LECTURE 4

TRAFFIC VOLUME
SURVEYS and AXLE
LOAD SURVEYS
TRAFFIC COUNTS, VARIATIONS,
PLANNING, ANALYSIS,
FORECASTING(ESTIMATION)
AXLE LOAD DETERMINATION, SURVEY
PLANNING

Outline
Traffic Volume Surveys

Traffic counts and classification

Types and Methods
Traffic Variations (Hourly, daily, weekly, Yearly)
Meaning of ADT or (A)ADT
Planning for a traffic count survey
Contracting for a traffic volume study
Analysis of results
Errors that can occur in data analysis

 In order to determine the total traffic on a road, the first step

is to determine the current volume and type of traffic
travelling on that particular road.
If no data is available, traffic volume surveys have to be
undertaken.
Traffic in terms of size and weight is increasing rapidly in many
countries.
Highway engineers are concerned with designing new roads
or strengthening of existing roads.

 The deterioration of paved roads by traffic results:

from the magnitude of the individual wheel loads
the number of passes the loads are applied
Hence, for the design of pavement/ upgrading works, we
need to consider:
the total number of vehicles using the road
wheel loads/ Axle loads

Traffic volume- Counts

Traffic counts can be either manual or automatic.
Manual counts:
Carried out by observers situated at the side of the road
Impractical to be carried out for a long period of time
3 methods of recording: Tally sheets, mechanical counting boards,
electronic counting boards

Manual Count Study Preparation

Checklist
Steps

Obtain tally sheet or

counting board
Obtain watch
Obtain hardhat and
safety vest
Select location
Select time and day
Determine
availability of
recorders
Contact other
jurisdictions/schools
Contact adjacent
residents/businesses
Other:

When complete

Notes

Key Steps to a Manual Count Study

A manual count study includes three key steps:
1. Perform necessary office preparations.
2. Select proper observer location.
3. Label data sheets and record observations.

Example Manual Count Study

Smith City was considering a land use change on one of its city
blocks. The proposal was to remove four houses and construct
an apartment complex .
This proposed land use change would affect traffic volume.
The city wanted to document the traffic volumes at the
closest intersection during the peak flow period of the day.
The study was conducted at the intersection of 7th Street and
Delaware Avenue, an uncontrolled intersection.
The time period chosen, 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m., included the
morning peak flow.

Figure : Example Proposed Apartment Complex and Intersection

 The city decided to conduct a manual traffic count using

the tally sheet method because they did not have access
to a mechanical or electronic counting board.
During 15 minutes:
There were 71 westbound vehicles on Delaware Avenue. If
you multiply this number by eight (eight 15-minute
periods in a 2-hour peak flow), you arrive at 586 vehicles
during the peak flow.
Typically 2-hour peak flow counts would be conducted
once in the morning and once in the afternoon.

 If an apartment complex is introduced, another study may

need to be conducted. The apartment complex could increase
the traffic volume.
If the traffic volume is increased, there may be a need for new
traffic control.
The initial study provides a baseline count that can be used in
a traffic impact analysis or a traffic control device evaluation.
The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices provides
current standards on traffic control device warrants.

Automatic counts
The automatic count method provides a means for gathering
large amounts of traffic data.
Automatic counts are usually taken in 1-hour intervals for
each 24-hour period. The counts may extend for a week,
month, or year.
When the counts are recorded for each 24-hour time period,
the peak flow period can be identified.
Consists of automatic counters connected to a sensor that is
mounted in or on the road, which produces a signal each time
a vehicle passes over it.
These can be either temporary or permanent installations.

Automatic counts
Advantages of automatic counts:
1. Data can be recorded over a long period of time and with
relatively low cost. Long term data collection minimises the
sampling errors caused by fluctuations on traffic flows.
2. Also enables studies made on the magnitude, frequency and
possible causes of day-to-day and month-to-month
fluctuations in flow- seasonal variations.
3. Allows measurements of long term trends.
4. A number of sites can be covered using a single automatic
counter If a counter is used for a week, then for every
month, 4 sites can be covered.

Automatic counts
Drawback of automatic counters:
Counters record only the total number of axles or the total
number of vehicles passing over the sensor. Classification of
vehicle flow into vehicles types is not possible.
Some sensors are able to detect the vehicle in brad terms
depending on the axle loading.
However, such sensors are expensive.

Types of Automatic counters

1. Pneumatic tube system
Consists of a hollow tube fixed to the road surface and attached to
a counter at a roadside.
Tube is stretched across the full width of the road
Two way flow is measured
A the vehicle moves and the tube is compressed, a pulse of air
triggers the counter.
Each axle that is detected is recorded as a half count, so the final
count has to be scaled for multi axle vehicles.
Errors can arise when we have to take account for vehicles with
many axles.
Two tubes requored here to measure axle spacing and hence
classify vehicles accordingly- Expensive tubes here

Recorder

 Advantage: Cheap and easy to install

Disadvantage: Regular maintenance required (rubber tube
can be holed, perish quickly or be subjected to vandalism).
2. Buried loop system
An insulated wire loop is buried beneath road surface ( it can
be fixed to the surface for a temporary installation)
Wires are connected to a counter located in a secure metal
or concrete cabinet (to protect from weather and vandalism)
Permanent counters are used when long-term counts are to
be conducted.
The counts could be performed every day for a year or more.
The data collected may be used to monitor and evaluate
traffic volumes and trends over a long period of time.
Permanent counters are not a cost-effective option inmost
situations. Few jurisdictions have access to this equipment

Piezo system
When a force/ stress is applied to the sensor, an electric
charge is applied to the sensor surface, an the electric
charge is proportional to the applied force.
The charge is used to determine the number of vehicles, axle
loads etc..
By use of more than one sensor and recording the passage
of each axle, a piezo sensor can identify different types of
vehicle axle configurations.

Automatic Count Study Preparation Checklist

Steps
Obtain equipment Read users
manual
Obtain measuring tape for
spacing tubes
Obtain software
Obtain scissors for trimming
tubes
Select method for attaching
tubes to the roadways
Obtain recorders
Obtain new batteries for
recorders
Obtain hardhat and safety vest
Select time and day
Select location
Involve corresponding
jurisdiction to provide traffic
control
Notify the jurisdictions
roadway sweeper
(to avoid potential damage to
road tubes)
Other:

When complete

Notes

Key Steps to an automatic Count

Study
An automatic count study includes three key steps (Robertson
1994):
1. Perform necessary office preparations.
2. Deploy and calibrate data collection equipment.
3. Check data and retrieve equipment

EXAMPLES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME

COUNT STUDIES
Intersection Counts
Intersection counts are used for timing traffic signals,
designing channelization, planning turn prohibitions,
computing capacity, analyzing high crash intersections, and
evaluating congestion (Homburger et al. 1996).
The manual count method is usually used to conduct an
intersection count.
A single observer can complete an intersection count only in
very light traffic conditions.

EXAMPLES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME

COUNT STUDIES
Intersection Counts
The intersection count classification scheme must be
understood by all observers before the count can begin. Each
intersection has 12 possible movements (see Figure). The
intersection movements are through, left turn, and right turn.
The observer records the intersection movement for each
vehicle that enters the intersection.

Figure : Intersection Movements

EXAMPLES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME

COUNT STUDIES

Pedestrian Counts
Pedestrian count data are used frequently in planning
applications.
Pedestrian counts are used to evaluate sidewalk and
crosswalk needs, to justify pedestrian signals, and to time
traffic signals.
Pedestrian counts may be taken at intersection
crosswalks, midblock crossings, or along sidewalks.
When pedestrians are tallied, those 12 years or older are
customarily classified as adults (Robertson 1994).
Persons of grade school age or younger are classified as
children.
The observer records the direction of each pedestrian
crossing the roadway.

EXAMPLES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME

COUNT STUDIES
Vehicle Classification Counts
Vehicle classification counts are used in establishing structural
and geometric design criteria, computing expected highway
user revenue, and computing capacity.
If a high percentage of heavy trucks exists or if the vehicle
mix at the crash site is suspected as contributing to the crash
problem, then classification counts should be conducted.

EXAMPLES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME

COUNT STUDIES
Average Daily Traffic and Annual Average Daily Traffic Counts
Average daily traffic (ADT) counts represent a 24-hour count
at any specified location.
These counts are obtained by placing an automatic counter at
the analysis location for a 24-hour period.
Accuracy of the ADT data depends on the count being
performed during typical roadway, weather, and traffic
demand conditions.
Local levels of government will typically conduct this type of
count.

EXAMPLES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME

COUNT STUDIES
Annual average daily traffic (AADT) counts represent the
average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location averaged
over a full 365-day year.
AADT volume counts have the following uses:
measuring or evaluating the present demand for service by
the roadway or facility
developing the major or arterial roadway system
locating areas where new facilities or improvements to
existing facilities are needed
programming capital improvements

Variation in traffic flows and accuracy

of counts
Hourly Variations
Traffic counts conducted over a short period of time are
unreliable and produce large errors because traffic flows vary
daily, weekly, monthly and seasonally.
We can conduct 24 hour counts to determine a scaling factor.
The accuracy of the 24 hour count will depend on:
The number of hours of counting on normal count days
The number of days of counting
The accuracy and scaling factor (that is the number of 24
hours used to obtain the scaling factor)

Variation in traffic flows and accuracy

of counts
Daily and weekly variations
In the same way as hourly variations, the volume of traffic
varies during a week
During weekends- the volume of commercial vehicles will
decrease significantly in an urban area
During weekends- in rural areas, the volume of traffic can
increase
The day- to-day traffic flow tends to vary more than the weekto-week flows over a year.
Hence large errors are associated with estimating average
daily traffic from counts from a few days only
Thus, we prefer to estimate with average annual daily traffic

Variation in traffic flows and accuracy

of counts
There is an increased accuracy when the time period is one
week (including weekend).
For counts longer than one week, the increase in accuracy is
less pronounced.
Thus a survey on 7 consecutive days- is an optimum length.

Variation in traffic flows and accuracy

of counts
Monthly and seasonal variations
Examples on variations: Increase in traffic during harvest time
or decrease in traffic flow in wet season
It is thus desirable to repeat the classified traffic count at
different times a year.
A series of weekly traffic counts repeated over at various
seasons throughout the year- will provide a better estimate of
the AADT than a continuous traffic count
From these seasonal data, the seasonal adjustments can be
derived for each month of the year.
These factors can be used to convert traffic counts at any time
of the year to average annual counts.

Data analysis- Converting a partial

days count into a full days traffic
count
Select same periods
Estimated full day count = Partial day count(06.00 to 18.00-12hr) x Full 24h
(Count from 06.00 to 18.00 hrs in the 24hrs
survey)
Full week traffic count =5(24 hrs weekdays) + 2full 24hrs weekend days
Average daily traffic(ADT) = One full week count
7
Seasonal factor need to be catered = Average daily traffic for one month
AADT

Automatic count data

Data from automatic counts are recorded in blocks- 1h, 2h,
3h, 4h etc
Cumulative traffic is recorded
The total traffic per 24 h is calculated
The average vehicle per day= mean of the Total traffic
Data can be adjusted to remove non motorised traffic or
season factors
To know about the counting process ( whether one way or
two way) or even the type of traffic- one needs to be on site
and observe the counter in action.

Errors in count surveys and analysis

Not carrying out a classified count
Type of vehicle is an important factor for pavement design

Whether 2 way or one way

Not distinguishing with the travel directions
Not correlating axle count with vehicle count
Not converting a partial day count to a full day count
Incorrect counting through lack of concentration

Planning a classified traffic count

survey
Planning stage:

When to carry out the survey and duration

Survey location
Staffing and equipment
Traffic counts in conjunction with an axle load
survey
Recording traffic count data

CONTRACTING FOR A TRAFFIC VOLUME COUNT

STUDY
Information Gathering
Before a jurisdiction contacts an engineering consulting firm
to perform a traffic volume count study, a variety of
information may need to be collected.
Any information may aid the consulting firm in adequately
completing the study.
The following is a list of possible information that an
engineering consulting firm may request:

CONTRACTING FOR A TRAFFIC VOLUME

COUNT STUDY

Information Gathering
issue at hand
historic volume counts
existing zoning
proposed future land use changes
traffic impact statements if available
citizen input
location map
appropriate contact persons
any other relevant information

VOLUME, DEMAND AND CAPACITY

Volume, number of vehicles (persons) passing a point during a
specified time period which is usually one hour (veh/ h).
Demand, number of vehicles (persons) that desire to travel past
a point during a specified period also usually one hour.
Capacity, maximum rate at which vehicle can traverse a point or
short segment during a specified time period
Theoretically, actual volume can never be observed at levels
higher than the true capacity of the section.

VOLUME, DEMAND AND CAPACITY

Capacity = 4.000 vph
Demand = 3.800 vph
Volume = 3.800 vph

Queue

Capacity = 4.000 vph

Demand = 3.600 vph
Volume = 3.600 vph

Capacity = 6.000 vph

Demand = 7.400 vph
Volume = 6.000 vph

AXLE LOADING
Survey

Traffic Loads Characterisation

Pavement Thickness Design Are Developed
To Account For The Entire
Spectrum Of Traffic Loads
Cars

Pickups

Buses

Trucks

Trailers

AXLE LOADING
Axle load survey is carried out to determine the axle load
distribution of the heavy vehicles using the road.
The survey data are then used to calculate the mean number
of equivalent standard axles.
These values are then combined with traffic flows and
forecasts to determine the total predicted traffic loading that
a particular road will carry over its design life in terms of msa
(millions of equivalent standard axles).
msa = 106 esa
= These are units of traffic loading over the pavement
design life, used for design and rehabilitation purposes

RELATIVE DAMAGE CONCEPT

Equivalent

Standard

ESAL

(8.16
tonnes)

Damage per
Pass = 1

Axle Load
Axle loads bigger than 8.16 tonnes cause damage greater
than one per pass

Axle loads smaller than 8.16 tonnes cause damage less than
one per pass
Load Equivalency Factor (L.E.F) = (? Tons/8.2 tonnes)4.5

RELATIVE DAMAGE CONCEPT

ESA/ESAL- may also be known as E80 (a standard axle load is
8.16 tonnes (80 kN).
All axle loads are converted to an equivalent standard axle
loads (ESAs) and pavement design is usual based upon the
total cumulative ESAs that the pavement will carry over its
design life.

Consider two single axles A and B where:

A-Axle = 16.4 tonnes
Damage caused per pass by A -Axle = (16.4/8.16)4 .5 = 23
This means that A-Axle causes same amount of damage
per pass as caused by 23 passes of standard 8.16 tonnes
axle i.e,

=
16.4 Tonnes
Axle

23 x
8.16 Tonnes
Axle

Consider two single axles A and B where:

B-Axle = 4.1 tonnes
Damage caused per pass by B-Axle = (4.1/8.16)4.5= 0.0452
This means that B-Axle causes only 0.0452 times damage
per pass as caused by 1 pass of standard 8.16 tonnes axle.

AXLE LOADING
If flow is high, selected samples of vehicles should be
weighed.
Not necessary to weigh vehicles less than 1.5 tonnes unladen
weight- motorcycles, cars
3 main ways of measuring axle loading:
A fixed weighbridge
Portable weighpads
Weigh-in -motion equipment

Planning for a survey

Duration and timing of survey
Ideally the survey needs to be carried out for 7 consecutive
days an for 24 hours a day.
However, if this is impossible, survey should last to weigh
80% of the traffic.
Require surveys of 12 h- 16 h per day.
Surveys with less than 7 days not recommended
Avoid short periods of unusual traffic flows- as for traffic
counts

Planning for a survey

Survey location and site layout
The accuracy, ease and safety of an axle load survey will
depend very largely on the choice of site.
The site must be chosen carefully to enable traffic to be
sampled and stopped easily and safely.
Warning signs should be displayed for safety
Good visibility in both directions
Safety and road signs
Police presence
Staffing and equipment

Survey Procedure
We have to determine an equivalency factor (EF) for each
type of vehicle.
This represents an average damaging effect of a vehicle of
each class.
1. The number of vehicles to weigh
For accuracy, as many vehicles must be weighed as possible
The number of vehicles that can actually be weighed every
hour will depend on:

the volume and flow of commercial vehicles

The speed of weighing (dependent on the type of weighing
equipment, staff and skill, complexity of the interview survey)
Site layout

Survey Procedure
It must be possible to weigh at least 60 vehicles per hour per
set of weighpads, although this is however governed by the
factors mentioned.
It is possible to reduce the number of vehicles in a sample for
large axle load surveys on busy roads (ORN 40-section 11.2)
Survey data forms and axle load survey forms are used for
recording of data.
(Read sections 11.3 to 11.6)- Recording of data

Analysis of results
Calculate EF or ESA for each vehicle class
Data check- important to check unusual values for axle loads >
20 tonnes- check against original survey sheets
Calculate the average EF per vehicle for each vehicle type