BRUNEI

Geography
About the size of Delaware, Brunei is an independent sultanate on the northwest coast of the island of Borneo in the South China
Sea, wedged between the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.
Government
Constitutional sultanate.
History
Brunei was trading with China during the 6th century, and, through allegiance to the Javanese Majapahit kingdom (13th to 15th
century), it came under Hindu influence. In the early 15th century, with the decline of the Majapahit kingdom and widespread
conversion to Islam, Brunei became an independent sultanate. It was a powerful state from the 16th to the 19th century, ruling
over the northern part of Borneo and adjacent island chains. But Brunei fell into decay and lost Sarawak in 1841, becoming a
British protectorate in 1888 and a British dependency in 1905. Japan occupied Brunei during World War II; it was liberated by
Australia in 1945.
The sultan regained control over internal affairs in 1959, but Britain retained responsibility for the state's defense and foreign
affairs until 1984, when the sultanate became fully independent. Sultan Bolkiah was crowned in 1967 at the age of 22,
succeeding his father, Sir Omar Ali Saifuddin, who had abdicated. During his reign, exploitation of the rich Seria oilfield had
made the sultanate wealthy. Brunei has one of the highest per capita incomes in Asia, and the sultan is believed to be one of the
richest men in the world. In Aug. 1998, Oxford-educated Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah was inaugurated as heir to the 500-year-old
monarchy.
Sultan Bolkiah began taking cautious steps toward democratic reform in Sept. 2004, when he reinstated Parliament for the first
time since Brunei gained independence in 1984. He was widely praised in May 2005 when he fired four members of his cabinet,
including the education minister, whose plan to expand religious education angered many parents.
JORDAN
Geography
The Middle East kingdom of Jordan is bordered on the west by Israel and the Dead Sea, on the north by Syria, on the east by
Iraq, and on the south by Saudi Arabia. It is comparable in size to Indiana. Arid hills and mountains make up most of the country.
The southern section of the Jordan River flows through the country.
Government
Constitutional hereditary monarchy.
History
In biblical times, the country that is now Jordan contained the lands of Edom, Moab, Ammon, and Bashan. Together with other
Middle Eastern territories, Jordan passed in turn to the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Persians, and, about 330 B.C. , the
Seleucids. Conflict between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies enabled the Arabic-speaking Nabataeans to create a kingdom in
southeast Jordan. In A.D. 106 it became part of the Roman province of Arabia and in 633–636 was conquered by the Arabs. In
the 16th century, Jordan submitted to Ottoman Turkish rule and was administered from Damascus. Taken from the Turks by the
British in World War I, Jordan (formerly known as Transjordan) was separated from the Palestine mandate in 1920, and in 1921,
placed under the rule of Abdullah ibn Hussein.
In 1923, Britain recognized Jordan's independence, subject to the mandate. In 1946, grateful for Jordan's loyalty in World War II,
Britain abolished the mandate. That part of Palestine occupied by Jordanian troops was formally incorporated by action of the
Jordanian parliament in 1950. King Abdullah was assassinated in 1951. His son Talal, who was mentally ill, was deposed the
next year. Talal's son Hussein, born on Nov. 14, 1935, succeeded him.

King Hussein Confronts Challenge from Palestinians

From the beginning of his reign, Hussein had to steer a careful course between his powerful neighbor to the west, Israel, and
rising Arab nationalism, frequently a direct threat to his throne. Riots erupted when he joined the Central Treaty Organization
(the Baghdad Pact) in 1955, and he incurred further unpopularity when Britain, France, and Israel attacked the Suez Canal in
1956, forcing him to place his army under nominal command of the United Arab Republic of Egypt and Syria. The 1961 breakup
of the UAR eased Arab national pressure on Hussein, who was the first to recognize Syria after it reclaimed its independence.
Jordan was swept into the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, however, and lost East Jerusalem and all of its territory west of the Jordan
River, the West Bank. Embittered Palestinian guerrilla forces virtually took over sections of Jordan in the aftermath of defeat, and
open warfare broke out between the Palestinians and government forces in 1970.
Despite intervention of Syrian tanks, Hussein's Bedouin army defeated the Palestinians. The Jordanians drove out the Syrians and
12,000 Iraqi troops who had been in the country since the 1967 war. Ignoring protests from other Arab states, Hussein, by mid-
1971, crushed Palestinian strength in Jordan and shifted the problem to Lebanon, where many of the guerrillas had fled. As Egypt
and Israel neared final agreement on a peace treaty early in 1979, Hussein met with Yasir Arafat, the PLO leader, on March 17,
and issued a joint statement of opposition. Although the U.S. pressed Jordan to break Arab ranks on the issue, Hussein elected to
side with the great majority, cutting ties with Cairo and joining the boycott against Egypt.

Jordan Extends an Olive Branch to Former Foes

Jordan's stance during the Persian Gulf War strained relations with the U.S. and led to the termination of U.S. aid. The signing of
a national charter by King Hussein and leaders of the main political groups in June 1991 meant political parties were permitted in
exchange for acceptance of the constitution and the monarchy. King Hussein's decision to join the Middle East peace talks in
mid-1991 helped restore his country's relations with the U.S.
In July 1994, King Hussein and the Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin signed a declaration ending the state of belligerency
between the two countries. A peace agreement between the two countries was signed on Oct. 26, 1994, although a phrase in it
calling the king the “custodian” of Islamic holy shrines in Jerusalem angered the PLO. In the wake of the agreement, Jordan's
relations with the U.S. and with the moderate Arab states, including Saudi Arabia, warmed. In 1997, Jordan, determined to attract
foreign investment, began negotiating with the United States about membership in the World Trade Organization. In Jan. 1999,
King Hussein unexpectedly deposed his brother, Prince Hassan, who had been heir apparent for 34 years, and named his eldest
son the new crown prince. A month later, King Hussein died of cancer, and Abdullah, 37, a popular military leader with little
political experience, became king.
The first parliamentary elections under King Abdullah took place in June 2003 and resulted in a two-thirds majority for the king's
supporters. In 2005, the king, unhappy with the slow progress on reforms, replaced his cabinet.
Three suicide bombings by Iraqis blasted hotels in Amman, Jordan, in Nov. 2005, killing at least 57 people and wounding 115—
almost all of whom were Jordanians. The terrorist group, al-Qaeda in Iraq, claimed responsibility, contending that Jordan had
been targeted because of its friendly relations with the United States.
In parliamentary elections in Nov. 2007, pro-government and independent candidates won 104 of 110 seats. The opposition
Islamic Action Front took just six seats, down from 17 in 2003's election. Following the elections, King Abdullah named Nader
Dahabi, former air force commander and transport minister, as prime minister and instructed him to focus on improving the
country's economy.
SYRIA
Geography
Slightly larger than North Dakota, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Lebanon and Israel on
the west, Turkey on the north, Iraq on the east, and Jordan on the south. Coastal Syria is a narrow plain, in back of which is a
range of coastal mountains, and still farther inland a steppe area. In the east is the Syrian Desert and in the south is the Jebel
Druze Range. The highest point in Syria is Mount Hermon (9,232 ft; 2,814 m) on the Lebanese border.
Government
Republic under a military regime since March 1963.
History
Ancient Syria was conquered by Egypt about 1500 B.C. , and after that by Hebrews, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Persians, and
Alexander the Great of Macedonia. From 64 B.C. until the Arab conquest in A.D. 636, it was part of the Roman Empire except
during brief periods. The Arabs made it a trade center for their extensive empire, but it suffered severely from the Mongol
invasion in 1260 and fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1516. Syria remained a Turkish province until World War I.
A secret Anglo-French pact of 1916 put Syria in the French zone of influence. The League of Nations gave France a mandate
over Syria after World War I, but the French were forced to put down several nationalist uprisings. In 1930, France recognized
Syria as an independent republic but still subject to the mandate. After nationalist demonstrations in 1939, the French high
commissioner suspended the Syrian constitution. In 1941, British and Free French forces invaded Syria to eliminate Vichy
control. During the rest of World War II, Syria was an Allied base. Again in 1945, nationalist demonstrations broke into actual
fighting, and British troops had to restore order. Syrian forces met a series of reverses while participating in the Arab invasion of
Palestine in 1948. In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic, with Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt as president.
However, Syria became independent again on Sept. 29, 1961, following a revolution.
In the Arab-Israeli War of 1967, Israel quickly vanquished the Syrian army. Before acceding to the UN cease-fire, the Israeli
forces took control of the fortified Golan Heights. Syria joined Egypt in attacking Israel in Oct. 1973 in the fourth Arab-Israeli
War, but was pushed back from initial successes on the Golan Heights and ended up losing more land. However, in the settlement
worked out by U.S. secretary of state Henry A. Kissinger in 1974, the Syrians recovered all the territory lost in 1973.
In the mid-1970s Syria sent some 20,000 troops to support Muslim Lebanese in their armed conflict with Christian militants
supported by Israel during the civil war in Lebanon. Syrian troops frequently clashed with Israeli troops during Israel's 1982
invasion of Lebanon and remained thereafter as occupiers of large portions of Lebanon.

Regional Conflicts Continue Through the End of the Century

In 1990, President Assad ruled out any possibility of legalizing opposition political parties. In Dec. 1991 voters approved a fourth
term for Assad, giving him 99.98% of the vote.
In the 1990s, the slowdown in the Israeli-Palestinian peace process was echoed in the lack of progress in Israeli-Syrian relations.
Confronted with a steadily strengthening strategic partnership between Israel and Turkey, Syria took steps to construct a
countervailing alliance by improving relations with Iraq, strengthening ties with Iran, and collaborating more closely with Saudi
Arabia. In Dec. 1999, Israeli-Syrian talks resumed after a nearly four-year hiatus, but they soon broke down over discussions
about the Golan Heights.
On June 10, 2000, President Hafez al-Assad died. He had ruled with an iron fist since taking power in a military coup in 1970.
His son, Bashar al-Assad, an ophthalmologist by training, succeeded him. He has emulated his father's autocratic rule.
In the summer of 2001, Syria withdrew nearly all of its 25,000 troops from Beirut. Syrian soldiers, however, remained in the
Lebanese countryside.

Syria is Repeatedly Accused of Supporting Terrorist Groups

The U.S. imposed economic sanctions on the country in May, accusing it of continuing to support terrorism.
In Sept. 2004, a UN Security Council resolution asked Syria to withdraw its 15,000 remaining troops from Lebanon. Syria
responded by moving about 3,000 troops from the vicinity of Beirut to eastern Lebanon, a gesture viewed by many as merely
cosmetic.
On Feb. 14, 2004, Lebanon's former prime minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated. Many implicated Syria in the death of the
popular and independent leader, who staunchly opposed Syrian involvement in Lebanon. Huge Lebanese protests called for
Syria's withdrawal from the country, a demand backed by the U.S., EU, and UN. In addition to the anti-Syrian demonstrations,
however, there were a number of massive pro-Syrian rallies in Lebanon sponsored by the Shiite militant group Hezbollah. By the
end of April, Syria had withdrawn all its troops, ending a 29-year occupation. In October, the UN released a damning report on
Hariri's slaying, concluding that the assassination was carefully organized by Syrian and Lebanese intelligence officials,
including Syria's military intelligence chief, Asef Shawkat, who is the brother-in-law of President Assad. Syria vehemently
denied the charges.
In July 2006, during the Hezbollah-Israeli conflict in Lebanon, Syria was strongly suspected of aiding Hezbollah.

Syria and Israel Begin Negotiating, but Terrorism and Conflict Continue
For the first time in eight years, Syria and Israel returned to the bargaining table in May 2008. Syria wants to regain control over
the Golan Heights, which was taken by Israel in 1967, and Israel hopes an agreement will distance Iran from Syria and diminish
some sway Iran holds over the Middle East. Syria also reached out to the West, meeting with French president Nicolas Sarkozy
in July.
A powerful bomb, made of more than 400 pounds of explosives, exploded near a Shiite shrine in Damascus in September, killing
16 people. It was Syria's worst attack in more than 20 years. Terrorism was suspected, but no one claimed responsibility.
In October, American Special Operations Forces launched an air attack into Syria, killing a leader of al-Qaeda in Mesopotamia
near the Iraqi border. U.S. officials say the militant, Abu Ghadiya, smuggled weapons, money, and fighters into Iraq from Syria.
The Syrian government accused the Americans of committing a war crime, saying that eight civilians, including a woman and
three children, had been killed in the attack.