Static electricity

1. Static electricity is electrical charge that is at rest or not moving.

2. The study of static electricity is called electrostatics.
3. There are two types of static electric charge, i.e. positive charges and negative
charges.
4. Positive charges consist of protons. Protons cannot move.
5. Negative charges consist of electrons. Electron transfer happens when two
different materials are rubbed together.
Characteristics of static electric charges
1. Positive charges and negative charges have the ability to attract or repel other
charges.
2. Charges of the same type (like charges)
repel one another.
3. Charges of different types (unlike
charges) attract one another.
4. The repulsive force and attractive force that exist between electrical charges is
called electrostatic force.
5. Electrostatic force is a type of force
caused by static electric charges.
6. Electrostatic force on a charged object causes an object without charge to be
attracted to it.

Production of static electric charges

1. Static electric charges can be produced on a neutral object by rubbing it with a
different material like a woollen or silk cloth.
2. When two different materials are rubbed, electron transfer occurs. One of the
material receives electrons while the other loses electrons.
3. The material that receives electrons becomes negatively charged because it has more
electrons than protons.
4. The material that loses electrons becomes positively charged because it has more
protons than electrons.
5. An object is neutral if the number of positive charges (protons) and negative charges
(electrons) is the same.

6. Examples of materials that are easily charged are cellulose acetate and polythene.

7. The type of charge produced depends on the types of material that are rubbed
together.

Detection of electric charges

1. An electroscope is used to detect snail electric charges or static eiectric charges.

2. Charged materials can also be detected by an electroscope.

3. Before it is used, the electroscope should be earthed by touching the metal disc
with a finger. This is intended to neutralise the electroscope.
4. When a charged material is brought near the metal disc of the electroscope, its
gold foil will diverge.
5. When a material that is not charged (neutral) is brought near the metal disc of the
electroscope, its gold foil does not diverge.

Phenomenon related to static electric charges in d

Friction between two materials produces electric charges. Because of this. electric
charges can be produced anywhere.
(a) Occurrence of lightning
Clouds acquire electrical charges when water vapour in it rubs with air.

(b) Spark plug

A spray of sparks is produced when a car enaine is started.
Electric charges 'jump' across spark space on the plug to produce sparks.
These sparks cause fuel to burn to produce energy.
(c) Nylon clothes

A crackling sound is heard when we take off our nylon clothes on a dry day.
This is because static electric charges are produced when the nylon clothes rub against
our body.
(d) Combing hair
Dry hair will stand erect or will be attracted towards the comb on a dry day.
This is because hair becomes charged when it rubs against the comb.
(e) Electronic lighter
Electric charges are produced when an electronic lighter is lit produce sparks.
The sparks will then ignite the gas.
Safety measures related to static electric charges
Safety measures should be taken in certain
Re1ations related to static electric charges.
a Lightning conductor
The roofs of high buildings are usually installed with lightning conductors to protect
these buildings from being struck by lightning.
The end of a lightning conductor that is branched and sharp directs the electric charges of
the lightning to the earth (earthed).
The other end of the lightning conductor is buried in the ground to direct the electric
charges from the lightning to the earth without damaging the building.
Oil tanker
An oil tanker becomes charged with static electricity when it moves because of friction
with air.
Furthermore, the rubber tyres prevent the charges from flowing to the earth.

Because of this, a metal chain is fixed to the bottom of the tanker to direct the charges to
the earth when the metal chain touches the road.

This is important as it prevents sparks from being produced that may cause a fire.
Aeroplane
An aeroplane will acquire high electric charges when it rubs against the air as it flies.
Aeroplane tyres are specially made to direct electric charges to the earth when the plane
lands.
ELECTRICITY
- Sources of electrical energy

1. Electrical energy is energy produced when electric current flows.

2. A source of electrical energy is any device that produces electric charges or
electric current.
3. Dry cells are a type of chemical cells most widely used in electrical appliances
like radios, torchlights and clocks. A new dry cell supplies 1.5 V voltage.
4. An accumulator is the battery used in vehicles like cars, lorries, motorcycles, vans
and buses. An accumulator is used to start the engine of vehicles and light the
vehicle lights.

5. A dynamo is found on a bicycle and produces electrical energy when the bicycle
is pedalled.
Electric current
1. Moving electric charges (electrons) produce electric current.
2. Electric current enables electrical appliances like televisions, refrigerators and
fans to operate.
3. Electric current is produced when electrons flow in a certain direction.

4. The Van de Graaff generator is a device that can produce electric charges
(electrostatic charges) of very high voltage on its dome.
When the genarator is turned on, the rubber belt turns and rubs against both rollers. The
dome becomes charged.
The genarator dome is usually positively charged (the generator dome can be positively
or negatively charged).
A dry dome can hold its charges longer.

Voltage
1. Voltage is electrical energy that is needed to enable electrons to flow from one
point to another in a conductor.
2. Voltage is the force that pushes electrons through a circuit to produce electric
current.

3. A dry cell or battery possesses voltage.

Resistance
1. Electrons that flow through a conductor constantly experience obstruction.
2. The characteristic of a material that opposes the flow of electrons called resistance.
3. A material with high resistance allows only a small current to pass through it.
4. Resistance in a conductor, for example a wire, depends on
(a) length of conductor
The longer the conductor, the higher its resistance.
(b) diameter or thickness of conductor
The bigger the diameter of the conductor, the lower its resistance.
c) type of conductor
Different types of conductor have different resistance.
Copper and aluminium which are widely used as electric wires are a few metals that have
low resistance.
5. Some conductors have high resistance to current that flows through them. This type
of conductor is called a resistor.
Direction of electron flow and current in an electric circuit
1. In a dry cell, current is produced when electrons flow from the negative terminal of
the cell to the positive terminal through a wire.
2. However, the direction of current flow is the opposite of the direction of electron
flow.
3. Electric current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a cell.

MEASURING ELECTRICITY
Measuring electric current
1. Electric current that flows from a source of electrical energy can be measured with
an ammeter.
2. The unit of measurement for current is ampere (A)
3. The ammeter is connected in series to a circuit when measuring current.

4. If the ammeter needle does not move, this shows that no current is flowing in the
circuit.
5. The positive terminal of the ammeter should be connected to the positive terminal of
the electric source in an electric circuit. Similarly, the negative terminal of the
ammeter should be connected to the negative terminal of the electric source.
Measuring voltage
1. Voltage can be measured with a voltmeter.
2. The unit of measurement for voltage is volt (V).
3. The voltmeter is connected in parallel to a circuit when measuring voltage.
4. The positive terminal of the voltmeter should be connected to the positive
terminal of the electric source in an electric circuit.
Measuring resistance
1. Resistance is measured in the unit of ohm.
2. The symbol of ohm is E2.
3. A resistor is a device that is used to reduce the electric current that flows in a
circuit.
4. The bigger the ohm value in a resistor, the bigger is its resistance.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELECTRIC CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE
Relationship between resistance and electric current
1. The quantity of electric current that flows through a circuit will change according to
the resistance.
2. The bigger the resistance, the smaller the electric current that flows through a circuit.
3. If the resistance is small, the quantity of electric current that flows through a circuit
will be big.
Relationship between voltage and electric current
1. The quantity of electric current that flows through a circuit will change according to
the voltage.
2. The higher the voltage, the greater the electric current that flows through the circuit.
3. When the voltage of an electric source increases, the electric current that flows
through the circuit will also increase.
Relationship between voltage, electric current and resistance
1. The electric current that flows increases at the same rate as the rate of increase in
voltage value.

2. The voltage quantity is directly proportional to the quantity of electric current.

3. The relationship between voltage, electric current and resistance,

is called Ohm's Law.
4. R is constant for a fixed resistor. Therefore, the ratio of voltage to

V
electric
I

current, is always fixed. This fixed value is called resistance.

5. If a voltage (V) versus electric current (A) graph is drawn, a straight line that passes
through the origin is obtained. The gradient of the graph represents the circuit
resistance.

6. Ohm's Law is used to solve problems related to values of voltage, electric current
and resistance.
7. If any two values in the formula R = I are known, the third value can be
determined.
8. The following steps are a guide to solving problems related to Ohm's Law.

PARALLEL AND SERIES CIRCUITS

Symbols of electric circuit components
To make the drawing of an electric circuit easier, components of an electric circuit should
be represented by certain symbols.

Electric circuit
1. An electric circuit is a path that allows electric current to flow through it.
2. An electric circuit must be properly and completely arranged so that electric current
can flow through it.
3. The bulb will light up or the ammeter needle will deflect if an electric circuit is
connected correctly.

4. There are two types of electric circuit, i.e.

(a) series circuit
(b) parallel circuit

Series circuit

1. When circuit components like a bulb or resistor is connected from end to end or in a
row, the circuit is called a series circuit.
2. The electric current flows on only one path from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal of an electric source.
3. In a series circuit, if one part of the circuit is disconnected or the bulb is burnt, the
circuit becomes incomplete and other bulbs will also be put out.
Parallel circuit

1. In a parallel circuit, electric components are arranged side by side and parallel to
one another.
2. There is more than one path for the flow of electric current.
3. In a parallel circuit, if one bulb or resistor is spoilt or removed, electric current will
still flow through another path. Other bulbs are still lit.
ELECTRIC CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
Flow of electric current in a series circuit

1. The ammeter gives the same reading even though it is connected at different
positions. This shows that the current that flows in all the positions in a series circuit
is the same.
2. If the current that flows through the ammeter X, Y dan Z are represented
respectively by symbols I, I1, and I2 then the ampere values for I, I1 and I3 are the
same, i.e.:
I=I1=I2
Voltage in a series circuit
Voltage of cells in series
1. The more cells that are connected in series, the greater the current that flows. This is
because more cells supply greater voltage or electrical energy to the circuit.
2. The more cells connected in series, the bigger the total cell voltage. This causes the
bulb to shine brighter.

3. The total voltage is the same as the sum of the voltages of each cell.

age of bulbs in series

1. The voltage that passes through every circuit component like the bulb (or resistor) in
a series circuit is the same.
2. The voltage that passes through all the circuit components t supplied by an electric
source) is the same as the total voltage of each circuit component.

3. If the voltage that is supplied by an electric source is represented by the symbol V

and bulb X and Y respectively use voltage value V1 and V2, then the relationship
between V, V1 and V2 is
Resistance in a series circuit
1. If more bulbs are added in series, resistance in the circuit will increase causing the
current that flows through the bulbs to decrease. Therefore, the bulbs will shine
dimly.

2. If resistance of the bulbs are represented by R1 and R2, resistance (R) in a series
circuit is the sum of the resistance in each bulb, i.e.:

3. In a series circuit,
(a) the current that flows through each bulb is the same.
(b) the voltage supplied by the electric source is shared by all the bulbs. The voltage that
passes through the circuit is the same as the sum of the voltage used by each bulb.
(c) the circuit resistance is the sum of the resistance in each bulb.
4. The following steps are used to solve problems related to voltage, electric current
and resistance in a series circuit by using Ohm's Law.

Advantages and disadvantages of a series circuit

ELECTRIC CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Flow of electric current in a parallel circuit
1. In a parallel circuit, the quantity of current supplied by the electric source will be
channelled to the branches according to their resistance value.
2. If a circuit branch has high resistance, the current value that flows through it will be
low and conversely, if the circuit branch has low resistance, the current value that
flows through it will be high.
3. The quantity of current supplied by the electric source in a parallel circuit is the
same as the sum of the current that flows through each branch path.

(a) Bulbs in each circuit branch with the same resistance will shine with the same brightness
because electric current with the same value will flow through both bulbs at the same
time.
(b) The current at position P is the same as the sum of the current at positions Q and R.
(c) If the current flowing through ammeter P, Q and R is represented by symbols I, I1 and I2
respectively, then the ampere value relationship of I, I1 and I2 is as follows.
I = I 1 + I2
Voltage in a parallel circuit
Voltage of cells in parallel
1. Voltage does not increase or decrease if cells of the same type are connected in
parallel.
2. Compared to cells in series, cells in parallel are more lasting. The more cells there
are in a parallel arrangement, the more lasting they are as electrical energy suppliers.

Voltage of bulbs in parallel

1. The value of the voltage across each bulb or resistor is the same.
2. The voltage value is the same although the resistance value in each branch is
different.
3. The voltage across each bulb is the same as the voltage supplied by the electric
source.

4. If the voltage recorded by the voltmeter at positions P, Q and R in Figure 7.40 are
represented by symbols V, V1 and V2 respectively,
then the voltage value relationship of V, V1 and V2 is as follows.
Resistance in a parallel circuit
1. If R is the total resistance and the resistance of the resistors in Figure 7.41 is
represented by R1 and R2 respectively, then the relationship between R, R, and R,
in the parallel circuit is

2. In a parallel circuit,
(a) the quantity of current supplied by the electric source is the same as the sum of the
electric current that flows through each circuit branch.
(b) the voltage across each bulb is the same as the voltage supplied by the electric source.
(c) the total circuit resistance is represented by the following formula.

3. The following steps are used to solve problems related to voltage, electric current
and resistance in a parallel circuit by using Ohm's Law.

Advantages and disadvantages of a parallel drat*

MAGNETISM
1. A magnet has two poles, i.e. north pole and south pole, that are situated at each
end of the magnet.
2. Like magnetic poles repel one another while unlike magnetic poles attract one
another.

3. A magnet can only attract materials that are made of iron, nickel and cobalt.
4. Materials that are attracted by magnet are called magnetic materials. Examples of
such materials are iron nails, paper clips, one sen coins, shaving blades and
needles.
5. Materials that are not attracted by magnet are called nonmagnetic materials.
Examples of non-magnetic materials are glass, plastic, paper, magnesium tape,
zinc foil and wood.
Magnetic field
1. A magnet has a magnetic field around it.
2. A magnetic field is the space around a magnet that gives the magnetic effect.
3. A magnetic field is strongest at the two poles of a magnet. This can be seen if iron
filings are scattered on top of a magnet. Most of the iron filings are attracted to
the two magnetic poles.

4. A magnetic field consists of magnetic lines of force.

5. Magnetic lines of force do not meet, do not cut or cross one another.
6. A magnetic field cannot be seen or felt. Its pattern can be seen by scattering iron
filings on it. The iron filings form the magnetic lines of force.
7. All magnetic lines of force have direction, i.e. point from the north pole to the
south pole.

8. The direction of magnetic lines of force can be determined by using a compass.

9. A magnetic field can deflect the compass needle. The direction of the deflected
compass needle always follows the direction of the magnetic lines of force.
10. A strong magnet has magnetic lines of force that are closer together.

11. From Figure 7.48, it can be seen that

(a) all magnetic lines of force do not cross one another.
(b) all magnetic lines of force point from the north pole to the south pole.
(c) magnetic lines of force join it the poles are different. This shows that unlike magnetic
poles attract one another.
(d) magnetic lines of force do not join if the poles are similar. This shows that like magnetic
poles repel one another.
(e) in arrangements (b), (c) and (d), there are areas called neutral points (X). The neutral
point in a magnetic field is the area where
(i)
magnetic effect is not felt.
(ii)
there are no magnetic lines of force.
(iii)
there is no influence on a compass needle.
Use of a magnet in a compass
1. A magnet is used in a compass to determine direction.
2. A magnet that is suspended freely will eventually stop moving and point to the
north-south direction. This principle is used in a compass.
3. A compass needle will always point to the north pole of the Earth.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Flow of electric current through a straight conductor
1. The electric current that flows through a straight conductor will produce a magnetic
field around that conductor.
2. The magnetic field that is produced around a straight conductor that carries a current
is circular in shape.
3. The direction of the magnetic field that is produced around a straight conductor
depends on the direction of the current.

Electromagnet
1. Electromagnetism is the study of the relationship between electricity and
magnetism.
2. An electromagnet is a conductor that has characteristics similar to those of a magnet
(e.g. it has magnetic force and two different magnetic poles) when an electric
current flows through it.

3. An electromagnet consists of a solenoid (wire coil) that is wound around a soft iron
core.
4. The soft iron core functions to strengthen the magnetism of the solenoid.
5. Soft iron is used because it is easier to be magnetised and also easier to demagnetise
when electric current stops flowing through it.
6. When electric current flows, the soft iron becomes a magnet. However, its
magnetism will disappear when the electric current is cut off.
7. Just as a normal bar magnet, an electromagnet also has two different poles, i.e. the
north pole and south pole.
8. The types of pole in an electromagnet depends on the direction of the electric
current that flows through it.

9. The strength of the magnetic field in an elecliomagnet can be varied.

10. The strength of the magnetic field in an electromagnet can be increased by

(a) increasing the number of turns of the solenoid.

(b) increasing the electric current that flows.
(c) reducing the diameter of the solenoid.
11. Electromagnets are used in devices like telephones, electromagnetic cranes,
telegraph machines, electric bells and car horns.
12. An example of the use of an electromagnet in daily life is the electric bell.
(a) When the switch is turned on, electric current flows through the circuit.
(b) The electromagnet in the bell attracts the armature and the hammer together causing the
hammer to hit the bell. Sound is produced.
(c) At the same time, the circuit is broken at the contact point.
(d) Electric current ceases to flow and the magnetism of the electromagnet disappears. The
armature is pulled back to its original position by a spring and touches the contact point
once again.
(e) The electromagnet attracts the armature again and the hammer hits the bell again.
(f) This process is repeated to produce the ringing sound in an electric bell.
1. Static electricity is electric charges that are at rest or not moving.
2. There are two types of static electric charge, i.e. positive charges and negative
charges.
3. Like charges repel one another while unlike charges attract one another.
4. When two different materials are rubbed together, electron transfer occurs. One of
the materials receives electrons while the other material loses electrons.
5. An electroscope is used to detect static electric charges.
6. Lightning is an example of an electrostatic charge phenomenon that occurs in
daily life.
7. Electric charges that move produce electric current.
8. A Van de Graaff generator is a device that produces electric charges (electrostatic
charges) of high voltage.
9. Voltage is electrical energy that is needed to enable electric charges (electrons) to
flow from one point to another in a conductor.
10. The characteristic of a material that opposes the flow of these electric charges is
called resistance.
11. Resistance in a conductor depends on the length of the wire, the thickness of the
wire and the type of wire.
12. Electric current flows from the positive terminal of a cell to the negative terminal
of that cell. However, the direction of electric current flow is opposite to that of
electron flow.
13. An ammeter is connected in series while a voltmeter is connected in parallel in a
circuit.
14. Electric current is measured with an ammeter while voltage is measured with a
voltmeter.
15. Current and voltage are measured in units of ampere (A) and volt (V)
respectively.
16. The bigger the resistance, the smaller the electric current that flows in a circuit.
17. The higher the voltage, the greater the electric current that flows in a circuit.
V
18. Ohm's Law, R =
, shows the relationship between voltage, current and
I
resistance.

19. An electric circuit is a path that allows electric current to flow through it.
20. When a circuit component lika a bulb or resistor is connected from end to end or
in a row, the circuit is called a series circuit.
21. If a bulb in a series circuit is burnt, the circuit becomes incomplete and the other
bulbs in the circuit will also not light up.
22. In a parallel circuit, the electric components are arranged side by side and parallel
to one another.
23. The electric current in all positions in a series circuit is the same.
24. The voltage across a circuit is the same as the sum of the volta! across each bulb
in a series circuit.
25. The resistance in a series circuit is the sum of the resistance in each bulb.
26. The quantity of current supplied by an electric source in a parallel circuit is the
same as the sum of the current that flows through each branch path.
27. Voltage does not increase or decrease if more cells of the same type are connected
in parallel.
28. Resistance in a parallel circuit is represented by the following formula:
29. A magnetic field consists of magnetic lines of force.
30. Magnetic lines of force do not cross one another.
31. The direction of magnetic lines of force can be determined by using a compass.
32. A magnet is used in a compass to determine direction.
33. Electric current that flows through a straight conductor will produce a magnetic
field that is circular in shape around the conductor.
34. An electromagnet is a conductor that has characteristics similar to that of a
magnet when electric current flows through it.
35. An electromagnet consists of a solenoid (wire coil) that is wound around a soft
iron core.
36. The magnetism of an electromagnet will disappear if the electric current that
flows through it is cut off.
37. Electromagnets are used in devices like telephones and electromagnetic cranes.