Abstract Algebra

Mahavir Jhawar

Group Theory
Definitions
A set with a binary operation
Semi Group
Group
Commutative/Abelian Group
Subgroup
Cyclic Group
Order of a group element
Cosets of subgroups in a group
Index of a subgroup in a group.
Group homomorphism and isomorphism
Kernel of a homomorphism
Normal Subgroup
Quotient Group
Direct Product (External and Internal) of Groups
Propositions
A non-empty set H of a group G is a subgroup, if and only if, whenever a H, b H
the product ab1 also belongs to H.
Let H be a finite subset of a group G such that ab H, whenever a H and b H.
Then H is a subgroup of G.
If H and K are subgroups of G, then H K is also a subgroup of G.
Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. Then HK is a subgroup of G, if and only
if, HK = KH.
Let H and K be finite subgroups of G such that HK is also a subgroup. Then
|H||K|
.
|HK| = |HK|
Let G be a group and a G. Then the set H = {an | n Z} is a subgroup of G and
is the smallest subgroup of G containing a.
If G is cyclic, then G is abelian.
Let G be a cyclic group and H, a subgroup of G. Then H is cyclic.
Infinite cyclic groups do not have finite subgroups.
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 An Infinite cyclic group has infinitely many subgroups.

A finite cyclic group of order n has a unique subgroup of order d for every divisor d
of n.
A cyclic group of order n has exactly d(n) subgroups, where d(n) is the total number
of divisors of n.
Every infinite cyclic group has exactly two generators.
Every finite cyclic group of order n has exactly (n) generators, where is the Euler
function.
Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. Then G is the union of all left cosets of H
in G and any two distinct left cosets of H in G are disjoint.
Any two left cosets of H in G have the same number of elements.
(Lagranges Theorem) Let G be a finite group and H be a subgroup of G. Then the
order of H divides the order of G.
The number of distinct left cosets of H in G is equal to |G|/|H|.
The order of every element of a finite group divides group order. In particular a|G| = e.
Every group of prime order is cyclic.
(Eulers Theorem) If a is relatively prime to n, then a(n) = 1 mod n.
(Fermats Theorem) If p is a prime and a is any integer, then ap = a mod p.
If f : G G0 is an isomorphism, then f 1 : G0 G is also an isomorphism.
Let f : G G0 be a homomorphism such that f is also onto. If G is abelian, so is G0 .
Furthermore, if G is cyclic, so is G0 .
Let f : G G0 be a homomorphism of groups. Then the following holds true:
f (e) = e0 and f (a1 ) = f (a)1 for all a G.
Any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, +).
Any finite cyclic group is order n is isomorphic to (Zn , mod).
Any non-cyclic group of order 4 is isomorphic to the Klein 4-group.
Let f : G G0 be a homomorphism. Then Kerf is a subgroup of G.
A subgroup H is normal in G if and only if xH = Hx, for each x G.
Let H be a normal subgroup of G. Then the set of left cosets of H in G forms a group
under the operation (aH)(bH) = abH
Let f : G G0 be a homomorphism such that f is onto. Then Kerf is a normal
subgroup of G and the quotient group G/Kerf is isomorphic to G0 .
(Cayleys Theorem) Let G be a finite group of order n. Then G is isomorphic to a
subgroup of Sn .

Problems
1. Define a binary operation on the set of even integers (2Z) which is different from addition,
subtraction or multiplication.
2. Give examples of binary operations on a finite set which is (a) associative but not commutative, (b) commutative but not associative.
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3.
4. An element a G is called idempotent if a2 = a. Show that the only idempotent element
of G is the unit element.
5. If G is a group such that a2 = e for every a G, show that G is abelian. Is the same true
if a3 = e for all a G.
6. Show that G is an abelian group, if and only if (ab)2 = a2 b2 , for all a, b G.
7. Let G be a finite group with even number of elements. Show that there exists at least one
a in G, a 6= e such that a2 = e.
8. Let Dn = {e, a, a2 , . . . , an1 , b, ba, . . . , ban1 } be a set of 2n elements. Define the product
in Dn , by the relations an = e, b2 = e and ab = ba1 . Show that these relations define the
product of any two elements in Dn . Show further, that Dn is a group (Dn is called the nth
dihedral group). What group is D3 ?
9. Give an example to show that the union of two subgroups may not be a subgroup.
10. Find all subgroups of S3 and D4 .
11. Show that a group cannot be the union of two proper subgroups.
12. If G has no nontrivial subgroups, show that G is of prime order.
13. Give an example of a group which is not a cyclic group, but every proper subgroup of
which is cyclic.
14. Give an example of a non-cyclic commutative group whose every proper subgroup is cyclic.
15. Show that a group which has only a finite number of subgroups is a finite group.
16. Show that a cyclic group with just one generator has at most two elements.
17. Let a, b G be such that b = xax1 , for some x G. Show that o(a) = o(b).
18. Show that o(ab) = o(ba) for any two elements a, b G.
19. Let a, b be elements of a group G. Assume that a has order 7 and that a3 b = ab3 . Prove
that ab = ba.
20. Describe all groups G that contain no proper subgroup.
21. Any group of order 4 is abelian.
22. Let G be a cyclic group of order pn , where p is a prime. Let H and K be subgroups of G.
Show that either H K or K H.
23. If H is a subgroup of index 2 in G, then H is a normal subgroup of G.
24. If K is a normal subgroup of G and H is any subgroup, show that H K is a normal
subgroup of H.
25. Let G be a finite group and H the only subgroup of order |H| in G. Show that H is normal
in G.
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26. Give an example of a non-commutative group, all of whose subgroups are normal.
27. A group is called a simple group if its only normal subgroups are G and e. Show that a
simple commutative group is a cyclic group of prime order.
28. Show that any normal subgroup of G of order 2 is contained in the center of G, i.e. Z(G).
29. Show that it is impossible to find a homomorphism of Z5 onto Z4 .
30. Let H be a normal subgroup of G and a G. Show that the order of aH G/H divides
o(a). Give an example in which o(aH) is a proper divisor of o(a).
31. Describe all homomorphisms f : (Z, +) (Z, +).
32. Let H and K be normal subgroups of G such that H K = {e}. Show that hk = kh, for
all h H, k K.
33. The center of a group G is the set Z(G) = {x G | xa = ax a G}. Show that Z(G) is
a normal subgroup of G. Further, if G/Z(G) is cyclic, show that G is commutative.
34. Let p and q be distinct primes. Show that Zpq can be expressed as a direct product of a
cyclic subgroup of order p and a cyclic subgroup of order q.
35. Given an example of an infinite commutative group which cannot be written as a direct
product of two proper subgroups. Such a group is called indecomposable.
36. Show that the dihedral group D4 is indecomposable.
37. Let G be a direct product of two subgroups, each of which is a cyclic group of order 3.
Show that G cannot be cyclic.
38. Let H and K be cyclic groups of relatively prime orders. Show that G = H K is a cyclic
group.
39. Let H and K be cyclic groups such that G = H K and G is cyclic. Is it true that H and
K have relatively prime orders.
40. Show that a cyclic group of order p2 where p is a prime is indecomposable.
41. If Hi is normal in Gi , i = 1, 2, show that H1 H2 is normal in G1 G2 , and G1 G2 /H1
H2 ' G1 /H1 G2 /H2 .
42. Show that R = R+ R/Z, where R+ is the multiplicative group of positive reals.
43. Show that the set Sn of all permutations on n symbols form a group. The group Sn is
called the symmetric group on n symbols.
44. Show that Sn is a finite group of order n! and is non-commutative if n > 2.
45. Show that Sn , for n 3, has a trivial center.
46. The set An of all even permutations forms a subgroup of Sn and is a normal subgroup of
Sn .
47. The group An is simple for n 5.
48. Let G be a finite subgroup of order n. Then G is isomorphic to a subgroup of Sn .