoly31121993, Keiiri, YJAX, Cabanatueno, Xylocode, SoundArgument2, Onemakes100,
Unocha.visual, ChamithN, Kyodaiteeter, Emanuelito martinez, 555nhs, Redfoxjump, YeOldeGentleman, Fimatic, DuckWae12, GildaVerdi01, BlackRanger88, MoreTomorrow, Mdayasakii, Aldiazmo, Clerkletheq, KasparBot, TheRealSingapore, XFusionSGX, Ticktock01,
Anentai, Icarus the Great and Anonymous: 2469

14.2

Images

File:American-MNNA-2007.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/American-MNNA-2007.svg License:


Public domain Contributors: Based on BlankMap-World6.svg Original artist: Ratatosk
File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_
projection%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Map by Ssolbergj
Aquarius.geomar.de
Original artist:Koyos + Ssolbergj (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ssolbergj' title='User talk:Ssolbergj'>talk</a>)
File:Bjs48_02_Ainu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Bjs48_02_Ainu.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027j/beato_people/fb_album_01.html Original artist: Felice Beato
File:Breakfast_at_Tamahan_Ryokan,_Kyoto.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Breakfast_at_
Tamahan_Ryokan%2C_Kyoto.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MichaelMaggs
File:Cherry_blossoms_at_Yoshinoyama_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Cherry_blossoms_
at_Yoshinoyama_01.jpg License: CC BY 2.1 jp Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tawashi2006
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Decrease2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Decrease2.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Sarang
File:Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_cropped_Barack_Obama_Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_
20140424_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_cropped_
Barack_Obama_Emperor_Akihito_and_Empress_Michiko_20140424_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: President Obama at
the Welcome Ceremony in Japan | Flickr - Photo Sharing! Original artist: State Department photo by William Ng / Public domain
East Asia and Pacic Media Hub
File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC0
Contributors: http://openclipart.org/detail/24112/flag-of-afghanistan-by-anonymous-24112 Original artist:
File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: (Vector graphics by
Dbenbenn)
File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Bahrain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.moci.gov.bh/en/KingdomofBahrain/BahrainFlag/ Original artist: Source: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by
User:Zscout370

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14

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?


File:Flag_of_Brunei.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg License: CC0 Contributors: File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Original artist: Draw new ag by User:
_
File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art
File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Original artist:User:Verdy p, User:-x-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi, User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:
Zscout370
File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work based on File:Brdzanebuleba 31.pdf Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/
lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem Original artist: The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948)
provides the ocial specication for the design of the Israeli ag.
File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License:
domain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)
Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update

Public

File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain


Contributors: Original artist:Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006
File:Flag_of_Moldova.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg License: Public domain Contributors: vector coat of arms image traced by User:Nameneko from Image:Moldova gerb large.png. Construction sheet can
be found at http://flagspot.net/flags/md.html#const Original artist: Nameneko and others
File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg License:
domain Contributors: Flag of the Kingdom of Morocco

Public

Moroccan royal decree (17 November 1915)


Original artist: Denelson83, Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown
File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass
and many others
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: the actual ag Original artist: Unknown

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File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). The
National Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade from
http://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Per specications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National ag Original artist: Flag design by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users
File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color
guidelines (Russian/English) This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.w3.org/ Original artist: entraneur: BEN KHALIFA WISSAM
File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Trk Bayra Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Trk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: 4512:2006 - .
SVG: 2010
Original artist:
File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/
Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lu Ly v li theo ngun trn
File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Original
artist: User:Achim1999
File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:
PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Generals_Pyongyang_MigitaToshihide_October1894.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/
Generals_Pyongyang_MigitaToshihide_October1894.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/
throwing_off_asia_01/2000_380_08_l.html Original artist: Migita Toshihide
File:Genji_emaki_01003_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Genji_emaki_01003_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.gotoh-museum.or.jp/collection/index.html Original artist: Imperial Palace Kyoto
File:Goshichi_no_kiri.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Goshichi_no_kiri.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: le created on Adobe Illustrator and Photoshop by: Zagyoso
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navy.mil/Anthems/ANTHEMS/Japan.mp3). Original artist: Performance by US Navy Ceremonial Band [1]
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(Tenno Yondai No Shozo), Tokyo, Japan: (Mainichi Shinbun Sha)
ISBN: 4620605549. Original artist: Artist: Eduardo Chiossone (183398); Photographer: Maruki Riy (also misspelt as Maruki Toshiaki)* [#cite_note-fujitani-3 [3]]
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