Lectures IntroElectronics

Matt DOBBS
Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

.
Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for

Scientists
M. Dobbs
<Matt.Dobbs@McGill.ca>
Department of Physics, McGill University
April 11, 2014
April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
April 11, 2014
1
Course Summary
The course will cover:
DC circuits and networks
Linear circuit elements: R, L, and C
Charging Cs and Ls; energy storage
Sinusoidal voltages and currents; phasors, and complex algebra techniques
Filters: high-pass, low-pass, bandpass
Resonant circuits
Network theorems
Fourier analysis of waveforms; frequency spectra
Fourier transforms; the bandwidth theorem
Semiconductor diodes
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Matt DOBBS
Nonlinear circuit elements: diode circuits and rectification

Laplace transforms
Waves and pulses on transmission lines
In order to understand these concepts, we will frequently make use of the Audio Spectrum (40-20,000
Hz), where our ears can help us interpret the circuits and the output of our measurement devices.
There are five labs:
The oscilloscope
Wave shaping with RC, RL circuits
Sinusoidal response of RC, RL circuits
Resonance
A mystery lab: use measurements to find the unknown elements in the box.
April 11, 2014
Contents
1 Course Summary
2 Introduction to Electronics in Physics and Elsewhere

2.1 Circuits come in all varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3 Static Circuits and Networks

3.1 Digital vs. Analog Signals . . . . .
3.2 AC vs. DC circuits . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . .
3.4 Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Current Flow . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Batteries . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Ohms Law & Review of Resistors .
3.6.1 Current Through a Resistor
3.6.2 Voltage Divider . . . . . . .
3.6.3 Resistor Networks . . . . .
3.6.4 Resistor Examples . . . . .
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Matt DOBBS
3.6.5
Resistor Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Capacitors and Inductors

4.1 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Capacitor Examples . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Charging a Capacitor . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 RC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4 RC Filter Example from Chalk Board
4.1.5 Capacitor Networks . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Transformers and Mutual Inductance . . . .
4.2.1 Lenzs Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Transformers in AC circuits . . . . .
4.2.3 Transformer Examples . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Example Applications . . . . . . . .
4.3 Inductors and Self Inductance . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Inductor Examples . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 Inductor Networks . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4 Inductor Applications . . . . . . . .
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5 Waterflow Analogy
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6 Linear Network Theorems I

6.1 Superposition and Linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Kirchoffs Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
6.2.1
6.2.2
Example: Method 1 total currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Example: Method 2 circulating currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Stepped Voltages with low and high-pass filters

8 AC
8.1
8.2
8.3
Circuits, Sinusoidal Currents and Voltages,

RLC AC-Circuit: Sinusoidal Representation . . . .
Representation with Complex Numbers . . . . . . .
RLC AC-Circuit: Complex Represntation . . . . . .
8.3.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 Linear Network Theorems II

9.1 Thevenins Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1 DC Example . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Nortons Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Conversion from Thevenins Theorem
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Complex Representations 73
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to Nortons Theorem
10 Fourier Analysis
10.1 Time Domain Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.1 Sine Wave timestream . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Fourier Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.1 Application to Audio . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2 the Matlab function powerSpectrum.m
10.2.3 Example: Signal Buried in Noise . . . .
10.3 Example: Spatial Fourier Transform . . . . . .
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
10.4 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4.1 Fourier Series Example: Square Wave (again)
10.5 Rectangular Pulse Train - Bandwidth Theorem . . .
10.5.1 Single Tone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.2 Three Tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.3 Five Tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.4 N Tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.5 Bandwidth Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 System Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6.1 Transfer Function Example . . . . . . . . .
10.6.2 Bode Plot and Decibels . . . . . . . . . . .
11 Diodes
11.1 Diode
11.1.1
11.1.2
11.1.3
Circuits . . . . . . . . .
Half-wave Rectifier . . .
Full-wave Rectifier . . .
Diode Clipping Circuits
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12 The S-plane and Laplace Transforms

12.1 Exponential solution to linear circuits . . . . .
12.1.1 S-plane Example . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 The S-plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 Using Poles and Zeros to Characterize Circuits
12.3.1 Single Pole Example . . . . . . . . . .
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
12.3.2 Multiple Pole Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.3.3 S-plane Zeros and Poles Calculation Examples .
12.4 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.1 Inverse Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.2 Step Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5 Laplace Transform Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.1 Example: RC circuit with step function input .
12.5.2 Example: RC circuit with a linearly rising input
13 Transmission Lines
13.1 The Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.1 Characteristic Impedance . . . .
13.2.2 Reflections and Line Termination
13.2.3 Mis-matched Transmission Lines
13.2.4 Unterminated Cable . . . . . . .
13.2.5 Short-circuited Cable . . . . . . .
13.2.6 Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Two-port S-parameters . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Dispersion and Lossy Cables . . . . . . .
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14 Op-amps
195
A Introduction to Circuit Simulation
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
B Equations
213
C Waterflow Analogy
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April 11, 2014
2
Introduction to Electronics in Physics and Elsewhere
Left: (source: NASA) The most cited scientific results to date come from WMAP, which measured the consituents of the universe and curvature of space time using observatons of the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.
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Right:
(source: M. Dobbs)
The electronic readout system for the South Pole Telescope, built at McGill.
The Phoenix lander arrived on Mars in 2008 and included Canadian instruments. It provided direct confirmation of the existence of water on mars.
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_lander)
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Left: The Edge, guitarist for U2, made the sound from this VOX amp famous (listen to the Joshua Tree).
The characteristic sound comes from the inherent distortion (or non-linearity) of the circuits. For pure
sound, or for a good scientific instrument, this sort of non-linearity is generally not desireable.
Right: A very basic audio amplifier circuit, using an op-amp.
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2.1
Circuits come in all varieties
A simple low-pass RC filter implemented with leaded components on a breadboard. Students in this course will build many such
circuits.
(source: http://gasstationwithoutpumps.wordpress.com/2012/06/24/temperature-lab-part-3-voltage-divider/)
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Circuit board developed at McGill for the CHIME telescope in 2014. The circuit board
is manufactured in Ontario and assembled by robots in Montreal with components that are sourced
internationally.
(source: M. Dobbs)
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Silicon wafer, manufactured in Korea by Samsung, containing the A5 ARM processor for the Apple IPad2 tablet. This uses a
32 nm feature size.
(source: http://news.softpedia.com/news/Samsung-Proudly-Show-Its-32-nm-Manufacturing-Process-267745.shtml)
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3
Static Circuits and Networks
3.1
Digital vs. Analog Signals
CD vs. magnetic tape.

3.2
AC vs. DC circuits
static circuits = voltages and currents are constant in time. Usually refered to as Direct Current
(DC), to distinguish them from circuits with time-varying currents, usually in the form of sine waves,
called alternating currents. A standard battery, like an AA cell, provides a static voltage of 1.5 V.
The outlets in your home provide an alternating voltage usually a 120 V sine wave with 60 periods
per second (240V, 55 periods per second in Europe).
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The SI unit Hertz refers to periods per second, [s1], and is named for Heinrich Hertz who showed
electromagnetic waves exist.
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current)
Often, we use the term DC to refer to a slowly varying signal, even though it is not, strictly speaking,
static. We also frequently say DC even when we are talking about voltages.
How do we measure the amplitude of a repetitive signal, like a sine wave? Consider the sine wave
Apsin(2f t)
the peak amplitude is Ap
the peak-to-peak amplitude (total excursion of the waveform) is 2 Ap.
s

2
2
the root-mean-squared amplitude is Ap sin (2f t) = Ap/ 2
A detailed derivation of the RMS 2 factor follows, using the angular frequency = 2f .
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(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_mean_square)
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3.3
Electromagnetic Spectrum
electricity distribution in north america, 60 Hz

amplitude modulated (AM) radio 140-300 kHz
frequency modulated (FM) radio 90-110 MHz
WiFi 1.4 GHz
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Em_spectrum)
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3.4
Linear Systems
What is a linear system, and why do we like them?

Linear systems obey the principles of superposition and scaling. For two inputs
x1(t),
x2(t)
with outputs
y1(t) = H[x1(t)],
y2(t) = H[x2(t)]
then a linear system must satisfy

ytotal(t) = y1(t) + y2(t) = H[x1(t) + x2(t)]
for scalar , .
superposition: H[x1(t) + x2(t)] = H[x1(t)] + H[x2(t)]
scaling: H[x(t)] = H[x(t)]
A high quality audio recording system and/or audio playback system (your hi-fi stereo at home)
satisfies this. Given the audio signal x1(t) from a guitar and x2(t) from a human voice, the recording
system applies gains , to each, and the sound you hear when you playback the music is a faithful
representation of the sum of the two audio signals. In this case, the processing of the signal by the
recording and playback devices are represented by H, and ideally H = 1.
An important feature of a linear system is that information at two different frequencies do not mix.
This means that, for a linear piano, when the A-key and E-key are played together to strike a chord, the
only notes you hear are A (440 Hz) and E (659 Hz). They do not mix to form another note such as E#.
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The distortion effect, commonly used for electric guitars, is non-linear, and artificially creates frequency
mixing.
Linear systems are easy to understand, and easy to calculate the output of. THey are also very easy
to simulate in a computer.
3.5
Current Flow
The flow of electrons through a wire driven by a electric field potential energy difference is called a current,
defined as the rate of charge past a point in a circuit.
I[ampere] =
Q[coulomb]
time[seconds]
One electron q is 1.602 1019 coulombs.

The voltage is the electric potential energy divided by the charge.
V =
EElectric
q
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The electron shown between two charged plates

= qV which will be transformed into kinetic energy (KE) when it
(source: http://cnx.org/content/m42324/latest/?collection=col11406/latest)
has electric potential energy EElectric

is ejected from between the plates.
Electrons will flow from the negative anode of a battery to its positive cathode. If positrons were
common, they would flow in the opposite direction.
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(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current and http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circuits/u9l2c.cfm)
When we speak of current in a circuit, the arbitrary convention is that we are referring to the direction
of the flow of positive charges.
3.5.1
Batteries
Batteries harness chemical energy potential the cathode is surrounded by postively charged ions, and the
anode by negatively charged ions. Electrons will travel through a circuit from the anode to the cathode,
releasing the stored chemical energy.
The amount of charge stored in a battery is usually specified in amp hours or mA hours. 1 amp hour
is 3600 Coulombs, or about 22.5 zeta-electrons (zeta = 1021).
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3.6
Ohms Law & Review of Resistors
The current through a conductor is proportional to the potential difference (or voltage) across it. We
define the resistance (actually, the 1/R) as the constant of proportionality and assign it the SI unit of
Ohms ().
I[A] =
V [V ]
R[]
V = IR
R = V /I
A material is characterized by its resistivity
[ m] = R
Area
length
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity)
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which can be measured by placing an electric field E across the material, and measuring the magnitude
of the current density J (in amperes per square meter, A/m2) that flows.
= E/J
.
The inverse of resistivity is conductivity
= 1/
.
3.6.1
Current Through a Resistor
A 10 V battery sends current through a 100resistor:

I
10 V
100
I = V /R = 10V /100 = 0.1A

This battery is doing work to push the current through the resistor. Where is this energy going? (1st
law of thermodynamics: energy is conserved in the universe)
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It is dissipated as heat:
P = IV = I IR = I 2 R
For this example, the 100resistor dissipates P = I 2 R = (0.1A)2 100 = 1 Watt.
3.6.2
Voltage Divider
I
V1
80
V2
20
10 V
I = V /R = 10V /(80 + 20) = 0.1A

V1 = IR1 = 0.1A 80 = 8V
V2 = IR2 = 0.1A 20 = 2V
V = V1 + V2
3.6.3
Resistor Networks
Resistors in series add directly

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R1
10
R2
20
...
30
RN
40
Rtotal = 10 + 20 + 30 + 40 = 100
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + . . . + RN
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Resistors in parallel add inversely

V
R1
R2
V = I1R1 = I2R2
Itotal = I1 + I2 =
V =
V
V
+
R1 R2
Itotal
1
1 = Itotal Rtotal
+
R1
R2
1
Rtotal
1
1
+
R1 R2
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R1
...
R2
RN
1
Rtotal
100
100
25
1
Rtotal
3.6.4
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
R1 R2
RN
25
1
1
1
1
10
+
+
+
=
Rtotal = 10
100 100 25 25 100
Resistor Examples
Traditional leaded carbon resistor
(source: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/rescarb.html )
surface mount resistors used on printed circuit boards
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(source: www.koaspeer.com)
incandescent lightbulb
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baseboard heater
3.6.5
Resistor Characteristics
Resistors are typically characterized by their resistance, precision (including variations with temperature),
ability to dissipate heat, and size.
The resistivity of a material typically has a temperature coefficient measured in parts per million
(ppm) per degree celsius. A standard resistor has a temperature coefficient of 100 pmm/C. Typically, the
resistance is specified at 20 C.
This means that, if you allow your circuit to run hot or cold, the component values will vary. A
100resistor with 100 ppm/C temperature coefficient that is operating outdoors on the South Pole Telescope on a cold winter day (-80 C) will have a resistance
100 (1 + 100 106ppm/C (80C 20C)) = 99
. In scientific applications, this will be particularly important for filters.
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4
Capacitors and Inductors
(source: Thanks to Prof. John Crawford for the use of his lecture notes, some of which are incorporated in this chapter.)
There are four basic passive linear circuit elements in electronics

resistor
capacitor
inductor
mutual inductance (transformer)
We have already seen that resistances dissipate energy (i.e., they get hot!). However capacitors and
inductors store energy. Capacitors store it in the electric field between the capacitor plates, while inductances store it in the magnetic field in the neighbourhood of the wire.
4.1
Capacitors
The simplest type of capacitor is constructed from two parallel conducting plates separated by either
space, or some dielectric insulator.
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(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capacitor_schematic_with_dielectric.svg)
If a battery of voltage V is connected to the two plates, the charge stored by the capacitor q will
be proportional to the voltage i.e., q = CV , where the constant of proportionality C is called the
capacitance.
The unit of capacitance is the Farad: if an applied voltage of 1 volt causes 1 coulomb of charge to be
stored, the capacitance is 1 Farad.
For the parallel plate capacitor above,
A
C=
d
where A is the plate area and d is the plate separation. The constant is called the dielectric permittivity
and
= 0
where 0 is called the permittivity of space, and is a dimensionless constant that depends on the
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properties of the particular dielectric. The permittivity of space is 0 = 8.85 1012F/m.

Note that if we construct a parallel plate capacitor with plate area A = 1cm2, and separation d = 1mm,
the capacitance will be C 1pF . To increase it, we could fill the space between the plates with a dielectric
with a high value.
Dielectric examples:
Mica, 6 is an excellent insulator that resist breakdown at high electric field strengths.
Air 1.00059 at STP and 900 kHz. ( can vary with frequency - a major challenge for modern
technology is achieving a good value at very high frequencies.)
Teflon 2.1.
4.1.1
Capacitor Examples
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor)
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4.1.2
Charging a Capacitor
Suppose we charge (i.e., store energy in) a capacitor by connecting it directly to a constant current source:
I
Since q = CV , and I = dq/dt, we find

1
dV
or V =
I=C
dt
C
Idt
I is constant. So
dV
I
=
dt
C
and so the voltage simply ramps up at a constant rate.
(source: J. Crawford)
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V0 is the constant of integration, V0 = 0 if the capactior is intially uncharged.

Applications
function generators use this circuit to produce ramps and triangular waveforms.
In particle physics, many detectors function by measuring the number of charged particles within a
pixel with a similar circuit.

(source: http://www.desy.de/~garutti/LECTURES/ParticleDetectorSS12/L6_SiliconLecture.pdf)
The energy stored by the electric field (work done by the battery providing the current) within the
capacitor is
W =
Z t
(power)dt =
Z t
v I dt =
Z t
Z V
dv
Cv dt = C 0 vdv = 12 CV 2
dt
We could have derived this for a voltage source instead of a current source (see http://hyperphysics.
phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/capeng2.html)
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and we would have arrived at the same answer, W = 21 CV 2.
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4.1.3
RC Circuit
4.1.4
RC Filter Example from Chalk Board
(source: Prof. M. Sutton 2013 Lectures)
Examples on blackboard: RC circuit charging and discharging.
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4.1.5
Capacitor Networks
V1
V2
C1
C2
Capacitors in parallel add directly

the voltage across both capacitors is the same V1 = V2, so
Q1 = C1 V, Q2 = C2 V
Q1 + Q2 = (C1 + C2)V
Qtotal = CtotalV
C1
C2
...
CN
Ctotal = C1 + C2 + . . . + CN
This is intuitive, because it is equivalent to dividing the plates from one large capactior into many segments.
1F
2F
3F
4F
Ctotal = 1F + 2F + 3F + 4F = 10F
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Capacitors in series add inversely
I
V1
C1
V2
C2
VTotal = V1 + V2 =
Q1 Q2
+
C1 C2
but Q1 = Q2 because there is no way for electrons to be created or destroyed between the two capacitors,
so
VTotal =
Q
Q
1
1
Q
+
= Q( + ) =
C1 C2
C1 C2
Ctotal
1
Ctotal
1
1
+
C 1 C2
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C1
100 pF
C2
100 pF
...
25 pF
CN
25 pF
1
Ctotal
1
1
1
+
+.
.
.+
C1 C2
CN
Ctotal
46
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
100 100 25 25
10
100
Ctotal = 10pF
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4.2
Transformers and Mutual Inductance
Drawing of the first transformer, built by British

scientist Michael Faraday in the 1830s. It consisted of an iron ring with two windings of insulated
wire around it.Faraday attached one winding to a sensitive galvanometer. When he touched the other
winding to a single cell battery, the winding created a changing magnetic field in the ring which induced
a momentary current in the second winding due to electromagnetic induction, which was registered by
the galvanometer.
Although this device looks remarkably like a modern transformer, Faraday is not considered the inventor
of the transformer. He only applied individual pulses of current to his device, not the alternating current
that allows modern transformers to work continuously. More importantly the device had the same number
of turns on both windings. Faraday did not discover the principle that makes transformers useful - that
it can be used to transform the voltage up or down by using different numbers of turns in the seconday
than in the primary winding.
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Faradays_transformer.png)
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A transformer can be made from two coils of wire wound on a cylinder or toroid. The cylinder can be
made of air or, better, a ferromagnetic material that will serve to better capture the magnetic field lines.
~ with magnetic induction
Current flowing in the primary (input) coil produces a magnetic field B
(units webers/m2), and this field passes through the n2 turns of the secondary (output) coil.
Faraday showed that the rate of change of a quantity called the magnetic flux B (defined as the surface
integral of B across the total area of the coil) is responsible for inducing the voltage across that coil. That
~ which in turn is proportional to I1, the instantaneous current in the primary.
flux is proportional to |B|,
So,
~ I1
B |B|
and using Faradays law of induction |V2| n ddtB ,
|V2|
dI1
.
dt
(source: Addison Wesley Longman via http://www.physics.sjsu.edu/becker/physics51/ac_circuits.htm)
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The constant of proportionality is defined as the mutual inductance M (units henry = volt second/amp).
1 henry means a constant of 1 volt across the secondary is induced by a change or 1 amp per second in
the primary.
Thus, for a transformer
dI1
V2 = M
.
dt
The direction of the output current flow I2 depends on the windingsit is easy to build a current
inverter by winding the transformer backwards.
4.2.1
Lenzs Law
Lenzs law: The current I2 induced int he secondary coil produces a field that opposes the change in the
flux B .
(source: Left: J. Crawford)
In the simple cartoon, when the current in the lower coil is switched on, B will increase in the upper
~ in the
coil. The current in the upper coil tries to oppose the increasing flux by producing one with B
downward direction. This corresponds to the direction of current shown in the upper coil, and that current
would produce a voltage with the direction shown on the resistor.
(The resistor is actually not necessary the voltage will be induced even if the circuit is open.)
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What happens if there is already a current in the lower coil, and we suddenly switch it off? In that
case, the upper coil will try to keep the field from collapsing, so the current flow in it would be opposite to
the direction shown. The voltage would then be opposite also, with the top wire negative, and the lower
positive.
4.2.2
Transformers in AC circuits
Here we have focused on changes in input current. What if the input I1 is a sine wave? The output
voltage, which is the derivative, will also be a sine wave with a phase offset of 90 degrees (cosine). For
AC circuits, transformers are very simple devices. For an ideal transformer (no loss), power is conserved.
This means:
V1 I1 = V2 I2
later, when we study AC circuits, well find that
V1 I2 n1
= =
V2 I1 n2
where
n1
n2
is the turns ratio.

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4.2.3
Transformer Examples
(source:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Electronic_component_transformers.jpg www.electronicsarea.com http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/File:Polemount-singlephase-closeup.jpg )
4.2.4
Example Applications
Electricity distribution: electricity is normally transported long distances over high voltage likes at
AC with very high (kilovolt) amplitude (why?). It is then transformed down to a few hundred volts
to bring it through city streets, and then transformed down again to the 220 VRMS that enters North
American homes.
DC power supplies for home electronics are built by transforming 110 VRMS from wall outlets to a
lower voltage, rectifying it (taking the absolute value), then integrating it through a low pass filter
(like the RC filter introduced in this class).
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voltage level translations inside analog electronics, like amplifiers

isolation circuits which remove the DC level, but pass fast varying signals
guitar pickup
(source: http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/electric-guitar1.htm)
Discussion side note: humbucker pickups and the concept of differential cancellation as it applies to
science instruments.
4.3
Inductors and Self Inductance
An inductor is just half of a transformer. It makes use of Lenzs law to store energy, just as a capacitor
does, as opposed to dissipating energy like a resistor.
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Consider the circuit below, at the moment it is turned on. If the inductor (coil) was replaced with a
short, a current V /R would flow immediately, with all of the voltage drop across the resistance R.
With the inductor in place, Faradays law of induction applies.

The current flow produces a flux through the coil, with in the direction shown. Lenzs law says that
~ To do this, it induces a voltage
the coil will attempt to produce a field that opposes the change in B.
V (equal to the batterys voltage) across the coil, with the upper end positive and the lower negative.
Therefore, just at the instant the switch is closed, the current flow will be zero.
For a single coil, the voltage-current relationship is
di
V =L ,
dt
1Z
i=
V dt
L
L is called the self-inductance of the coil, or simply the inductance.

L depends on the number of turns of wire, and the magnetic properties of the material within the coil.
Any current-carrying conductor even a straight wire is surrounded by a magnetic field, and hence has
some self-inductance.
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The inductance for a wire wrapped around a cylinder (called a solenoid) is

n2A
L=
l
(source: http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/electromagnetism/solenoid)
where l is the solenoid length, A = r2 is its cross-section area, n is the number of turns, and is the
magnetic permeability of the solenoid material (0 = 4 107 for vacuum).
4.3.1
Energy Storage
Energy is stored in the magnetic field within the inductor coil.

If the voltage applied to the coil were constant, then the current in the coil would rise,
The intercept I0 is the constant of integration, representing a possible initial current in the coil.
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The energy stored is

W =
4.3.2
Power dt =
Z t
V i dt =
di
L i dt = L
dt
Z I
i di = 12 LI 2
Inductor Examples
(source: Left: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Electronic_component_inductors.jpg, Right: www.moelettra.it)
4.3.3
Inductor Networks
Inductors in series add directly. Inductors in parallel add inversely.

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(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor)
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4.3.4
Inductor Applications
filtering, e.g. pi-filter (on black board)

power supply chokes
tuned circuits, such as AM-radios. Consider a resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) in series (lab 5):
Z
dI
V = IR + L + 1/C I dt
dt
for a pure AC current, I = Ip sin t, the equation becomes
V = R Ip sin t + L Ip cos t 1/(C) Ip cos t
with = 2f . There is a frequency, = 1/ LC where the inductor and capacitor cancel, and are
invisible to the circuit. This is the resonant frequency. We see that
the voltage across the Resistor is in phase with the current,
the voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90 degrees,
and the voltage across the capacitor lags by 90 degrees.
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5
Waterflow Analogy
pressure voltage
water volume per second flow current
pump voltage source
pipe constriction resistor
flywheel inductor
elastic membrane capacitor
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(source: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/watcir.html)
(source: https://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~dwharder/Analogy/)
see Section C for J. Crawfords lecture notes on this

Refer to https://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~dwharder/Analogy/ for helpful examples.
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Later we will study diodes, a non-linear circuit element.
(source: Left: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode, right: https://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~dwharder/Analogy/)
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6
Linear Network Theorems I
Recall some basic properties of L,C:
You can not instantaneously change the voltage across a capacitor.
You can not instantaneously change the current in an inductance.
6.1
Superposition and Linearity
We are familiar with superposition and linearity in physics:

For any system described by linear equations (algebraic or differential), the response of the system
to a set of driving forces (Ftot = F1 + F2 + F3 + . . .) can be derived by separately calculating the
response to each force. The total response to Ftot will just be the sum of the individual solutions.
This may be familiar from mechanics, e.g. the harmonic oscillator.
For electric circuits, superposition and linearity imply that:
The current in any branch of a circuit can be found by calculating the current produced by each
voltage or current source separately with all other sources switched off. Then with all sources
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Matt DOBBS
operating, the current will be the algebraic sum of all the individual solutions.
Note carefully: switching off voltage sources implies imagining them replaced by a wire (i.e., a short
circuit), and switching off current sources implies replacing them by an open circuit.)
6.2
Kirchoff s Laws
energy conservation: The algebraic sum of the voltages around a closed loop is zero.
charge conservation: The sum of the currents flowing into a node (junction point) is equal to the sum
of the currents leaving it.
6.2.1
Example: Method 1 total currents
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Application of these laws produces a set of simultaneous equations that can be solved for all the currents.
The energy conservation equations are:
+14 1 I1 4 I2 6 1 I3 = 0
+4 I2 2 I5 + 3 I4 = 0
+1 I3 + 6 3 I4 5 I6 = 0
and the conservation of charge equations are:
I1 = I2 + I5
I2 = I3 + I4
I4 + I5 = I6
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6.2.2
Example: Method 2 circulating currents
We have automatically satisfied the current law. The energy conservation equations are:
+14 1 I1 4 (I1 I2) 6 1 (I1 I3) = 0
+4 (I1 I2) 2 I2 + 3 (I3 I2) = 0
1 (I1 I3) + 6 3 (I3 I2) 5 I3 = 0
and can be re-written
6 I1 + 4 I2 + 1 I3 = 8
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4 I1 9 I2 + 3 I3 = 0
1 I1 + 3 I2 9 I3 = 6
which can be written in matrix notation as

In both cases, the end result is three equations with three unknowns, which can be easily solved.
by using linear algebra and the ratio of determinants
by using a program like matlab to write the soutions in matrix algebra,
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7
Stepped Voltages with low and high-pass filters
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Draw the output voltage for the given (blue) input voltage:
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Answers:
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8
AC Circuits, Sinusoidal Currents and Voltages, and
Complex Representations
8.1
RLC AC-Circuit: Sinusoidal Representation
Consider a resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) in series (lab 5):

Z
dI
V = IR + L + 1/C I dt
dt
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for a pure AC current, I = Ip sin t, the equation becomes

V = R Ip sin t + L Ip cos t 1/(C) Ip cos t
with = 2f = 2
T .
There is an angular frequency, = 1/ LC where the inductor and capacitor cancel, and are invisible
to the circuit. This is the resonant frequency.
The equation can be written in terms of sinusoids only:
V = R Ip sin t + L Ip sin(t + 90) + 1/(C) Ip sin(t 90)
We see that
the voltage across the Resistor is in phase with the current,
the voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90 degrees,
and the voltage across the capacitor lags by 90 degrees.
In this notation, we see that the amplitude of the voltage across each component is:
for resistance
for inductance for capacitance
|RI|
|LI|
|I/(C)|
(in phase with I) (leads I by 90) (lags I by 90)
The impedance magnitude |Z| is just the ratio of the voltage amplitdue to the current amplitude
|V |/|I|
for resistance for inductance for capacitance
|ZR | = R
|ZL| = L |ZC | = 1/(C)
and is easy to calculate for a particular .
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The phasor diagram is:

and the total voltage is just the sum of the three vectors.
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8.2
Representation with Complex Numbers
A complex number, such as rej = x + jy, is a natural representation for a number that has both an
amplitude and a phase.
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number)
In math, i (defined by i2 = 1) is normally used for the imaginary unit. Here j will be used, to avoid
confusion with current.
j 2 = 1
x, y are real numbers representing the real and imaginary portion of the vector, respectively.
r
r = x2 + y 2
= arctan
y
x
complex number addition represents vector addition

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Complex number subtraction represents vector subtraction.

Multiplication by j rotates a vector by +90.
(a + jb)j = aj + bj 2 = b + ja
Division by j rotates a vector by -90.
Eulers formula A ej = A(cos + j sin )
Multiplication
z1 z2 = A1 ej1 A2 ej2 = A1 A2 ej(1+2)
Division
z1 A1 ej1 A1 j(12)
=
=
e
z2 A2 ej2 A2
In problems involving sinusoidal relationships (e.g., simple harmonic motion in mechanics, or sinusoidal
A.C. in circuit problems), we think of the sine wave as the projection of a rotating vector. Therefore
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y = A sin t is the y projection of a vector represented by the complex number z = Aejt. We are, in
a way, just ignoring the other projection. Note that in these problems, we rarely draw a picture of the
actual sine wave: all we care about are the amplitudes and relative phases of the sinusoidal quantities in
the problem, and the vector (or the complex number that represents it) contains just this information.
8.3
RLC AC-Circuit: Complex Represntation
For a resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) in series

V = IR + L
Z
dI
+ 1/C I dt
dt
this time, the current is represented by I = Ipejt (the imaginary projection gives the original Ip sin t).
V = R Ipejt + jL Ipejt +
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and the total impedance of the loop is simply

Ztot = V /I = R + jL +
1
jC
R, L, 1/(C) all have units of ohms

in the case of the inductance and capacitance, the js indicate phase relationships.
jL indicates that voltage leads current by 90 in an inductance;
1/(jC) indicates that voltage lags current by 90 in a capacitance.
expressed in this way, networks of these impedances behave just like resistors
impedances in series add
impedances in parallel add inversely.
8.3.1
Examples
Calculate the voltage for this resonant circuit
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Calculate the voltage for this circuit
when L >
1
C
when L =
1
C
when L <
1
C
and draw a qualitative network analysis on the black board.
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9
Linear Network Theorems II
The Thevenin and Norton Theorems are based on the superposition properties of linear theorems. They
provide a means for converting any circuits sources and impedances to a simple equivalent circuit.
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9.1
Th
evenins Theorem
For a linear electrical network

the circuit at terminals A,B can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source Vth in series with an
equivalent resistance Rth.
Vth is the voltage that would be obtained across terminals A,B of the circuit with terminals A-B open
circuited.
Rth is the resistance that would be obtained looking into terminals A-B of the circuit with all its
current sources open circuited and all its voltage sources short circuited.
For DC circuits, the theorem works for voltage sources, currents sources, and resistances. For AC circuits,
it also works for circuits that include inductors and capacitors.
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thevenins_theorem)
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9.1.1
DC Example
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9.2
Nortons Theorem
For a linear electrical network

the circuit at terminals A,B can be replaced by an equivalent current source INo in parallel with an
equivalent resistance RNo.
INo is the current that would be obtained from terminals A to B of the circuit if the terminals A-B
were short-circuited.
RNo is the resistance that would be obtained looking into terminals A-B of the circuit with all its
current sources open circuited and all its voltage sources short circuited.
For DC circuits, the theorem works for voltage sources, currents sources, and resistances. For AC circuits,
it also works for circuits that include inductors and capacitors.
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9.2.1
Conversion from Th
evenins Theorem to Nortons Theorem
Rth = RNo
Vth = INoRNo
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10
Fourier Analysis
10.1
Time Domain Waveform
A time domain waveform or timestream is just a series of data recorded versus time. Examples:
music recorded on an LP or audio cassette
strip-chart from a hospital heart monitor
etc.
If the data is sampled (quantized) at regular time intervals, it is a discrete waveform, and has been
digitized.
music on compact disks and ipod harddrives
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10.1.1
Sine Wave timestream
Lets create a timestream composed of a pure sine-wave. Well sample at the standard audio rate, 44,100
Hz,
Using matlab:
t = [0:1./44100:1];
% 1 second with 44,100 samples.
ts = sin(2.*pi*440.*t); % 440 Hz sine wave (A note)
plot(t,ts,.)
axis([0 0.01 -1 1])
xlabel(Time (seconds))
sound(ts,44100);
% play the sound on the computer speaker.
sound( sin(2.*pi*880.*t) ,44100);
sound( sin(2.*pi*80.*t) ,44100);
% play a high sound

% play a low sound
[mag, freq] = powerSpectrum(ts,44100 ) ;

semilogx(freq,mag,-);
xlabel(Frequency (Hz))
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The Fourier transform of a sine wave is a Dirac Delta function. It peaks at one specific frequency,
corresponding to the period of the sine wave.
The Fourier transform of a sine wave simply measures its period (or frequency). The amplitude of the
transform corresponds to the amplitude of the sine wave.
The Fourier transform produced a complex output. The complex phase corresponds to the phase of
the sine wave.
10.2
Fourier Theory
We can build up any waveform from a superposition of sine waves. For example, a square wave is just
the sum of a sine wave and its (properly weighted) harmonics.
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(source: http://www.bores.com/courses/intro/freq/3_ft.htm)
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A Fourier transform tells us which sine waves we need to add together to build up the waveform we
are analyzing. The sine waves are the basis set (just like the vectors x, y form the basis set for any 2-D
vector).
F (u) =
j2ux
f
(x)e
dx
remember, ej = cos + j sin , so the Fourier transform is really just a convolution with sine and cosine
waves.
It is possible to construct any function as a sum of sine waves of various frequencies. The sine waves
form a basis set.
The Fourier Transform power spectrum is the extent to which a function looks like a sine wave of a
particular frequency.
It is fully reversable (preserves all information content). The inverse Fourier Transform is
f (x) =
j2ux
F
(u)e
du
The Fourier transform for discrete waveforms is

1
1 NX
F (u) =
f (x)ej2ux/N
N x=0
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10.2.1
Application to Audio
Record an audio discrete timestream using a program like Audacity, and save it to a .wav file called
test.wav on the desktop. The timestream will be recorded at a rate of 44,100 Hz, the standard rate for
audio recordings such as CDs.
Using matlab:
cd ./Desktop
[ts, sampleRate] = wavread(test.wav);
% read .wav file as a timestream ts
sampleRate
% print the sample rate to the screen
plot( ts(1:1000) )
% display the Fourier content of this timestream
semilogx(freq,mag,-);
axis([10 25000 0 0.01]); xlabel(Frequency (Hz))
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10.2.2
the Matlab function powerSpectrum.m
function [mag, freq] = powerSpectrum( ts, sampleRate )

% This function returns the absolute magnitude power spectrum
% in a vector mag which corresponds to x-axis frequency freq (units = Hz).
%
plot(freq, mag) will display the power spectrum
%
% Inputs ts:
a column vector, of arbitrary length containing the
%
input timestream data.
%
sampleRate: the sampling rate, in Hz, for the ts data.
%
N = length(ts) ;
halfN = floor(N/2) ;
rawFFT = fft(ts) ;
mag = abs( rawFFT(1:halfN ) ) *2./N ;
freq = [0:1:halfN-1] ;
freq = freq/ halfN * sampleRate/2 ;
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end
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10.2.3
Example: Signal Buried in Noise
Using matlab:
t = [0:1./44100:1];
% 1 second with 44,100 samples.
ts = 0.1 * sin(2.*pi*440.*t); % 440 Hz sine wave (A note)
plot(t,ts,.)
axis([0 0.01 -1 1]); xlabel(Time (seconds))
sound(ts,44100);
ts_noise = randn(1,44101) ;
plot( t, ts_noise, . );
axis([0 0.01 -1 1])
sound(ts_noise,44100);
% Lets hide our A-note in the white noise.
ts = ts + ts_noise;
plot(t,ts,.); axis([0 0.01 -1 1])
sound(ts,44100);
% but, in fourier space, this signal is loud and clear
plot(freq,mag,-);
axis([0 1000 0 0.2]); xlabel(Frequency (Hz))
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Notice that the Fourier Transform of a Gaussian random timestream (random noise) is WHITE (equal
power at all frequencies).
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10.3
Example: Spatial Fourier Transform
(source: http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/)
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10.4
Fourier Series
Lets step back now, and look at the mathematics of the Fourier transform.
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), in his paper On the Propagation of Heat in Solid Bodies demonstrated
an expansion of methematical functions in a series of trigonometric functions.
Essentially, Fourier has realized that Any periodic waveform can be represented as the sum of a
suitably chosen harmonic set of properly phased sine waves. i.e.
y(x) = b0 +
X
1
an sin(nx) +
X
1
bn cos(nx)
This was controversial even his colleagues Laplace and Lagrange were not convinced.
We already have seen one such example, a square wave, and found that even abrupt discontinuities can
be built up from smooth sine waves.
Finding the coefficients is simple: multiply both sides by sin(mx) and cos(mx) and integrate over the
period.
Z 2
sin(mx) sin(nx)dx = 0 for m 6= n, = for m = n.
0
Z 2
cos(mx) cos(nx)dx = 0 for m 6= n, = for m = n.

Z 2
sin(mx) cos(nx)dx = 0 for all m, n.
(said differently, these sine and cosine waves form an orthogonal set.)
b0 is found by taking the averagevalue of the function over the period. Thus the Fourier Series is:
1 Z 2
an = 0 sin(nx)y(x) dx
1 Z 2
bn = 0 cos(nx)y(x) dx
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1 Z 2
b0 =
y(x) dx
2 0
10.4.1
Fourier Series Example: Square Wave (again)
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(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series)
see http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Fourier_series_and_transform
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gif for a nice animated GIF.

For Fourier Series representing periodic functions
the fundamental frequency f0 is the same as the frequency 1/T of the original waveform.
in electro-speak b0 is the DC component of the waveform
Even functions (symmetric for reflection about the y-axis) contain only cosine waves.
Odd functions contain only sine waves.
(not surprizing as cosine/sine waves are even/odd functions).
The mix of sine and cosine waves will change as we alter the start time (move the x-axis) of the wave.
A true square wave could never be amplified and displayed on any instrument (such as the scopes
in the lab, which have analog amplifiers at their front end), because all real-world devices half limited
bandwidth.
your ears have a bandwidth of about 22 kHz
the oscilloscopes in the lab have a bandwidth of about 50 MHz
This limited bandwidth means that the full Fourier series of the waveform cannot be represented by
the instrument.
An RC filter has a time constant (time for voltage to fall to V0/e) = RC and a bandwidth =
1
2f = RC
.
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This means a device with a finite bandwidth, such as the 50 MHz lab scopes, will have a finite time1
constant = 2f
= 3.2 ns.
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10.5
Rectangular Pulse Train - Bandwidth Theorem
Previously, we studied the periodic functions which can be built up by super-imposing

sinusoids that are harmonics (an integer multiple) of a fundamental frequency f0.
Is it possible to create a single pulse?
In this section, well explore the super-position of sinusoids that fall in some narrow
bandwidth range, .
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10.5.1
Single Tone
Consider the timestream for a single tone at angular frequency 0 = 2f0, and using
the complex notation
s(t) = Aej0t
This is an infinite sinusoid timestream, which is represented in Fourier space by a delta

function at 0.
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We will use f0 = 50 Hz and A = 10 as an example.

10.5.2
Three Tones
Lets add two additional tones, dividing the amplitude by the number of tones (3) and
normalizing by the bandwidth.
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We will use f0 = 50 Hz, 48 Hz and 52 Hz, such that f = 4 Hz.
s(t) =
A j0t
(e
+ ej(0+ 2 )t + ej(0 2 )t
3
s(t) =
A j0t
e (1 + ej 2 t + ej 2 t)
3
A
j0t
1 + 2 cos(
s(t) =
t) e
3
2
we have written this in a way that shows us these three tones are indistinguishable from
the amplitude of the fundamental tone at f0 being modulated.
A
3
1+
2 cos(
2 t)
is the modulation envelope.

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The period of the fundamental or carrier is T = 1/f0.

The period of the modulation envelope is TM OD =
107
2
f
N
f .
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10.5.3
Five Tones
Lets put five tones in the same bandwidth of 4 Hz.
s(t) =
A j0t
(e
+ ej(0+ 2 )t + ej(0 2 )t + ej(0+ 4 )t + ej(0 4 )t
5
A j0t
t
j
t
j
t
j
j
2
2
4
s(t) =
e (1 + e
+e
+e
+ e 4 t)
5
j0t
1 + 2 cos(
s(t) =
t) + 2 cos(
t) e
5
2
4
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we now have a modulation period of 4/f , or 1 second.

The packet width (width of main bump) is still t = 1/f 0.25 s.
The modulation period is TM OD =
5
f .
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10.5.4
N Tones
A pattern is emerging:
packet width is t = 1/f .
N
The modulation period is TM OD = f
If we take N , can we get a one-time only pulse?
Consider N tones within the same bandwidth.
Define 0 = /N
N
A j0t X2
jn 0 t
0
s(t) =
e
e
N 0
n= N2
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taking N , the summation becomes an integral
A j0t Z
j 0 t
0
2
s(t) =
e
This is easy to integrate
2A sin(
t)
sin(
t) j0t
j0 t
2
2
e
= A e )
s(t) =
t
(2t
which is the sync function sin(x)/x.

And so the superposition of an infinite number of sinusoids in the limited bandwidth
of 48-52 Hz produces the waveform:
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This is a pulse that is not periodic, it happens only once (the modulation period is
infinite!).
The packet width is still t = 1/f = 0.25 s.
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10.5.5
Bandwidth Theorem
(also sometimes called the classical uncertainty theorem)

f t ' 1
t ' 2
(since = 2f ).
Any phenomena that occurs in a limited time interval t has a frequency spread
of f = 1/t Hz. If the time interval is small, then the frequency spread will be large.
Question:
what if you produce a pure sine wave, e.g. at 1 kHz, that lasts for 1 second?
We already learned that the Fourier transform of a sine wave is a delta function doesnt
this have zero width?
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Question:
what if you produce a pure sine wave, e.g. at 1 kHz, that lasts for 1 second?
We already learned that the Fourier transform of a sine wave is a delta function doesnt
this have zero width?
Answer:
No!, the function you produced is a sine-wave, convolved with a 1 second long boxcar.
This produces signal at 1 Hz and all its harmonics.
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10.6
System Frequency Response
Consider any circuit, such as an R/L low pass filter

Vin
Vout
The system frequency response or transfer function can be characterized mathematically by the function h(t), wherein the output y(t) can be calculated from the input
x(t) timestream by convolving
y(t) = h(t) x(t)
( denotes a convolution) as is often the case, many systems are simpler when working
in Fourier space,
Y (f ) = H(f ) X(f )
vin
x(t)
X()
BlackBox Network
h(t)
H()
vout
y(t)
Y ()
For the R/L low pass filter, the output is a simple voltage divider
R
Vout = Vin
R + jL
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and H(f ) is given by the ratio

R
Vout
=
H() =
Vin
R + jL
where = 2f .
10.6.1
Transfer Function Example
Knowing the Fourier space transfer function can make it very easy to calculate the
response of the circuit to an input waveform.
Vin
Consider the R/L low-pass filter
Vout
response to a square wave.
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In Section 10.4.1, the Fourier series representation of a square wave was calculated,
allowing the square-wave timestream to be written as a sum of sine waves:
1
1
Vin = x(t) = A sin 0t + sin 30t + sin 50t + . . .
3
5
using
R
H() = Vout/Vin =
R + jL
the attenuation of each Fourier series coefficient can be calculated.
R
, then plugging 0, 30, 50, into H() to get the attenuation
Lets consider 0 = 2L
factor
R
|H(0)| = |
R | ' 0.89
R + j 2L L
|H(30)| ' 0.55
|H(50)| ' 0.37
So the the filter has removed much of the amplitude from the higher harmonics at 30
and 50, rending the output more like a single tone (more like a sine wave, which is a
Dirac delta function in frequency space).
Similar analyses can be applied to transfer functions for other physical circuits,
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Here, the vibrational resonances of a structure are characterized by a Fourier space transfer function, and applied to a square wave
input force.
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frequency_response_example.png)
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10.6.2
Bode Plot and Decibels
The transfer function of a linear, time invariant system is most often displayed in
the form of a Bode Plot.
which
is independent of the input waveform.
A Bode plot provides both the magnitude
and phase of the transfer function H(f ).
The Bode plot for the R/L low-pass filter
The y-axis for the phase plot is normally
presented in degrees or radians. The Bode
Vin
Vout
which has a single pole plot shows that the filter has a || = 45
at f = R/(2L) 100 Hz is
phase shift at the pole frequency. This is a
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bode_Low-Pass.PNG)
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generic property of a single pole filter such

as an RC, L/R, or LC filter.
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The y-axis for the magnitude plot is most often presented in decibels (dB). This is the
logarithmic ratio of output power to input power, multipled by 10.
Pout
).
Magnitude Ratio[dB] = 10 log10(
Pin
Most often, people choose to work in voltage units rather than power. Since P V 2,
Vout 2
Pout
) = 10 log10(
)
Magnitude Ratio[dB] = 10 log10(
Pin
Vin
Vout
= 20 log10(
).
Vin
(we have used log Ab = b log A).
The decibel scale is logarithmic.
A 20 dB output is 10 times bigger than the input.
A 6 dB output is 2times bigger than the input.
A 3 dB output is 2 times bigger than the input.
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11
Diodes
(source: Adam Gilberts lectures on Diodes.)
(source: Wikipedia)
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Diodes are the first non-linear circuit element we have encountered.

Adam Gilberts (excellent!) slides on diodes are uploaded to MyCourses in the useful
info folder.
Lets explore some common circuits that use diodes.
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Diodes
What is a Diode?
Semi-conductor device
Conducts current in only one direction
Very little forward voltage drop
Figure 1 Ideal diode characteristics
Non-ideal diodes have a:
small forward voltage drop typically 0.7V for Silicon, 0.3V for Germanium, 0.4V for Schottky.
leakage current when reverse biased
reverse breakdown
Figure 2 Diode I/V curve image taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode
I=Is ( e Vd/Vt -1 ) , Vt=KT/q

K is the Boltzman constant,
T is the temperature in Kelvin, Vd is the voltage across the diode
q is the charge on an electron,
Is is the reverse leakage current
How do they work?

A piece of semiconductor material (e.g
Silicon/Germanimum group 4 elements) is
doped to have an n-doped region adjacent to a
p-doped region the silicon is actually
deposited with the dopants mixed in (see vaporphase epitaxy )
P-doping is achieved by infusing the material
with group 3 acceptors elements e.g Boron,
Gallium, this adds 'holes' to the material
N-doping is achieved by infusing the material
with donors (group 5 elements e.g Arsenic,
Phosphorous) this adds free electrons to the
material
At the P-N junction boundary diffusion takes
place, this diffusion uncovers ions and results
in a net negative charge in the P-doped section
and a net positive charge in the N-doped
section. The region in the device with
uncovered ions is known as the depletion
region. There is an electric field present across
the depletion region which slows down the
diffusion process.
Can anyone guess which way we'd need to
apply a voltage to reduce the depletion region?
Figure 3 Diode I/V curve image taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junction
What do diodes look like?
Diodes come in many sized packages, from devices that require tweezers to pick up to devices that can be bolted in place.
Figure 4 Some example diodes image taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode

There are many types of diodes, to name a few:
Laser diodes
Photo diodes
Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
Zener diodes
Simplest diode circuit lighting up an LED

In the following figure you can see some of the information that manufacturer has provided in the component data sheet.
Figure 5 Part of data sheet for a typical LED (LTST-C190EKT)

Lets try building a circuit to run the LED at its recommended current:
LEDs are special and require much higher forward voltage levels.
The relative luminous intensity is 1 in the data sheet at 10mA of current.
The data sheet indicates that a forward voltage of 1.9V is required for 10mA
What resistor value is required in this circuit to light the LED?
Figure 6 Simplest diode circuit
R = (5V 1.9V ) / 10mA = 310 Ohms

How much power is this circuit using up?
P= 5V * 10mA =50mW
P=10mA^2 *310 + 1.9V * 10mA = 50mW
What would happen to the power consumption in this circuit if we designed the LED to run from a 12V supply?
What about the LED power consumption?
Circuit analysis with diodes

Analyzing circuits with diodes can be a tricky. We often don't know if the diode is conducting or not.
1) Start your analysis by assuming the diode is non-conducting
2) Calculate what forward voltage would be across the diode
3) If this voltage is less than the diode model threshold you are using (Ideal vs Non ideal diodes) then the diode is non-conducting and your
analysis is over
4) If the voltage is greater than the threshold you have specified, you need to replace the diode with an appropriate model i.e short for an
Ideal diode or a voltage source for non-ideal diode and recalculate the circuit voltages/current
5) You're done! - Note that if you want to model the I/V characteristics of the diode you're better off using SPICE!
Lets work out this circuit on the
blackboard:
Lets say we're interested in the
current through the diode, and
the voltage at the anode.
Figure 7 A more complicated diode circuit
Diode followed by capacitor

Note that there is
no mechanism for
the capacitor to
discharge so once
it finds a peak it
just sits there
waiting for a
higher one.
The difference
between the peak
and the capacitor
voltage is the 0.7V
forward drop of
the diode
The most basic peak detector

Bandwidth governed by
the RC time constant.
Smaller RC results in
faster decay
When does the diode
conduct again after it
finds a peak?
Usual approach is to
approximate the sinusoid
by a triangular waveform
Maybe try this problem at
home.....
The full wave rectifier
We now conduct
two times per
sinusoid.
Common
method to
convert from
AC to DC
The Zener diode

Can you see
something funny
about this circuit?
We are running the
diode around its
reverse break down
voltage!
Often used as a
precision voltage
reference, circuit
protection, cheap
power supplies
Matt DOBBS
11.1
Diode Circuits
11.1.1
Half-wave Rectifier
(source: http://www.brighthubengineering.com/consumer-appliances-electronics/96645-efficiency-of-ac-rectifiers/)
Another version of the half-wave rectifier is:
Vin
Vout
which will be used as a building block for a full-wave rectifier.

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11.1.2
Full-wave Rectifier
A full-wave rectifier acts like the mathematical operation of applying the absolute value.
Using the building blocks from the previous example, it can be drawn:
Vin
Vout
This is more commonly drawn:
A full-wave rectifier is the first element in common power supplies, like the bricks
that power most laptop computers.
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Matt DOBBS
(source: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_6.html)
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A transformer can be added at the input to change the output voltage amplitude.
(source: http://www.brighthubengineering.com/consumer-appliances-electronics/96645-efficiency-of-ac-rectifiers/)
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11.1.3
Diode Clipping Circuits
(source: http://www.electronic-basics.com/2009/05/diode-limiter.html)
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Matt DOBBS
(source: http://www.daenotes.com/electronics/digital-electronics/clipper-circuits)
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12
The S-plane and Laplace Transforms
(source: Many examples and ideas for this chapter are taken from John Crawfords lecture notes.)
Warning: this chapter builds on what has been learned about Fourier transforms and
uses that as a foundation. Students should ensure they have a solid understanding of
Fourier transforms before diving in to this chapter.
12.1
Exponential solution to linear circuits
We have studied the transfer function for AC signals transmitted through a circuit
network consisting of linear circuit elements (L, C, Rs).
vin
x(t)
X()
BlackBox Network
h(t)
H()
143
vout
y(t)
Y ()
Matt DOBBS
We found that certain inputs give the same form of output:

(1) DC inputs: once the output reaches a steady state, it will be proportional to the
input.
~ jt was a
(2) AC (sinusoidal) inputs: we found that a sinusoidal current, i = Ie
solution to the differential equation involving any combination of L, C, Rs. (we have
written I~ to remind ourselves that it is a complex number, with its phase denoting
the phase of the sinusoid).
i.e. for a resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) in series
dI(t) 1 Z
V = I(t) R + L
+
I(t) dt
dt
C
1 ~ jt ~ jt
v = R + jL +
=Ve
Ie
jC
~ j I~ with Z
~ j = V~ /I~
or V~ = Z
Using math jargon, we might say that ejt is an eigenfunction of the operator
1Z
d
~
dt.
Z =R+L +
dt C
If this is the case for sine waves (imaginary exponentials), might it also be true for real
exponentials? (i.e., is i = Iet a solution to our differential equation?)
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(3) Exponential inputs: i = Iet

1 t
Ie
v = R + L +
= V et
C
or V = Z I
(the vector notation is not needed above, because there is no phase information). This
means ordinary exponentials are also eigenfunctions. Putting an exponential in, we get
an output that is proportional to the same exponential. can be positive or negative,
denoting exponential growth or decay.
We can combine inputs (2) and (3) into a single complex solution,
~ st = Ie
~ tejt
(4) Complex exponential inputs: i = Ie
1 ~ st ~ st
Ie
v = R + sL +
=Ve
sC
~ sI~
or V~ = Z
where both I~ and s = +j are complex numbers. This solution represents a sinusoidal
function with an amplitude that is exponentially growing or shrinking with time.
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(source: John Crawford)
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It is a representation of the general case

encompasing all of the previous solutions
(eigenfucntions).
DC case: = 0, = 0 s = 0
AC case: = 0, 6= 0
ordinary exponential: 6= 0, = 0
In the s-plane, the complex impedance for
our R,L,C circuit elements become
ZR = R
ZL = sL
1
ZC =
sC
and these impedances can be used with Kirchoffs laws, Thevenins theorem, Nortons
theorem, and superpositoin. All of these
previous ideas still apply, just as they did
for the complex impedances we derives for
AC sinusoids.
(source: http://www.dsprelated.com/dspbooks/mdft/Comparing_Analog_Digital_
Complex.html)
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12.1.1
S-plane Example
Consider the following circuit with an exponentially decaying input voltage

vin = 20e2te4jt
0.1 H
2H
vin
the complex s-impedances are

ZL = sL = (2 + j4) 2H = (4 + j8)
1
10
ZC =
=
sC (2 + j4)
ZR = 1
and so the current is
~
~
V
V
~ 1 j2
I~ =
=
=
V
1
10
R + sL + sC
1 + (4 + j8) + 2+j4
8 + j14
(12.1)
and the current magnitude is
2
2
1 +2
5
|I| = V
= 20
= 2.8A
2
2
260
8 + 14
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~ V~ represents the phase by which the current leads the voltage (using
and the phase of I/
Equation 12.1)
= arctan(2) arctan(14/8) = 123.5.
The final solution for the current is
st
j(123.5 ) 2t j4t
~
i = Ie = 2.8e
e e
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12.2
The S-plane
Various functionsvoltages, currents, impedances, transfer functionscan be plotted on

the s-plane.
Lets use a simple RC filter example to explore this
C
vout
vin
vin is any signal in the s-plane. The s-impedance is Zs = R +

function is
R
sCR
s
vout
=
=
H(s) =
1 =
vin
R + sC
sCR + 1 s + 1/
1
sC
and the transfer
where = RC.
H(s) = 0 at s = 0, called a zero.
H(s) = at s = 1/ , called a pole.
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zero at s = 0: this is a DC voltage. With a blocking capacitor, there is no steadystate output voltage, Vout = 0.
pole at s = 1/ : for an input voltage vin = V et/RC the ratio of the output to input
voltage is infinite. This seems non-sensical, but by solving the differential equations
for this input, you would find the output is vout = V (1 t/ )et/RC which gives a
transfer function of vout/vin = (1 t/ ) which grows to to at t = .
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12.3
Using Poles and Zeros to Characterize Circuits
The positions of poles and zeros in a circuits transfer function allows us to infer its
behaviour for various inputs.
12.3.1
Single Pole Example
Consider the circuit

C
vout
vin
1. draw the poles and zeros in the versus j plane:
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2. draw a vector from each pole and each zero to the signal s of interest. We will
consider only sinusoidal signals s = j here:
3. The transfer function H(j) is the ratio of the zero-vector over the pole vector.
H(s) =
vector(zero s)
vector(pole s)
4. The magnitude |H(j)| is just the ratio of the lengths of these two vectors (recall
that the magnitude of a complex number is equal to the magnitude of the numerator
over the magnitude of the denominator).
The
distance from the zero to s is just , while the distance from the pole to s is
r
2 + 1/ 2, so |H(j)| = 2 2 .
+1/
5. phase(H(j)) Recall that the phase of a complex number is the difference of the
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Matt DOBBS
phase of the numerator and the phase of the denominator.

90 arctan( ), which is 90 at low frequency and 0 at very high frequency.
12.3.2
Multiple Pole Example
The above formalism works for more complicated circuits that have many poles and
zeros. In general, transfer functions can be factorized into polynomials in s and written
in the following form
H(s) = k
(s a1)(s a2)(s a3) . . . (s am)

(s b1)(s b2)(s b3) . . . (s bm)
The procedure becomes

1. draw a vector from each pole and each zero to the signal s
product of all the zero-vector lengths
2. |H(j)| = product
of all the pole-vector lengths
3. (H(j)) = (sum of all the zero-vector angles)(sum of all the zero-vector angles)
12.3.3
S-plane Zeros and Poles Calculation Examples
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S-plane Examples
(source: John Crawford Lectures)
1. The Twin-Tee Network
C/2
C/2
R
vo
vi
2R
2R
C
Fig. 9 The Twin-Tee network.

We want to find the transfer function of the network above. To do this, we replace all C's
by 1/sC (so the C/2's become 1/2sC) and solve for vo/vi. This requires some lengthy
algebra, but with patience we find
H(s) =
s2 + 0 2
1
2
2 , where 0 =
s + 4 0s + 0
RC
(9)
We can factor the numerator to give

H(s) =
(s + j 0 )(s j 0 )
(s+.26 0 )(s + 3.73 0 )
(10)
The s-plane therefore has two zeros at j0 and two poles at -.260 and -3.730. If we
want to find the frequency response for input sinusoidal signals, we draw the following
vectors:
j
j0
s
X
3.73 0
X
.26 0
j 0
Fig. 10 Sinusoidal response for the Twin-Tee network

At = 0 (DC), the product of the numerator vector lengths will be 02 as will the
denominator vectors (3.730 x .260 = 02), so the output voltage will equal the input.
The radian frequency indicated in the figure above is just below 0. We can see that at
this point the magnitude of H(j) is close to zero, because the vector to the upper zero
point is very short. Right at = 0, |H(j)| will be exactly zero; there will be no output
voltage. As increases above 0 the output will again increase, and at very high
frequencies all vectors will have nearly the same lengths. Therefore the output voltage
amplitude will again be nearly equal to the input.
We can also see the phase behaviour. At very low , the two numerator vectors add to
phase 0, and the two pole vectors also add to 0. The output voltage will therefore be in
phase with the input. For just below 0, the zero vectors still add to 0, and the two
pole vectors add to arctan(1/.26)+arctan(1/3.73) = 75 + 15 = 90, so the angle by which
the output voltage leads the input will be 90 (i.e., the output voltage will lag the input).
Just above =0 the upper zero vector changes phase from -90 to +90, so the output
will lead the input by 90. At extremely high frequencies, all vectors will point nearly
straight up, so the output will again be in phase with the input.
80
0 .8
40
|H(jw)|
0 .6
Phas e (deg)
Fig. 11 shows the variation of both vo/vi and as a function of . Here the value of 0
has been taken to be 20 rad/s.
0 .4
-40
0 .2
-80
0
0
50
1 00
(rad/s)
1 50
20 0
Fig. 11 Variation of |H(j)| (solid curve) and (vo re vi; dotted curve) as a function of .
3
The circuit is called a "notch filter" because just at the radian frequency 0 it rejects the
input, so that no signal arrives at the output. One of its uses is to reject unwanted signals
(e.g., 60 Hz noise) that would otherwise interfere with some detected signal.
Some of the characteristics of this circuit can be understood from simple considerations.
At very low frequencies the lower resistively coupled branch transfers all of the input
signal to the output. At very high frequencies the upper capacitively coupled network
behaves like a short circuit and similarly passes the whole input signal to the output. At
the notch frequency 0 there is a phase lead (vo re vi) of 90 in the upper branch, and a
phase lag of 90 in the lower branch. At this frequency the magnitudes of the two signals
are the same, so the two cancel.
2. A Series Resonant Circuit
vi
vo
Fig. 12 Series LCR circuit

The transfer function of this circuit is
H(s) =
vo
R
R
s
=
=
v i R + sL + 1
L s2 + s R + 1
sC
L LC
(11)
We can factor the denominator and get
R
s
H(s) =
2
L#
R
R
1 &#
R
R2
1 &
%s +
+
(% s +
(
2
2
2L
4L
LC
2L
4L
LC
$
'$
'
If
(12)
R2
1
the root will be imaginary, so we would write
<
4L2 LC
H(s) =
R
s
2 &#
L#
R
1
R
R
1
R2 &
%s +
+j
2 (% s +
j
2(
LC 4L '$ 2L
LC 4L '
$ 2L
(13)
4
What does the pole-zero plot look like? Suppose we have imaginary roots, giving us eq.
13. The numerator tells us that there is a zero of H(s) at the origin, and there are two
R
1
R2
2
poles at s =
2L
LC 4L
The pole-zero plot looks like this:
Fig. 13 Pole-zero plot with one zero at origin and two complex conjugate poles
The poles are at positions on the s-plane that show how the circuit would behave if it
were excited by an impulse: this would produce a ringing signal at the frequency
R
t
1
R2
=
2 and decaying exponentially with the factor e 2L .
LC 4L
To qualitatively see the frequency response for an input sine wave draw a signal point
along the ordinate at position j, and imagine changing by moving the point upward
along the axis. Draw a zero-vector from the origin to the signal, and two pole vectors
from the poles to the signal, like this:
j
Signal
Fig. 14 One zero-vector and two pole-vectors drawn to a signal point

The magnitude of the transfer function (i.e. output/input) is given by the length of the
zero-vector divided by the product of the lengths of the two pole vectors. You can see
that this quantity will be a maximum when the signal point is closest to the pole: at that
point the upper pole vector will be shortest, so the denominator will be a minimum. If the
signal point is at zero (DC) the output will be zero, and if is very high the three vectors
R
R
will be almost the same length, so |H(s)| will approach
.
2 =
L
L
We can also see what happens to the phase of the output with respect to the input.
The
phase is the (phase of the zero-vector) (sum of the phases of the pole vectors). With the
signal point shown the sum of the pole vector phases would be something like (75-45)
degrees and the zero vector has a phase of 90 degrees. So the output voltage would lead
the input by about (90-30) = 60 . If the frequency were raised to a point where the signal
passes the upper pole, the phase shift will pass through zero degrees. At a very high
frequency the output will lag the input by 90.
The case discussed above is for the solution of H(s) with imaginary roots (eq. (13). If the
product LC is increased the resonant frequency will decrease and each of the poles in fig,
13. will approach the axis. When the square root is zero, the two poles will merge on
the -axis, forming a double-pole. This is the case called critical damping with an
impulse the response is no longer no longer a damped sine wave, but is exponential with
the most rapid asymptotic approach to zero. If the square root becomes positive, eq. (12)
shows that there will be two poles on the negative -axis. As LC is decreased, one pole
will move towards the origin, and the other will move away.
3. Compensated Attenuator
6
A resistive voltage divider is a simple example of a circuit that produces a reduced output
voltage for some input. Often, though circuit capacitances spoil the output they may
for example distort an input pulse. An oscilloscope probe is a good example: often there
is a x10 setting on the probe to reduce the voltage fed to the scope input, but the scopes
input capacitance provides an extra unwanted element like C1 in fig. 15A below:
vi
vi
R2
R2
C2
vo
R1
vo
C1
R1
C1
B
Fig. 15 A. Uncompensated attenuator, B. Compensated attenuator

We would like the output to be smaller than the input by just the divider ratio R1/(R1+R2).
But the capacitor C1 (which could be the scopes input capacitance) will reduce the
output at high frequencies. If the input voltage is a step or pulse, the capacitance will
spoil the rise time. If we can somehow modify the divider so that it reduces sine waves of
all frequencies by the same factor, then the divider becomes perfect. Output pulses also
will be perfect (reduced) copies of the input if all their Fourier components are reduced
by the same factor. This is accomplished by adding capacitor C2 (fig. 15B) to
compensate the divider.
It is easy to calculate its capacitance. The s-impedance of a parallel RC pair is
1
R
sC = R , where is the RC time constant. We can then write the transfer function
1 1+ s
R+
sC
of circuit B as
H(s) =
R1
1+ s1
(14)
R1
R2
+
1+ s1 1+ s 2
We can immediately see that if = the ratio is just R1/(R1+R2), independent of

frequency.
1
7
What are the poles and zeros for this circuit? With some algebra we can manipulate eq.
(14) to get an s in the numerator and another in the denominator, like this:
H(s) =
R1 (1+ s 2 )
(R1 + R 2 ) + s(R1 2 + R 2 1 )
This says that there is a single zero at s=1/2 and a single pole at s =
This can be written as s =
R1 + R 2
R1 2 + R 2 1
1
1
where R|| is the parallel combination of R1 and
=
R C
R2 and C|| is the parallel combination of C1 and C2.

We can draw the two poles this way:
zero
pole
-1/1
x
-1/||
If there will be phase shifts at different frequencies. But if = (which implies

= ) the pole merges with the zero. The two annihilate! This gives our frequency
independent transfer function. The process of finding such a circuit is called pole-zero
cancellation.
1
||
||
Matt DOBBS
12.4
Laplace Transform
Recall: we found that we could represent any physically realistic waveform as an infinite
set of sine waves using the Fourier Transform:
F () =
jt
f
(t)e
dt
This constitutes an integral only along the imaginary axis of the s-plane. We could
construct functions elsewhere in the s-plane, which amounts to allowing for an exponential rise or fall of the signal amplitude.
The Laplace transform allows us to decompose any time domain function as components in the s-plane.
Z
L(f (t)) = F (s) = 0 f (t)estdt

Note that the integration range has been restricted to t = 0 , so we call it the
one-sided Laplace transform.
Since it represents only signals starting at t = 0, there are waveforms it cannot
reproduce.
e.g. An infinitely long sine wave cannot be synthesized by Laplace transform components, but one beginning at t = 0 and extending to t = can.
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12.4.1
Inverse Laplace Transform
The inverse Laplace Transform is
Z
1
+jT
f (t) = L (F (s)) =
lim jT estF (s)ds
2j T
where is a real number chosen such that the contour path of integration is in the region
of convergence of F (s). Often = 0 and we can write
1 Z j=+ st
f (t) =
e F ()d
2j j=
The techniques for calculating the iLT are treated in detail in texts on complex variables.
A large number of practical cases can easily be looked up in tables, which will be the
method we use here.
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12.4.2
Step Function
A step function,
is perhaps the simplest Laplace transform
F (s) =
0 1
estdt =
1
s
which produces a spike around a pole at s = 0.

Laplace transforms are very convenient for handling pulses (recall that Fourier transforms were not!). Pulses can be constructed by adding step functions,
and the Laplace transform is

1
F (s) = (1 es ).
s
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12.5
Laplace Transform Applications
Like the Fourier Transform, the Laplace transform changes a differential equation such
as
dI(t) 1 Z
V = I(t) R + L
+
I(t) dt
dt
C
into an algebraic equation
1
~ st
Ie i(s)
v(s) = R + sL +
sC
Time Domain Frequency Domain
f (t)
F (s)
df
sF (s) f (0)
dt
Rt
F (s)
f
(t)dt
0
s
Calculating circuits in the s-plane using Laplace transforms
1. Calculate the circuit impedances exactly as you would for a group of resistors operating at DC, (or complex impedances at AC), replacing
ZR = R,
ZC = 1/(sC),
ZL = sL
2. For the signal voltage calculate (or look up) the Laplace transform of the time domain
signal v(t).
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3. The result will be the Laplace transform of some quantity (e.g. i(s) for the current,
vo(s) for the voltage).
4. Calculate (or look up) the inverse LT to get back to the time domain.
All the usual network techniques, including Thevenins theorem, Nortons theorem,
Kirchoffs laws, and superposition apply.
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12.5.1
Example: RC circuit with step function input
C
vout
vin
Consider the RC circuit
and let vi(t) be a voltage step vi = 0 V at t = 0

The input waveform in Laplace space is vin(s) = V /s.
We calculated the transfer function in Sec. 12.2,
R
sCR
s
vout
=
=
H(s) =
=
1
vin
R + sC
sCR + 1 s + 1/
and so the output is
V
s
V
vout(s) =
=
.
s
s + 1/
s + 1/
Referring to the table of Laplace transforms provided in the equation sheet appendix,
we find that L(eat) = 1/(s + a), to the time domain answer is
vout(t) = V et/
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12.5.2
Example: RC circuit with a linearly rising input
C
vout
vin
Now consider the same circuit,

but with a linearly rising input vin(t) = at.
The LT gives us
Z
vin(s) = a 0 testdt = a/s2

so the output is
s
a
a
=
.
vout(s) = vin(s) H(s) = 2
s
s + 1/
s(s + 1/ )
To find the iLT, lets factorize this into two terms
a
a
a
vout(s) =
=
.
s(s + 1/ )
s
s + 1/
and look-up the iLT for each term
vout(t) = a (1 et/ ).
The result is a differentiated signal vout = RC dv/in dt, that becomes correct after the
intial rise time (dictated by the time constant RC).
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13
Transmission Lines
Electromagnetic waves (light!) travels at c ' 3 108 m/s in vacuum. The typical
transmission speed for electrical signals on a wire is about 3/4c. As a rule of thumb, the
propagaton rate is about 1 foot per nanosecond.
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13.1
The Wave Equation
Consider a wave of arbitrary shape f (x) that begins is initially (t = 0) at the origin and
is travelling in the +x direction with speed c.
An observer moving along with the wave would describe events using the coordinate
x0 = xct, and would simply observet he unchanged function f (x0). In the (x, t) frame,
the equation of this right-moving wave is
y = f (x ct) or y = f (t x/c)
and a left-moving wave would be described
y = f (x + ct) or y = f (t + x/c).
We are often interested in sinusoids (especially since any function can be expressed as
a sum of sinusoids). A right moving sinusoidal wave is
y = A sin t0 = A sin (t x/c) = A sin(t kx)
(and a left moving sinusoid is y = A sin(t + kx).) Using the complex phasor notation,
the right-moving sinusoidal wave becomes
y = Aej(tkx)
this represents a rotating phasorthe sine wave is the projection of this function onto
the real or imaginary axis.
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For y = f (x ct),
y
2y
0
00
=
f
= f (x ct) and
(x ct)
2
x
x
with denoting the derivative with respect to (x-ct). Similarly
2y
y
2 00
0
=
c
f (x ct).
= cf (x ct) and
2
t
t
Combining these partial derivatives, we arrive at the wave equation
2y
1 2y
= 2 2
2
x
c t
A system which satisfies this equation describes a wave travelling along the x-axis with
speed or propagation c.
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13.2
Transmission Lines
Information (in the form of waves) is transmitted from one place to another (such as
across a circuit board or from one instrument to another) on transmission lines.
A transmission line might consist of a simple wire, a coaxial cable, or a more complicated system such as a stripline, twisted pair cable, or optical fibre.
Thus far, we have approximated the wires in our circuits as having zero resistance,
capacitance, and inductance. We have not yet considered the transmission time. These
approximations are far from the reality.
A common transmission line is a coaxial cable, like the RG-59 cables often used in
labs to connect to measurement devices.
(source: RG-59 coaxial cable. A: Plastic outer insulation, B: Copper-clad aluminium braid shield conductor, C: Dielectric, D: Copper-clad steel central conductor.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RG-59.jpg)
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The space between the conductor and shield forms a tubular capacitor, with a dielectric in between. This creates a capacitance per unit length C 0.
The conductor is surrounded by a magnetic field, creating an inductance per unit
length L0.
We will assume resistance per unit length R0 is small and can be neglected, as is
often the case. This is a loss-less transmission line.
The cable can be modelled as an infinite number of infinitely short sections, each with
capacitance C 0 dx and inductance L0 dx,
Since a current flows in each capacitance, there will be a change in the current from
i to i0 due to C 0, i = C dv
dt .
Since a changing current causes a voltage drop across the inductance L0, so there
di
will be a difference in the voltage from v to v 0, v = L dt
.
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
Assuming a linear variation of v and i across each element, we find

v
i
v
0
0 i
v (v + dx) = L dx
= L
x
t
x
t
differentiating with respect to x
2
2v
0 i
= L
2
x
tx
(13.1)
(13.2)
And similarly,
v
i
0
i (i + dx) = C dx
x
t
differentiating with respect to t
i
0 v
= C
x
t
2
2i
0 v
= C 2
xt
t
Combining equations 13.2 & 13.4, we arrive at the wave equation
(13.3)
(13.4)
2
2v
0 0 v
=LC 2
x2
t
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
with a velocity of propagation c = 1/ L0C 0.

A typical coaxial cable (such as RG62U) has L0 = 0.38 H/m and C 0 = 44 pF/m,
giving c = 2.45 108 m/s (about 80% of the speed of EM waves in free space). This
reduces velocity is due to the dielectric medium between the conductor and shield.
See this animation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transmission_line_
animation.gif.
13.2.1
Characteristic Impedance
Our equation 13.1 for the voltage variation

v
i
= L0
x
t
provides a means of calculating the characteristic impedance Z0 of the transmission
line. Beginning with v = f (x ct), the derivative is
v
0
0 i
= f (x ct) = L
x
t
i f 0(x ct)
=
t
L0
which we can integrate over t
f (x ct)
v
i=
+ Const = 0 + Const
cL0
cL
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
the constant is a DC current and is not relevant for the wave description.
The ratio of the amplitude of a single voltage wave to its current wave is
0
v
u
u
u
u
t
L
v
L0
0
= cL = 0 0 =
= Z0.
0
i
C
LC
This new quantity, the characteristic impedance Z0, has units of ohms and appears
as a pure resistance, which may seem surprizing since our model contained no resistive
elements.
The RG62U cable has Z0 = 93.
Naively, one may have guessed that a transmission line would behave like a simple
parallel plate capacitor (created by the conductor and ground). However, if we send a
pulse down the input end of the line it will not all charge up instantaneously, since the
wave moves down the line at a finite speed. Therefore the current flowing into the input
end will be constant (at least until it is affected by reflections on the line).
For a wave sent through a transmission line, normally we wish to have as much power
as possible is absorbed by the load at the far end of the line and as little power as
possible will be reflected back towards the source. This happens when the transmission
line is matched, meaning the load impedance is equal to Z0.
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
13.2.2
Reflections and Line Termination
Consider a signal sent down a transmission line (schematically, we could suddenly connect a battery to the end of a transmission line, such that this step function in voltage
sends a pulse down the cable).
The line has characteristic impedance Z0.
The signal propagates at speed c = s L10C 0 , charging the inductances and capacitances
as it moves along the line.
Pictorially, a right-going signal produces a V+, I+ moving together down the line:
the ratio of V /I is Z0 everywhere. A + subscript is used to denote a right-going

voltage or current.
Placing the signal at the opposite end of the line:
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
Since the I+ and I currents are moving in opposite directions, |I+| = |I|.
For right-going waves, V+/I+ = +Z0 (current is moving in the +
x direction)
For left-going waves, V/I = Z0 (current is moving in the
x direction).
If the transmission line is lossless (no resistance along the wires or between the wires),
the Z0 is pure real and the transmission line can be terminated by placing a resistor
RL = |Z0| at the end of the line.
Since the current to voltage ratio is V /I = |Z0| = RL when the signal reaches the end
of the line, Ohms law is satisfied, and all the current can flow through R0, depositing
the entire signal power there (with no reflected power).
In this scenario, the load is properly matched to the cable impedance. In essence,
the signal behaves as if it is flowing down a lossless transmission line, that is connected
to another identical transmission line of infinite length.
13.2.3
Mis-matched Transmission Lines
What happens if the line is terminated with an impedance ZL 6= Z0 ??

The situation can be resolved if there is more than one wave travelling on the line. A
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
left-going reflected wave is introduced,

V+ + V = VL
(13.5)
I+ + I = IL
and since I = V/R0
V+ V
VL
R0
=
V+ V = VL
R0 R0 RL
RL
and adding & subtracting the above with Eq. 13.5, the voltages of the incident and
reflected waves can be found
VL
R0
,
1 +
V+ =
2
RL
VL
R0
1
V =
2
RL
The reflection coefficient is the ratio of the reflected to incident waves

V RL R0
V =
=
V+ RL + R0
The current reflection coefficient is
I =
I
= V
I+
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
13.2.4
Unterminated Cable
This is a cable with nothing at the far end. In this case

RL = , V = +1, I = 1
and all the power is reflected. This makes sense, because power needs to be dissipated
somewhere, and there is no resistance in our idealized lossless cable.
The superposition of the incident and reflected waves looks like:
the two waves add coherently to produce double the voltage and no current at the
output. The extra voltage is coming from the charge stored in the inductors L0 being
transmitted to the capacitors C 0.
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
13.2.5
Short-circuited Cable
This is a cable with nothing at the far end. In this case

RL = 0, V = 1, I = +1
and all the power is reflected. This makes sense, because power needs to be dissipated
somewhere, and there is no resistance in our idealized lossless cable.
The superposition of the incident and reflected waves looks like:
there is no voltage at the output, as expected, since the voltage is flowing across a short.
13.2.6
Reflections
Reflections on transmission lines can be problematic, as they corrupt the information

content of the signal. Consider a digital transmission
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Matt DOBBS
and how a single pulse might look after superimposing several reflections
13.3
Two-port S-parameters
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scattering_parameters)
13.4
Dispersion and Lossy Cables
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April 11, 2014
Telegraphy and Cable Transmission

1798!! De Silva (Spain) sends message 40 km -sparks from Leyden jars
1839: Cooke and Wheatstone England: needle telegraph patent
1844: Samuel Morse USA: recording telegraph patent
By 1850: nearly all continents had extensive telegraph land-lines
1850: First submarine cable laid from Dover to Cap Grisnez
1858: 1st transatlantic cable: insulation blown out by 2kV pulses!
1866: Cable laid by the Great Eastern ship from Ireland to Newfoundland
success!
By 1900: nearly all industrialized countries linked by undersea and
overland cables
2004: Fibre-optic cables and wireless have largely superseded copper
Dispersion
BUT: Transmission speed low, ~ 40 characters/minute
And speech transmission over long distances was impossible
The culprit: Dispersion- velocity is frequency dependent
The reason: Line resistances
Equations
v
i
= ( L + Ri )
x
t
i
v
= (C + Gv)
x
t
(1)
( 2)
Equations of the realistic line

For sine waves, with , these equations become
v
= ( jL + R )i (3)
x
i
= ( j C + G ) v ( 4)
x
Differentiate (3) by x and substitute from (4)
2v
2
=
(
j
L
+
R
)(
j
C
+
G
)
v
=
v where = + jk (5)
2
x
Solution:
v = [ Ae
jkx
+ Be e
jkx
]e
jt
(6)
Phase velocity of the wave

If we solve for k in (5) and keep only terms to 2nd
order in the binomial expansion, we get
RG
G2
R2
k = LC 1
+
+
2
2 2
2 2
LC
C
L
4
8
8
(7 )
This says that /k (the velocity) is frequency-dependent The higher waves move faster, messing up the received signal.
Solution: Oliver Heaviside (1887): ADD inductances to the
line to make
L/C=R/G
(8)
The bracketed term then becomes = 1!
Then k = LC
and
as in the zero-resistance cable

1
vp =
LC
Undersea Fibre-Optic Cables in 2004
Matt DOBBS
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April 11, 2014
14
Op-amps
195
Operational Amplifier Lecture

What is an operational amplifier (opamp)?
Vout = Ga * ( V + - V - )
Vs+ and Vs- represent the power supplies to the amplifier
Figure 1 Symbol for operational amplifier taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier
Ideally:
Gain Ga is infinitely large
Infinite input impedance - No current flows into the V+ (Vp) or V- (Vn) terminals
Infinite Gain Bandwidth Product Can work well at all frequencies
What can we build with opamps?

Opamps are extremely versatile see: http://www.ti.com/ww/en/bobpease/assets/AN-31.pdf
We can use opamps to build:
Filters
Summers / Subtracters
Integrators / Differentiators
Current / Voltage sources
Rectifiers / Peak detectors
Oscillators
Basic Opamp analysis technique:

1) Assume that no current flows into the input terminals of the opamp
2) Assume that the V+ and V- terminals are at the same voltage (result of very large gain)
Non-inverting amplifier
(assumed no current flowing into amplifier V- terminal)

What is the gain in the above circuit?
Inverting amplifier
Iin= (Vin 0V ) / R1
Vout = 0V R2 * Iin = - ( R2 / R1) * Vin
Note that Iin must also flow through R2
What happens if the gain of the opamp is not infinite?

Vout = Ga * (Vp Vn) = - Ga *Vn
Iin=(Vin-Vout)/(R1+R2)
Vn= Iin*R2 + Vout
(1)
(2)
(3)
Vout= - Ga * R2*(Vin-Vout)/(R1+R2) Ga *Vout

Vout (1+Ga-Ga*R2/(R1+R2)) = -Ga * R2 *Vin /(R1+R2)
Vout/Vin = -R2 / ( (1/Ga+1)*(R1+R2) R2)
So you can work it out with non infinite gains but in general its
not needed (typically an off the shelf opamp will have 100k gain
gain will drop with increased frequency though)
What do you think this circuit does?
Low pass filter:
This is the inverting circuit topology

What do you think the cut off (-3dB) frequency is?
If we remove R2 what do you think the circuit will do?
For fun what is Vout1 and Vout2 with respect to Vin1?
Remember the diode equation:

, where
Can you use this type of circuit for anything useful?
Matt DOBBS
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April 11, 2014
Appendix A
Introduction to Circuit Simulation
In class we will use LTSpice version IV (download from http://www.linear.com/
designtools/software/), which is a repackaging of the open-source circuit simulation
tool called SPICE that was originally developed at UC Berkeley. We choose it because
it is available free, and has versions for mac and windows.
Adam Gilbert has prepared a list of tips for using LTSpice, appended on the following
pages.
205
LTspice Tips and Tricks

Hotkeys
Hotkeys can be very useful, especially on a Mac since the tool bar isn't present.
The LTSpice defaults are shown in the right most panel in the image below. These defaults can be
changed from the 'Control Panel' 'Drafting Options' 'Hot Keys' section, see left most panel.
Grounds and global nets

You must have at least 1 ground in your circuit this is used as a reference point for all your voltage
measurements. Remember that your multimeter has two wires in LTSpice for a voltage measurement
one of these wires is always touching ground. Note that you should carefully think about where you
want to place your ground connection putting it in a funny place will cause confusion i.e your voltage
measurements could all be shifted around by a fixed quantity.
Labelled nets with useful names makes probing them more intuitive.
Types of Simulation
In this course you will be using the Transient and AC analysis.
Transient analysis
To perform a Transient analysis on the toolbar go to Simulate and then Edit Simulation command.
For Mac users you have to press 'S' and then right click the mouse to find the appropriate tool
Once there, for a transient analysis you should set the settings to the following. You must either tick the
box Start external DC supply voltages at 0V or Skip initial operating point solution. Both ticked is
also fine.
If you do not tick one of these boxes, the simulation tool will calculate the DC bias point before starting
the transient simulation so you may end up seeing a simulation that looks like the following:
i.e you missed all the fun stuff at the start the capacitor was already charged to 5V before any points
are plotted.
After clicking OK on the Edit simulation command window, you must left click the schematic to
place the simulation directive.
Note that for the stop time you can enter times in the format: 1ms , 2us instead of 1e-3, 2e-6
AC analysis
To perform an AC analysis , go to the Edit simulation panel and enter simiar details. Make sure to place
the directive on the schematic. You may only have one type of simulation running at a time so if you
have a transient analysis directive on the schematic make sure you either delete it or that it has a semicolon at the front of it.
In the following image you can see that we are performing an AC analysis and that the previous
transient analysis command has been commented out with a ; . Note that this is automatic on the
windows version of Ltspice.
Note also that for a you must have an AC source for the ac analysis to work. To achieve this you should
right click on the source and put a 1 in the box for AC amplitude.
Probing the circuit

You can add multiple cursors to the nets you are probing by right clicking on the net name in the scope
window. With two cursors you can calculate voltage/current and time differences.
See the following image:
Note also that you can edit the expression that the LTSpice will plot. An an example, you may wish to
calculate the voltage difference across a single component - by labelling both sides it becomes easy.
The expression would be V(netlabel1) V(netlabel2)
Matt DOBBS
(source: http://cds.linear.com/docs/en/product-info/LTspiceIV_flyer.pdf)
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April 11, 2014
Appendix B
Equations
EnergyStored : W = 12 CV 2
SineWave : A(t) = Ap sin(2f t), ARMS = Ap / 2
ZC = 1/(jC)(Fourier space)
ZC = 1/(sC)(Laplace space)
2
= 2f =
T
P = IV
EElectric
V =
q
Inductor:
Impedances in series add direclty.

Impedances in parallel add inversely.
Resistors:
V = IR
Resistivity : V =
1Z
V dt
L
n2 A
L=
l
EnergyStored : W = 12 LI 2
V =L
di
,
dt
i=
ZL = jL(Fourier space)
ZL = sL(Laplace space)
EElectric
q
Transformer:
Transformer : V = M
ZR = R(Fourier space)
dI
dt
V1
I2
n1
=
=
V2
I1
n2
ZR = R(Laplace space)
Complex Numbers:
Capacitors:
C=
A
, = 0
d
rej = x + jy,
1 Z
dV
V =
Idt or I = C
C
dt
Qstored = C V
r=
x2 + y 2 ,
j 2 = 1
= arctan
ej = cos + j sin
213
y
x
Matt DOBBS
Fourier Series:
The Wave Equation:
y(x) = b0 +
an sin(nx) +
bn cos(nx)
1 Z 2
sin(nx)y(x) dx
an =
0
1 Z 2
bn =
cos(nx)y(x) dx
0
1 Z 2
b0 =
y(x) dx
2 0
Fourier Transform:
F (f ) =
2y
1 2y
=
x2
c2 t2
f (t)ej2f t dt
Transmission line Characteristic Impedance:
f (t) =
F (f )ej2f t dt
F () =
f (t)ejt dt
f (t) =
v
Z0 = =
i
1 Z
F ()ejt d
2
L0
C0
(notice that, when written in terms of the angular frequency , the

symmetry is affected such that there is a funny normalization for the
inverse Fourier Transform.)
y(t) = h(t) x(t)
Other:
Y (f ) = H(f ) X(f )
( denotes a convolution)
Bandwidth Theorem:
f t ' 1
Magnitude Ratio[dB] = 10 log10 (
t ' 2
214
Pout
).
Pin
April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS

(source: http://www.stanford.edu/~boyd/ee102/laplace-table.pdf)
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April 11, 2014
Matt DOBBS
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April 11, 2014
Appendix C
Waterflow Analogy
John Crawfords notes on the waterflow
analogy to electric circuits.
217
Current in CircuitsFluid in Pipes

An Analogy
Early in electronic history, investigators thought of electricity as a flow of "something",
analogous to the flow of some sort of fluid. Eaarly names for electrical quantities reflect
these ideas, and emphasize the link with mechanical quantities. For example we read of
electromotive force or electrical pressure for voltage, current for charge flow, and
accumulator for capacitance. Certain aspects of the analogy between the electrical and
mechanical quantities are very close indeed. The relationships can be understood by
considering a simple mass-spring system capable of storing mechanical potential and
kinetic energy, and a circuit that can store both electrostatic and magnetic energy.
A Mass-Spring System
F
kx
If we apply a force F to this mass, making it move in the x direction, we can calculate its
subsequent motion. We assume that the spring force kx acts in the direction shown, as
does air resistance. Here we assume that this viscous resistance is simply proportional to
velocity x ; the coefficient of viscosity is .
The equation of motion for the mass will then be
mx = F x kx
(1)
An LRC Circuit
L
R
i
C
The relation between voltage and current for this circuit is usually written
di
q
+ Ri +
(2)
dt
C
where i is the current flowing in the circuit, and q is the charge on the condenser.
v=L
dq
:
dt
We can express this in terms of the single variable q by remembering that i =

q
C
F = mx + x + kx
v = Lq + Rq +
Rearranging (1)
(3)
(1')
We can now compare the 2 equations to pick out the analogous quantities:
vF
Lm
R
C 1/k
This says that a voltage is analogous to a force, and inductance to some massive quantity,
a resistance to a viscosity, and a spring to "inverse k". This last quantity appears
frequently in discussions of elasticity, and is defined as compliance. A very compliant
spring is one with a low value of k; a small force would produce a large spring extension.
This still doesn't look much like a current flow. However, if we think about the elements
of a plumbing 'circuit', we can construct a loop with elements that have mass, viscous
resistance, and springiness. It might look like this:
Flywheel
L
Constriction
R
elastic
membrane
i
C
Pump
Accumulator
Reservoir
The corresponding electrical elements are shown to indicate analogous objects. The pump
provides a pressure (the force quantity), the moving massive element is a flywheel, which
spins as fluid passes it, and the resistive element is a constriction in the pipe. The device
on the right is a cylinder with an elastic membrane stretched across it. This acts as an
energy and fluid storage device; in hydraulic engineering it is referred to as an
accumulator.
vc
To get a feeling for the way that the fluid circuit might behave, imagine that the pump
produces a sudden step of pressure, like this:
P
pressure
t
Initially, the inertia of the flywheel would prevent a sudden current flow in the loopthe
full pressure change would appear in the pipe between the pump and the flywheel.
However, in time the flywheel would start to spin, and pressure would then build up
between the flywheel and the resistance. With current flowing, there would be a pressure
drop across the constriction in the pipe proportional to the speed of the current flow. The
flowing current would distort the membrane in the accumulator, and the pressure in this
part of the pipe would steadily increase. Since the membrane prevents continuous flow
back to the reservoir, in its final state the circuit would simply contain fluid at rest, with
pressure everywhere equal to P. However, before this final equilibrium state, the
behaviour of the current would be oscillatory because of the inertial behaviour of the
flywheel. We might expect to see the pressure in the accumulator act like this:
P
pressure
t
In the electric circuit, the behaviour is very similar. When a voltage step V is applied, the
inductance initially produces a 'back emf' equal to the voltage step; this back emf
gradually decreases as current builds up, and as di/dt begins to decrease. The rising
current produces a voltage drop across the resistor. The current flow begins to charge the
capacitor, and the voltage across the capacitor increases.
Charge still continues to flow into the capacitor even after vc has reached the applied step
voltage V. At this point, the current starts to decrease, but does not reversewith di/dt
now negative, the inductive voltage is in the same direction as the generator voltage, and
current keeps flowing into the capacitor. With low resistance, the maximum voltage will
approach 2V when the instantaneous current i finally drops to zero. The subsequent
behaviour will be a damped oscillation. When this finally stops, the voltage throughout
the circuit will be V, and the current flow will be zero. Note that the capacitor does not
allow any steady DC flow in this final state.
Energies
1 2
kx and the electrostatic energy
2
2
1
1 q
1 q2
2
stored by a charged capacitance is CV = C =
. Here again, the capacitance
2
2 C
2 C
behaves like a stretched spring, with C playing the rle of a compliance.
1
The kinetic energy stored by a mass moving at velocity x is mx 2 , and the magenetic
2
1
1
energy stored by an inductance carrying current i is Li2 , or Lq 2 . So again, L is a
2
2
mass-like quantity.
The potential energy stored in a stretched spring is
There are simple and important energy arguments that tell us how Cs and Ls should act
in circuits. Each of these elements stores some energy W, and that energy cannot be
dW
changed instantaneously. If it were possible to do so,
would be infinite. This would
dt
mean that if we dumped the energy from an L or C instantaneously, its pulse amplitude
would be infinite. If we tried to pump energy into an element in zero time, the power
supply would have to supply energy at an infinite rate. In any real circuit, then, it takes
time to change the energy stored.
In simple and explicit terms:
1. You cant instantaneously change the voltage across a capacitor.
2. You cant instantaneously change the current in an inductance.
We can illustrate the usefulness of rule 1 by considering the behaviour of simple series
and parallel combinations of R and C.
Blocking Capacitors
Here is an RC combination often used to connect successive stages of circuits. We show
it with its fluid equivalent. Imagine that a pulse (of pressure in the fluid case, and of
voltage for the electrical circuit) is applied. What happens to the output pressure po
(voltage vo ) on the resistive element?
In the fluid circuit the pressure change on both sides of the membrane at the instant of the
pulse step will be the same. Since there is now a pressure drop across the resistive
element, current will begin to flow. The membrane will start to stretch, storing elastic
energy. If the pulse is sufficiently long, the current will eventually drop to zero, since the
membrane is not supposed to leak.
po
v
p
vo
Now, if the pressure from the pump suddenly drops to zero, the membrane will try to
return to its relaxed position. As it does this, the pressure po will become negative (i.e.,
lower than the reservoir pressure) and fluid will flow backwards. Depending on the pulse
length, the pressure po will look like one of the curves below:
P P
P
P
P
(a)
(b)
(c)
The form of the pulse depends on the actual accumulator and resistive elements used and
on the pulse length. But note that in all cases both the positive and negative steps of the
output are exactly the same height as the amplitude of the applied pressure step P. The
decay during current flow will be exponential.
We will have exactly the same behaviour in the RC circuit. The output pulse vo will have
a step amplitude V for both the positive and negative transitions our rule 1 requires
that this be true. The decaying part of the curve will be exponential in form with time
constant RC. The curves are identical to the diagram above, with vo replacing po .
The capacitor prevents any constant DC (unidirectional) current flow. We can calculate
v
the current flowing in the resistor at any time: by Ohms law it will simply be o . Since
R
no continuous DC can flow only current change this implies that the area under the
positive portion of the vo curve (which represents the charge flowing) must be equal to
the area under the negative portion.
Because the capacitor blocks DC current flow (hence the name blocking capacitor), it
isolates the DC voltages on its left and right side but allows voltage variations to pass.
The general rule for designing such a blocking capacitor in signal applications is to
choose a time constant RC>>the time for signal variation (e.g., the length of an input
pulse). The output pulse in this situation would look like the picture (c) above.
Often we deal with sinusoidal waveforms (or Fourier superposition of sines). In such
cases, if we want most of the generator voltage to appear across the resistor, we should
choose the capacitive impedance Zc <<R. The capacitor still blocks DC effectively, but
allows the AC signal (i.e., the variation) to pass.
Oscilloscopes are provided with switchable input blocking capacitors. If the scope input
switch is set to DC there is a direct connection from the circuit being probed to the
scopes input amplifier, with some high resistance to ground (ususally ~ 1M).
However, if the input switch is set to AC, a capacitor is connected in series to the input.
This allows you to see variations in the input signal, but it blocks DC voltages.
Charging a Capacitor Through a Resistor

If we turn the circuit around so the resistor is on the pump (generator) side, we have this
arrangement:
R
po
vo
With an input pulse, fluid (charge) fills the accumulator (capacitor), building up pressure
(voltage). Note that rule 1 still tells us what happens to the capacitor: when the input
pulse is applied, the voltage across the C cant change instantaneously, so v c must start at
zero. The initial current flow is therefore limited by the resistor. A solution to the simple
differential equation for this circuit tells us the form of vo after the generator voltage step
V is applied. It is:
t
v o = V 1 e RC
vo
A Bypass Capacitor
In many circuits we see parallel combinations of R and C. Imaging that such a pair is
connected to some constant current generator. This arrangement and its fluid equivalent
are shown below:
Gauge
po
vo
Flow
I
i
Pump
Note that if we want to find the voltage variation vo in response to a step of current I, we
can transform the circuit to its Thvenin equivalent. The circuit would look exactly like
the charging circuit of the previous section, and the output voltage after the initial current
step would just be:
v o = IR 1 e RC
Here, at t=0, the output voltage starts at zero; again rule 1 says that this must be true.
Initially all current flows into the capacitor, and it is only when voltage builds up that the
resistor starts to share some of the current. (In the fluid circuit the accumulator takes all
the initial current flow, and none flows into the restricted branch.) It is only when voltage
has built up to IR that the resistor takes all the current, and the capacitor (which cannot
pass DC) takes none. The initial current in the capacitor in this case bypasses the resistor
hence the name.
If the current generator in this case produces not a voltage step but sinusoidal AC, and the
capacitance is very large, essentially all the current will flow through the capacitive
branch and very little will flow through the resistor. This is the condition corresponding
to Z C = R .

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Matt DOBBS

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

Nonlinear circuit elements: diode circuits and rectification

April 11, 2014

2 Introduction to Electronics in Physics and Elsewhere

3 Static Circuits and Networks

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

4 Capacitors and Inductors

6 Linear Network Theorems I

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

Example: Method 1 total currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7 Stepped Voltages with low and high-pass filters

Circuits, Sinusoidal Currents and Voltages,

9 Linear Network Theorems II

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

10.4 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12 The S-plane and Laplace Transforms

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

12.3.2 Multiple Pole Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A Introduction to Circuit Simulation

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

Circuits come in all varieties

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

April 11, 2014

Digital vs. Analog Signals

CD vs. magnetic tape.

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

electricity distribution in north america, 60 Hz

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

What is a linear system, and why do we like them?

then a linear system must satisfy

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

One electron q is 1.602 1019 coulombs.

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

The electron shown between two charged plates

has electric potential energy EElectric

April 11, 2014

Introduction to Signal Processing and Electronics for Scientists

(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current and http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circuits/u9l2c.cfm)