Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ECTRICAL
NGINEERING TEXTS
PRINCIPLES
^S
OF
BY
ALEXANDER
S.
LANGSDORF, M. M. E.
FIRST EDITION
1915
E. C.
INC.
Dedicates
TO
MY MOTHER
321585
PREFACE
This book has been prepared with the object of placing before
junior and senior students of electrical engineering a reasonably
field of
trated
missed with little more than passing mention, but which, in the.
opinion of the author, are vital to a thorough grasp of the subject.
For example, the book will be found to contain in Chapter III
derivation of the rules covering armature windings (followProfessor
Arnold), in addition to the usual description of
ing
typical windings; Chapters VI and VII include a considerable
full
amount
istics
of
new
material concerning the operating charactergenerators and motors, the treatment being largely
of
has been exercised to eliminate those minute details and excessive refinements that are more likely to confuse than to clarify.
full
of the
students, to look
an end complete
upon a mathematical
-in itself,
solution of a problem as
apparently without a due realization
vii
PREFACE
viii
realities.
first essential is
As an example
chapters have, for the most part, been designed to prevent the
practice of feeding figures into one end of a formula and ex-
No attempt
tracting the result (painlessly) from the other end.
has been made to include as complete a set of problems as is
desirable in studying the subject, for the reason that each instructor will naturally prepare a set to meet his own needs.
Some of the problems at the end of Chapters VI and VII will be
found to tax the reasoning powers of the best students, but all
of them have been successfully solved in the author's classes.
Answers have not been given in the text, but will be supplied
upon request to those instructors who ask for them.
It is not to be expected that a new book on direct currents
can avoid including much material common to the large number
of existing texts on the subject.
Such originality as has been
brought to bear, aside from that represented by the new matter
already referred to, has been exercised in selecting from the vast
amount of available material those parts that seem most essential
to an orderly presentation of the subject.
Numerous wellknown texts have been freely drawn upon, with suitable ac-
ALEXANDER
WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY,
ST. Louis, Mo.
August, 1915.
S.
LANGSDORF.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
vii
xv
CHAPTER
1
1
1.
Introductory
2.
3.
4.
Field Intensity
5.
6.
14.
15.
Lenz's
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
'
'.
..
9
10
11
12
12
Law
14
15
Due
15
16
to a Circular Coil
Magnetic Circuit
25. Applications of Law of Magnetic Circuit
Laws
27. Self-induction
28.
29.
Mutual Induction
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
Electromagnets
CHAPTER
Dynamo, Generator and Motor
ix
19
20
21
II
THE DYNAMO
31.
17
23
26
27
30
32
34
37
38
23. Permeability
24. The Law of the
26. Kirchhoff's
16. Practical
17.
43
43
CONTENTS
PAGE
32.
33.
34.
35.
37.
38.
39.
Winding
Magnitude of E.M.F. Pulsations
Average E.M.F. of an Armature
Resistance of Armature Winding
40. Construction of
Dynamos
45.
Machines
Ring
Turbo-generators
71
Machine
Dynamos
........
53. Self-excitation
54. Series Excitation
55.
Shunt Excitation
56.
Compound
58. Field
...... ....
Excitation
Windings
Rheostats
Motors
.....
CHAPTER
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
...
'I
III
88
88
89
89
90
Types of Armatures.
Types of Windings
Ring and Drum Windings
Winding Element
Ring, Lap and Wave Windings
Number of Brush Sets Required
Simplex and Multiplex Windings.
70.
91
Degree
Number
of
Reentrancy
...
71. Field
72.
Displacement
Number
of
Armature Paths
74. General
72
73
73
74
74
76
77
79
81
83
85
46
48
50
52
52
55
56
57
58
59
60
62
65
66
66
68
70
93
94
95
96
97
98
98
99
103
CONTENTS
xi
PAGE
104
107
107
Two-layer Windings
Examples of Drum Windings
77. Equipotential Connections
75.
76.
CHAPTER
IV
78.
MAGNETIC LEAKAGE
The Magnetization Curve
79.
113
113
115
116
Curve
117
119
Magnetic Leakage
Magnetization Curve
121
Arc
123
Ampere-turns
86. Ampere-turns
87. Ampere-turns
88. Ampere-turns
89.
The
Length
Required
Required
Required
Required
Teeth
Armature Core
the Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
124
for the
128
for the
for
for the
.128
Yoke
129
129
Coefficient of Dispersion
CHAPTER V
ARMATURE REACTION
133
90.
91.
Commutation
Components of Armature Reaction
92.
93.
94.
139
Machines
95. Corrected
133
135
137
138
turns
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
152
154
155
CHAPTER
VI
159
159
161
103. Service
104.
Requirements
Characteristic Curves
161
105. Regulation
106. Characteristic
Load Characteristic
The Armature Characteristic
143
145
147
148
149
162
.
165
166
167
CONTENTS
xii
PAGE
110. Characteristic
111.
Dependence
Curves
of the Series
Form
of the
Generator
of the Characteristic
168
upon Speed
.170
'
Shunt Generator
170
171
173
of the
116.
Dependence
Dependence
117.
Approximate
of
178
Field Circuit
Mathematical
Shunt
of
Analysis
Generator
179
Characteristics
Curve
Shunt
118. Characteristic
of the
Compound Generator
119.
The
120.
121.
Series
181
184
185
185
186
191
195
CHAPTER
VII
MOTORS
-.
126.
127.
Requirements
Counter E.M.F., Torque and Power
The Starting of Motors
.
132.
Counter E.M.F.
'.
-.
125. Service
Motor
Motor
..........
141.
Fundamental Considerations
Physical Basis of the Theory
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
of
Commutation
142. General
202
204
208
209
211
214
215
217
VIII
COMMUTATION
140.
199
199
221
225
227
229
235
CHAPTER
199
237
237
239
241
243
245
246
248
CONTENTS
xiii
PAGE
148. Variation of Local Current Density at the
Brush
149. Further
150.
Examples
Simultaneous Commutation
Adjacent Coils
of
Commutation
in
Wave Windings
Duration of Short-circuit
154. Simultaneous Commutation
Brushes
153.
Effect of
of Several Coils.
Armatures
Wide
.
157.
158.
Field
...
.....
.,.
'*
254
254
256
259
263
263
264
268
273
276
280
281
282
283
Sparking Constants
160. Reaction of Short-circuit Current upon Main Field
161. The Armature Flux Theory
159.
CHAPTER IX
COMPENSATION OF ARMATURE REACTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF COM286
MUTATION
162. Principle of Compensation
163. Compensating Devices
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
..-'...
Commutating Devices
Commutation in Machines having no Auxiliary Devices ....
.....
Commutating Poles
,, .
Winding of Commutating Poles
Effect of Commutating Poles upon Coil Inductance
Compounding Effect of Commutating Poles
.
286
287
290
292
297
298
300
301
CHAPTER X
304
304
304
306
314
315
316
173.
Mechanical Losses
171.
Summary
176.
True
of Losses
and Me317
318
chanical Efficiency
177.
178. Variation
of Efficiency with
Load.
Condition for
Efficiency
179. Location of Point of
Maximum
Efficiency
Maximum
321
324
325
326
327
332
CONTENTS
xiv
PAGE
184.
185.
186.
187.
334
334
336
340
343
345
345
188.
189.
CHAPTER XI
BOOSTERS AND BALANCERS.
191. Boosters
192.
193.
194.
..'...
'.
.-
or Non-reversible Booster
198.
199.
200. Balancers
;......
...*.....
System
.^.
".
.
...........
...........
-357
358
,.,/... \
.
-.
359
360
362
362
364
366
366
373
374
376
210.
INDEX
347
347
347
348
350
353
354
354
355
395
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
(The figures refer to the page on which the symbol is first introduced;
symbols formed from those given below by the mere addition of subscripts
or primes for the purpose of distinguishing between quantities having the
same general meaning, are not separately listed. Unless otherwise indiInch units are distinguished in the text
cated, metric units are implied.
by the use of the double prime (").
In a few instances the same symbol has been used to represent more than
one quantity, though such cases are widely separated in the text, and the
meaning may readily be determined from the lettering of the accompanying
illustrations or from the context.)
A
PAGE
a constant length
number of armature circuits
constant in Froelich's equation
radiating surface
a x cross-section of tube of flux
at
per cm
per cm., armature core
per cm., pole core
per cm., air-gap
per cm., pole shoes
per cm., teeth
at y
amp-turns
amp-turns
amp-turns
amp-turns
amp-turns
amp-turns
amp-turns
A
Aa
area, sq. cm
cross-section of
Ab
A
Ag
at a
at c
at g
at 8
att
armature core
XV
39
57
179
340
156
117
116
116
116
116
116
116
4
116
315
116
116
116
116
116
116
116
300
116
138
116
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
xvi
PAGE
A Ti amp-turns
ATig amp-turns
A Tn amp-turns
ATa amp-turns
A T amp-turns
ATy amp-turns
300
300
300
116
116
116
B
b pole arc
b'
119
b c peripheral
b'i
ba
width of
'.
179
241
119
131
......
299
122
slot
125
308
123
270
B flux density
24
B' amplitude of flux pulsations at pole face
313
Ba flux density in armature core
116
field intensity in axis of commutation due to armature current 280
Bc flux density in pole core
116
field intensity at pole tip due to armature cross-field
141
B g flux density in air-gap
116
299
Bi g flux density in air-gap due to interpoles
width
b width
bv
of ventilating duct
of slot opening
B
B
.116
-.
By
flux density in
Bo
field
-.
,<.
....
,-
116
125
116
yoke
279
C
c
constant
constant
'.
309
34
D
d diameter
diameter of armature
d c diameter of pole core
dcom diameter of commutator
distance or length
47
146
131
281
17
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
xvii
E
PAGE
e e.m.f. in volts
commutating
e max
er
es
c.
E
E
Ea
maximum
reactance voltage
E
E
ET
ci
commutating
commutating
field axis,
...
e.m.f.,
no-load
e.m.f.,
load
e.m.f. at
,,.
end
....
Rosenberg generator
commutating
36
242
248
79
247
389
15
e.m.f. in abvolts
counter e.m.f
Eb e.m.f. generated in
EC commutating e.m.f
ECO
commutation
of period of
>
.-"
.,
-.
......
;
(
...
...
commutation
12
77
369
242
279
280
77
245
F
f force in dynes
field step in terms of single pole pitch
frequency of magnetic reversals
coefficient of friction
.................
.....
force in dynes
3
100
306
315
39
H
h radial depth of armature core under teeth
circular mils per ampere
128
335
depth
ht depth
h' 2 depth
h 3 depth
h* depth
hi
of
armature
131
130
coil
above lower
upper
H
H
e
field intensity at
end
Ho
field intensity at
field intensity
coil
coil
269
269
270
270
270
3
of solenoid
18
17
I
i
current in amperes
current in line
current in short-circuited coil
ia
total
armature current
31
77
243
57
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
XVill
PAGE
319
369
if
ii
linear
250
77
250
237
(ia)
ib
162
shunt
field current
extra component of short-circuit current
ia/a current per armature path
/ current in amperes
7 current in abamperes
is
ix
io
11
10
K
k constant
...'.
lamination factor
'
constant
ratio of iron section to air section
under a pole
125
313
34
125
L
I
length
axial length of core
corrected length of core
.
I'
la
lc
Icom
I/
3
*
.
la
It
mean
ly
li
lz
L
Lb
L
131
I'i
119
119
116
305
116
length of turn
length of magnetic path in teeth
length of magnetic path in yoke
distance between adjacent pole shoes
distance between inner surfaces of pole cores
self -inductance in henries
.
....
345
271
299
116
79
116
116
130
131
33
269
82
270
270
270
271
M
m
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
xix
PAGE
... 98
displacement in terms of commutator segments
mutual-induction ......
36
'_ .......
M\z coefficient of mutual-induction between coils in adjacent slots. 275
Mi 3 coefficient of mutual-induction between coils separated by
276
one slot
field
coefficient of
...
..../
N
n revolutions per minute
number of coil edges per element
number of coil edges carrying reversed current in neutral zone
....
n/ turns per pair of poles, separately excited machine
"...
turns per pair of poles, series machine
na turns per pair of poles, shunt machine
nsc number of coils simultaneously short-circuited by brush
n v number of ventilating ducts
n ideal no-load speed of motor
:
number
............
47
98
144
162
168
79
280
125
206
14
P
p constant distance
number
11
of poles
P bf
P ca
P cc
sq. in.
Pet
eddy current
loss,
loss,
.-.;..'
13
123
50
315
...
.
..'..'.
.
...
.'
,.;,....
teeth
armature core
Ph
Pp
loss
PS
Po rated output
317
315
305
306
305
322
310
312
306
308
322
313
319
324
Q
103
146
q degree of reentrancy
Q
Q
of
armature periphery
336
.
12
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
XX
R
PAGE
r distance,
radius
3
172
armature and starting rheostat
201
armature including brushes and brush contacts. 57
series field winding
79
162
separately excited field winding
shunt field winding
77
:
resistance of
ra resistance of
77
resistance of
resistance of
r s resistance of
R
Ra
resistance in
ohms
15
on armature
Ri resistance of
commutator lead
57
...
244
244
244
S
s
distance
number
13
of
winding sections
diagonal of rectangular
heat
coil section
specific
sa
S number
of
commutator segments
55
271
336
305
96
T
t
tv
time in seconds
tooth pitch
13
122
305
309
123
136
201
V
13
v velocity
vc
47
306
velocity
volume
281
264
of core
308
Vt volume of tooth
W
w
watts radiated
340
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
xxi
PAGE
12
306
250
228
..........
.....
amp-turns required for double air-gap, two sets of teeth and
armature core ...................
x variable distance
'.
..
.'
129
...................
............
.... ..................
y commutator pitch
yi
back pitch
2/ 2
front pitch
.........
97
97
97
Z
number
of
Z number
of
a 60
...........
.
;.
......
269
47
201
101
10
a
a.
angle
angle of brush displacement from neutral
coefficient
/3
..............
.............
.......................
width
of
constant
0'
commutator segment
supplement
of double angle of
brush lead
........
138
336
383
119
241
383
139
constant
.........
.......................
310
383
....... ..........
116
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
xxii
PAGE
5'
5'i
5X
........
...
Ae brush drop
.............
..... ................
164
77
hysteresis constant
efficiency
......
..
...........
variable angle
rise of
.......
-.
temperature, deg. C.
.-
.-
.."
.....
.....
...'./ ......
...........
312
306
317
331
X
X number of flux linkages
A Carter sparking criterion
AI
permeability
....
....
'
.
.,
20
267
24
v coefficient of dispersion or
vi
leakage coefficient
output coefficient
......
..........
.............
...*...
118
299
335
p
p specific resistance of copper.
a intensity of magnetization
.......
...............
............
79
39
122
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
xxiii
PAGE
......................
T pole pitch
50
<p
<f>
<P]_
f> 2
........................
..................
angle
leakage flux per pole
leakage flux, inner surfaces of pole shoes
slot leakage flux
leakage flux, lateral surfaces of pole shoes
.........
.................
.
......
.................
inner surfaces of pole cores .........
p leakage
............
end-connection leakage flux
lateral surfaces of pole cores .........
leakage
flux ...... ...................
$ flux .........................
useful flux per pole .......... ........
Rosenberg generator .............
armature
Rosenberg generator .... .......
useful flux due to interpole ...............
total flux due to interpole ..... .... .......
total flux per pole
..................
tooth-tip, leakage flux
flux,
?4
>6
>#
flux,
field flux,
flux,
3>i
>;*
4>
solid angle
..........
...
10
118
130
268
130
268
131
268
131
14
4
47
369
369
299
299
118
142
19
PRINCIPLES OF
Field.
Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic SubThe space surrounding a magnet is called a magnetic
The existence of a magnetic field is manifested by the
field.
measurable mechanical forces which act upon magnetic substances or upon electric currents in the field.
In the case of a
magnet of elongated form, the force due to it is greatest near its
2.
Magnetic
stances.
magnet
end
is
is
called
called the
The magnetic
fields
like the
lodestone,
and by
artificially
are not
of measuring instruments.
The powerful magnetic fields
required in generators and motors are always produced by the
magnetizing action of an electric current.
steel are attracted by a magwhen placed in the field of the latter. This property is also
possessed by nickel and cobalt but to a less extent than in the
net
case of iron.
Other substances, of which bismuth is the most
prominent example, are repelled by a magnet. Materials of the
former class are called paramagnetic substances, those of the latter
class are called diamagnetic substances.
The
classification of
standard of reference
is
air,
which
is
assumed to be neutral or
non-magnetic in
its
properties.
substances.
If
into a magnetic
way that
will
phenomenon
of polarity, that
is,
to point.
same
sign;
it
will
m units.
of
is
then
/-fc
If force is
measured
a)
and
pole-
strength in
r are all
/
4.
Field Intensity.
= mm'
3- dynes
The
intensity of a
(2)
magnetic
field
at a
acts
dyne.
the gauss.
field intensity of
5.
about
in a
magnetic
field,
If
it will
is
moved
in general
4
in
vary
length
is
field
drawn
At each
point.
point in the
in such a
If
curves are
now
manner that
one force
The
which a
is
that in
would move.
field is infinite, it is
ized
by a
finite
is
$ =
If
the area
is
AH
field,
it is
AH cos a
(3)
the angle between H and the normal to the plane sec$ =
where a
tion.
is
where dA
field,
f H cos a.dA
(4)
is the field
a differential element of the surface,
and the
and a is the angle between
The total flux across an area is usually
expressed in lines; the International Electrical Congress of 1900
adopted the name maxwell to represent unit flux, but this is seldom
is
used.
bundle of
lines of force
is
The
1,
and the
entire bundle
is
the same, or
fH'cosa'.dA' = fH"cosa".dA"
for
of the
FIG.
1.
Tube
of force.
This fact can be otherwise stated by saying that the flux across
the walls of a tube of force
is
zero.
f
This
is
it
= m dynes
i
is
field intensity at
units
is
a distance of
-^
gausses.
Fio. 2.
magnet
Field
around
intensity
pole.
$ =
The
1
is
the
AH
field will
that point.
the gphere
4?rr
TYl
-3
flux
The quantity
47rm lines
is,
(>or
therefore,
maxwells)
4?r lines.
(5)
electric
damental
1904.)
units.
It
4?r
recurs in
problems.
is
Its
7.
of strengths
777 777
x cm.
Each
will repel
3-
dynes.
Let
this force,
- dx
dV = mm'.
ergs
2
.
dx
FIG.
The
an
3.
entire
amount
of the
infinite distance,
V= Cmm
~^dx
to
(6)
Since no work has been done upon the system by any outside
agency during this process, the work represented by the expres-
sion
itself,
and therefore
energy required to bring one pole from an infinite distance into the
presence of the other, with a separation of r cm. for this is given
;
by
or the
same
as before.
If
m'
171
1,
>
to
move a
unit
pole,
77?
force will be
-^,
9.
dV =
and the
total
work
in going
-s2
ds cos 6
ri*
is
-5
r2
P2
from PI to
2
But
dr
will
mm
be
n-*
(7)
is
the magnetic
7*2
7*1
the magnetic
field
another in the
field is
simply the
differ-
Determination of
FIG. 4.
difference of magnetic potential between two points in a
to
in the
them.
tential
In the case of attracting magnet poles the magnetic pois the work required to move one pole to an in-
energy
distance
gravitational
Faraday
in
E.M.F.
It
was discovered by
is
threaded
strength of the
phenomenon
field
is
altered.
This
duction,
and
number
of different ways.
Thus,
if
the
5.
Conducting
cir-
again, there will be a current flow if the field is steady and the
ring is rotated around a diameter so as alternately to include and
exclude the magnetic flux; and again if the field is steady and
the ring is given a motion of translation parallel to itself from
field
effect of the
e.m.f.
which
the current.
in turn
1
the wire ab
let
produces
For instance,
move
FIG.
G.
to the
of
Development
E.M.F.
represent magnetic
right along the rails SS', Fig. 6, and let H,
There
lines of force at right angles to the plane of the rails.
will result a displacement of electricity along the wire ab, a posi-
at a.
This
difference of
and
of
if
electrical
potential
may
exist inde-
hand
7.
rule.
tion.
10. Direction
If
an
Induced E.M.F.
of
method
is
conven-
itself is
"cut" by
lines
force, as described above, what actually occurs is a displacement of electricity along the conductor in a direction mutually perpendicular
to the direction of the field and to the direction of motion of the conductor.
of
magnetic
While the
is in process of displacement,
constitutes a true current, but currents of this sort are called
displacement currents to distinguish them from the dynamic currents
ordinarily dealt with in direct-current circuits.
Strictly, therefore, the
its
movement
primary
effect of
is
(dynamic) current
if
10
closed
thumb,
is
known
perpendicular to one another, like the three axes of space coordinates, as illustrated in Fig. 7 point the forefinger in the direc;
tion of the lines of force, the thumb in the direction of the motion
of the wire, then the middle finger will point in the direction of
Force
11.
Due
to
The
defi-
was put
a compass needle in
its
neighborhood.
This
fact
into mathematical
df
00
FIG.
8.
dl will
where
<p
is
force acting
on the
then be
df
gent
The
field.
-j / dl sin
(p
dynes
(8)
The
is
by an equal
downward.
1
This relation
is
also
known
force, directed
(8),
-y
the
is
field intensity at
11
Hence
m.
= HI dl sin
= 1, in which
sin
df
perpendicular to
If r is
It
dl,
<p
that
therefore,
follows,
<p
if
case
in
a uniform field of intensity
such a manner that its length is
a force
= Hll dynes
/
If
becomes
= Hll
Equation
<p
(9)
(8) serves to
sin
(10)
<p
Thus,
mldl
-.r
if
m =
1,
sin
Jo
/ becomes the
<p
P
#, at a distance p from a
length carrying 7 abamperes; or
field intensity,
where I
If
is
2ml
dl
= 2mp I
2j
_
:=
27
To^
(H)
the wire
is
of finite length
-Zi
"
Tv
sin
and
<p
m =
=
P
1,
(sin ai -f sin
2)
(12)
12.
(9)
12
one second when the current strength is one abampere. This unit
of quantity is called the abcoulomb.
13. Direction of the Force on a Conducting Wire.
Fleming's
Left-hand Rule. Equation (10) shows that whenever a wire carrying a current lies in a magnetic field there is a force exerted upon
it
amounting to HIl$m<p dynes.
This action is utilized in the electric
motor, which consists essentially of a
number
and
thumb
then the
wire.
It will
trical circuit
when
unit
work
(the erg)
is
expended
in
mov-
by
= EQ
ergs
first
point
work
work,
is
is
done
P =
in a
since Q/t
time
13
O =
= #7
El
(13)
I (Art. 12).
Consider now the circuit of Fig. 11, and let the wire ab of
= ds/dt cm. per
length I cm. move to the right with a velocity v
an
e.m.f.
in
wire
the
will
be
There
second.
of, say, E
generated
14
was
it
tacitly
uniform, and
The
a 2 &2.
0i
and
02
The change
if
this
change occurs in
Hi
~T
S
~
Hl(si
02
t
s)
movement
=
and
His i
01
is
His
is
& average
which
If
E = N
15.
Lenz's Law.
wire ab
is
abvolts
(15a)
field
duces
it.
This
is
known
as Lenz's law.
15
e.m.f.
ment
-N ^
in
abampere.
8
practical unit of e.m.f., called the volt, is taken 10 times
as large as the absolute unit, the abvolt, since the latter is incon-
The
is,
volt.
-N~X
E =
10- 8 volts
(17)
(it
P = El
when
is
P =
(E
10 8 )
(^)
= El X
P = El
watts
17.
of /
of
volts,
law.
= E/R,
E =
such that I
or
results
P = El =
I 2 R watts, or
PR X
W
and
this
Pt
= PRt X
In a
10 7 ergs
resistor.
Since 10 7 ergs
16
= I Rt
p = El =
The heating
equivalent
joules
when
it
(18)
I 2 R watts
readily calculated
is
is
that
is,
force acting on
an element
dl of the coil
is,
by equation
(8),
dF
ing
this
force
into
spectively parallel
ular to, the axis of the
coil, it will
be
sum
coil
which gives
a perpendicular component of
force in one direction, there is a diarise to
FIG, 12.
metrically
on
Field intensity
axis of coil.
ponent.
The
axial
of df
component
CLtL
= Nidi
2
-~^-~:
+x
to
positive
magnet pole
current.
rule:
The
is
COS
a.
Nrldl
7-,2
(r
+ x ^z
)^
r
in the field
Grasp the wire with the right hand, with the thumb
The
in the direction
direction of the
17
Hence
(19)
-f-
At the center
0,
2irNI _2TT_N1
HQ
from which
where x
of the coil,
~10
(20)
it
(abam-
magnet pole
Let Fig. 13
coil of
at the point
is,
field intensity
by equation
JTJ
due to
this
elementary ring
(19),
_
'
and the
ZrNIf*
'-~-
ro
is
then
C^ +D
_dx
~r
x*)*
./-&~(i27T^/
(21)
10
2- D
2+ D
+
of the solenoid,
^
where
v^ +
D =
27TJV/
l2
0, this
becomes
18
which reduces to
(22)
i~o
if I is
large
compared with
r.
JVTur
19
physical interpretation of these facts concerning the variaalong the axis is as follows For some distance on either
decrease.
greater the divergence the more rapidly will
20. Magnetic Potential on the Axis of a Circular Coil.
.been
shown
circular coil, at
on the
It has
axis of a
4>
n\ 3Z
dynes that
would act upon a unit magnet pole
With the curplaced at the point.
urged to the
coil.
left,
To move
or
Magnetic potential on
FIG. 15.
toward the
must be expended
,
T7
dV
Hdx
--
--
/2
(r
of
ergs
work, and the total work required to move the unit pole out to
from a point distant D cm. from the coil is
infinity
V=
**
2<irNIr 2
(
.
2
(r
=
where a
P by
is
the
~j^=
Vr + D=)/
2irNl(l
cos a)
(23)
coil.
V =
If
a>NI
(24)
V m = wmNI
(25)
20
The expression
when
reversed,
an
infinite distance
is
as indicated.
up to the point
If
the current
is
in question.
maxwells
hence
cow
CO
4rr
that passes
represents that part of the total flux due to the pole
or
links
the
turns
of
the
coil.
through,
with,
Therefore,
Vm =
<f,NI
\I ergs
(26)
where X = <pN, the product of the flux and the number of turns
with which it links, is called the number of flux linkages. Or,
in other words, the potential
field
+m
FIG. 16.
Magnetic potential
due to coil of any shape.
and
let
co
tended by
in
Then
and
com maxwells
dco in a
magnitude by
will change by
in
=
and there
will
be induced in the
time
The
dt.
21
m
an
coil
e.m.f.
E = - JV~ abvolts
change of
If this
work done
dV = -EJdt =
and the
tance
total
(GO
/**
= mNI
is
given by
NIdtp
same
abamperes
mN I do) ergs
or the
is
(co
infinite dis-
co') is
'
mta'NI
f'
as equations (25)
and
(26)
<pNI
\I
unit
point
outside
at a
boundary.
None
but
of
therefore
at
is
zero.
magnetic potential
Now
let
the unit
FIG. 17.
27r,
of
The
This
is
unit of m.m.f.
(m.m.f .) of the
22
It
of the nature of
to e.m.f ., which
trical
If
a/orce;it
is
the
coil of Fig.
all
FIG. 18.
But the
of the
N turns
is
= fev7
47rNl
noid
is riot
It is exactly analogous
is likewise not a force, but work
per unit of elecpole.
field intensity at
is
47T
NI
so that
TNI
m.m.f.
axis,
force
However, the
the total
distance
field intensity is
amount
of
^ NI
axis, so
that
of Fig. 18
is
INI =
which states that the m.m.f.
force.
Hdl
(27)
23
The
23. Permeability.
solenoid of Fig. 13 is
field
47T
16
NI
f gausses
and
if the lines of force passed straight through the solenoid paralto the axis, and were uniformly distributed over the area of
cross-section A, the flux across any section would be
lel
(f)
Now
I
let
AH
A
NI
maxwells
~i~A
I
+ m and
and each
Solenoid
FIG. 19.
bar,
4?r
Yt\
_Lu
strengths
will
wound on
induced poles of
iron core.
H.
The
4T
NI
10
"
_2ro_
<Z/2)
_
==
47T
NI
10
is
then
Sm
Z
24
but as
HA
lines of induction, or
$ =
Assuming the
flux
3>
AH +
==
is
ffl+4,r= MH
(29)
where
M
is
4T _
(30)
It
is
the ratio of the flux density in the material to the intensity of the
inducing field, and is therefore a measure of the specific magnetic conductance of the material.
upon the
ratio
-rjf
or
77,
that
is,
Its
magnitude
is
dependent
induced pole to the intensity of the inducing field. The better the
material from a magnetic standpoint, or the more it is susceptible
to magnetization, the greater will be the strength of the induced
*???
field,
-,
is
called the
susceptibility.
is
no known
relation
/z
or
25
In the equation
4-jrNI
tne term
Jn ~y~>
Ampere Turns
5
100
200
300
400
2'0
500
600
700
00
50
40
30
60
100
//mC.G.S.Uaits
FIG. 20.
Magnetization curves.
it is
=
-y-
-^-H
more convenient
= O.SH
to deal with
am-
pere-turns per cm. than with H, for if the value of the former
quantity, corresponding to a given value of B, can be found, the
total excitation (in ampere-turns) is simply the product of ampere turns per cm. and the length of the circuit.
magnetization curves are commonly drawn with
Consequently,
(lines per sq.
26
abscissas.
2.54
If
inch).
The Law
of the
Magnetic Cir-
cuit.
core
of
Fig.
19,
referred to in the
The value of
form, as in Fig. 21.
will then be uniform around the entire
circular axis of the coil,
FIG. 21.
where
flux
is
Ring
the
H=
core.
mean
and
will
$ =
AB
be
TT^JI
will
The
total
of
the
then be
4?r
A r>
NI
or
The numerator
of
equation
solenoid,
netic circuit.
is
of the
cuit, for
the
m.m.f.
the reluctance of the magIt will be noted that the expression for reluctance
is
(31)
is
Equation
(31)
is
of the
form
flux
m.m.f.
reluctance
27
maxwells
3-
oersteds
electric
circuit
current
e.m.f.
^r
resistance
or
amperes
The
volts
r
ohms
25. Applications of
Law
of
is
Magnetic
called permeance.
Circuit.
Magnetic
cir-
trical circuits.
magnetic
is
circuits
indicated.
methods to be employed
1.
may
SERIES CIRCUITS.
flux
through the
UlAi
where
NI
is
V-lA 2
circuit will
by
be
HnA n
the total
circuit as a whole.
28
Rl
+ R% +
Rn
and
E = IR 1+ IR +
2
+IR n
the core
and
mean path
B =
la
0.125
and
2(6
4)
2*
0.125
in.
in air-gap
40,000
From
Y~
where
/*
NI
-T- (where
NI =
0.8BI
all
1,
may
0.3133
NI =
and the
or
air-gap in inches
(32)
0.3133
40,000
1567
3627 ampere-turns.
B = H =
2060
1567
29
In Fig. 226
each of the type illustrated in Fig. 22a,
Just as in the corresponding electrical
are connected in parallel.
circuit the entire battery e.m.f. acts equally on each of the par2.
two magnetic
allel electric
circuit act
circuits,
circuits, so
on each
In the case
of the parallel magnetic circuits.
circuit of Fig. 226, the flux in each part is to be
of the
magnetic
computed as though the other part were not present;
are exactly alike the flux will be the same in each.
if
the parts
hand branch
is
maxwells, the
coil
again
160,000
must supply
It
be 160,000 maxwells,
FIG. 22.
Typical magnetic and
it does not have that
electric circuits.
value because the reluctance of
The problem is
the cast steel is less than that of the cast iron.
then to find that value of flux through the cast-steel circuit which
will require 3627 ampere-turns for its maintenance.
This can be
done by trial, as follows:
Assume a series of values of the total flux, and for each value
circuit will
and indeed
is
in this
may
30
consumed
steel is negligible,
in
3627
0.3133
X B" X
circuit would
3627 + 1635 = 5262 ampere-turns, or considerably
more than the available number. It is then necessary to select a
require
1.
The
conductors in the
2.
The
sum
network
first of
of the currents at
network
algebraic
loop in the
The
sum
algebraic
these
is
is
any junction
of the
zero.
zero.
two laws
is
sum of all the currents entering a junction point is equal to the sum
If this were not so, the
of all the currents leaving that point.
charge of electricity at the junction would steadily change and
its potential would change correspondingly; no effect of this kind
has ever been observed.
In applying the second law it is convenient to make a diagram
of the network and to give to each active e.m.f. (such as that
from a battery or dynamo) an appropriate symbol to indicate
its magnitude and an arrow to indicate the direction in which it
acts; and each conductor is to be given a symbol to indicate the
magnitude of the current flowing in it, and an arrow to indicate
the assumed direction of the current flow. Let it be agreed that
the clockwise direction around any closed loop of the network
be considered to be the positive direction through the circuit (though cases may arise when it might be more convenient
to select the counter-clockwise direction as the positive one).
shall
Then any
is
31
resistor of r
0.1
sist
of lamps,
heaters,
or
_T
oimiiiit 113 y
~y~
.
lts
0.2
ohm
_=.
Ohm-=-[115Volts
I<IG.
23.
.Net-work ot conductors.
Each
|jB|80hros
assumed directions
From
of current flow
diagram,
+
And
115
4(0.5
0.1
6)
0.24
0.1
0.5)
115
0.24
4(8
ia
circuit,
tion
32
to KirchhofTs
first
potential is &R, and the summation of all such drops must then be
equal to the summation of all the active m.m.fs., with due attention to the sign of each term.
27. Self-induction.
When
from zero to any arbitrary value, the flux will increase proportionally from zero, and may be thought of as issuing from the
center of the wire and expanding outward, like spreading ripples
FIG. 24.
(6)
(a)
Lines of force surrounding a conductor.
in the
panding
line of force
is
shown
its
original strength.
induced,
33
self-
is
on a core having
sq. cm., and a
and a change
10
"T
of current di will
4rr
4*Ni
A
To~T"
N_di
where
4ir
N nA
2
TO
r~
from equation
is
(34) that
proportional to the
of turns linked with
34
which
that
is
is,
current of
The
self-inductance
from equation
henry
may
if
Ij
a change of
e.m.f.
(~r.
of
way.
volt.
Thus
(33)
or
L =
in this
equation -p
is
N^ X 10-
(35)
the
number
of lines of force
produced
of turns
which
the
number
and divided by 10 8
of turns with
is
equal to the
The product
coefficient of self-induction.
which
28.
Mutual Induction.
If
two
circuits of
Ni and N%
turns,
respectively, are so placed with respect to each other that the
magnetic field due to a current in one of these links in whole
the
magnitude of
this will
first circuit
produce a flux
3>i
such that
47r
*i
A7
Jgtfrfl
,
= Ci# 1*1
(36)
Mi^-i
= Xi*i =
KiCiNiii
(37)
35
(where K\ ^1) will link with the second circuit of 2 turns, so that
number of linkages with the second circuit is
the total
X 21
and
if
= NWI = K&iNiN&i
is
traversed by a circuit of
V 21 = X,i= Ho
Similarly, the current
i2
(38)
i2
K&NiNMi
in the second
amperes
by
ergs
circuit
will
its
Art. 21,
(39)
produce a
total flux
4?r
10
N*
3>2=r-- =
of
C 2 N zi z
(40)
which a part
<p z
(where
1) will
number
total
3> 2
2i2
Nw
second
(41)
The
is
= KiCtNiN&a
first circuit in
(42)
is
Fi2
X 12
~=
Ho KtC^Niite
ergs
(43)
But Vzi must be equal to V\, sijice the potential energy of the
system can have but one value;
.'.
From
(38)
or
the
it is
number
KiCiNiNs =
C 2N
and from
(44)
due
to
(42)
which represents the number of flux linkages with the first circuit
due to unit current in the second. Hence, from (44), it follows
36
that unit current in one circuit will produce the same number of
linkages in the other, as unit current in the latter will produce
in the former.
When
in circuit
No. 2
is
10
~8
= ~ KiCiNiN
10
From
N^ X
(44), these
10-
= - KtCtNtN,-* X
equations
may
be written
62
= -
~8
will
be
in-
ID-"
di,
and
(45)
where
= KiCiNiNi X
= KtCtNiNt X
10- 8
10~ 8
(46)
the number of flux linkages with one circuit due to unit current
8
This is called the co(the ampere) in the other, divided by 10
is
rate of 1
It
is
circuit
clear
Li
(36)
^^ X 10-
= Ci#i 2 X
10- 8
(47)
10~ 8
- C 2 AV X
10- 8
(48)
^i
L2 =
Hence, from
(40) that
^X
(46), (47)
and
(48)
= KiKsLiLi
(49)
37
K, =
and
M
or the
mutual inductance
of
circuits is a
in a
Energy Stored
self-inductance
induced in
it
the current
of current
is -j-
or circuit of
di
-yr
at
VOUS
amount
i
e)i
in the
of
is,
effect
is
dW =
zero to a value
total
coil
is i
The
an e.m.f.
e
If
Magnetic Field.
= Li
time
-T7
watts
dt is
e}idt
Lidi joules
work required to
from
therefore,
Lidi
j
= ^Li 2
joules
(50)
This energy is not lost, but is stored in the magnetic field, and
may be recovered by allowing the magnetic field to collapse to
38
y%
mv 2
In the case
ra is the mass of the body and v its velocity.
of the electric circuit the current i is the quantity of electricity
that passes a given point in a second, and is analogous to veloc-
where
The
since
it
mechanical system.
therefore, be con-
inductance
M,
there
is
amount
of
energy
equal to
= JLii! 2
+ KL
2t 2
Miiit joules
(51)
is
W
and by
= Ho
(46) this
(43)
tfiCitfitf 2*1*2
= Ho
becomes
= Ho(M X
10 8)*i* a
= Miiia X 10 7
= Mi iiz joules
ergs
= %Liii 2
+ JL
2
2 *2
directions, their
in sign, so that
~ Mitt
(52)
cylinder.
39
magnetization,
is
then
and the
is
total force
F =
27rcm
j
where
is
^p^p =
of the
27r<7(l
magnet
cos
0)
is
(54)
FIG. 26.
or
F =
27TO-
(55)
two bar magnets are placed end to end with a very small
separation, and if the intensities of magnetization of the adjacent
surfaces are + a- and
a, respectively, the attraction of one of
the magnets upon an elementary magnet pole of area dA on the
other will be dF = 2iro- X vdA and the total attraction between
If
F =
From equation
of
units
is
2w(7
dynes
(56)
"77?
(53),
$ =
<r
47rm,
it
follows that a
(56),
2
<J>
BA
2
-8T
= T~X\
whence, from
40
This
is
PROBLEMS
A
circular coil
an angle
of
poles?
6.
amp.
A
is
What
is its
1,
what
is
direction?
a cross-section of 1 in. by 10 in. the bus-bars are spaced 6 in. center to center,
the 10-in. faces being placed in parallel vertical planes. Assuming that
the current may be considered to be concentrated at the center of crosssection, what must be the distance between supporting brackets in order
that the bus-bars may not deflect more than
in.?
6. Solve the preceding problem on the assumption that the current in
each bus-bar flows uniformly along the vertical plane through the central
;
axis.
7.
that
A
lie
acceleration of gravity is 980 cm. per sec. per sec. and the intensity and
What
direction of the earth's magnetic field are as given in Problem 1.
is the difference of potential between the ends of the wire at the end ,of the
third second of
its fall?
concentrated circular
on a horizontal
coil of
when the
a current
is
mounted
maximum
value?
coil of insulated
41
water at the rate of 500 cu. cm. per min. The temperature of the surroundThe
is 30
C., and the initial temperature of the water is 20 C.
current is then adjusted until the temperature of the outflowing water is
constant at 40 C. What is the strength of the current?
10. A rectangular coil 30 cm. by 60 cm. and having a single turn is placed
Parallel
in the magnetic meridian plane with its 60 cm. sides horizontal.
to it, and 40 cm. distant, there is placed a circular coil of one turn having
a radius of 25 cm., the centers of both coils lying on a line perpendicular to
ing air
If
of 10 in.
Haw many ampere-turns are required to produce
a flux of 30,000 maxwells? Compute the permeability and reluctance of
the ring.
14. A magnetic circuit made of sheet steel punchings is built up to the
mean diameter
dimensions of Fig. 22a. The net thickness of the core is only 90 per cent,
of the gross thickness because of scale and air spaces between the punchings.
Find (a) the number of ampere-turns to produce a flux of 320,000 maxwells;
(6)
(c)
(d)
Each
cells,
ditions of charging, one of them h,as an e.m.f. of 50 volts, the second 48 volts
and the third 45 volts. Their internal resistances are, respectively, 0.1,
battery.
What
42
Two
one inside
links with
B; and a current in B produces a flux of which 90 per cent, links with A.
When the two coils are connected in series so that they magnetize in the
same direction the self -inductance is found to be 0.3 henry; when they magnetize in opposite directions the self-inductance is 0.05 henry.
Find (a)
the self-inductance of A and B] (b) the mutual inductance of A and B',
(c) the amount of work required to turn coil B through 180 deg., starting
from the position in which the two coils magnetize in the same direction,
assuming that they are connected in series and are carrying a current of 50
17.
the other.
circular coils,
current in
amp.
18. If the cast-iron ring of Problem 13 is split into two semicircular
what is the pull, in pounds, required to separate the two halves?
parts,
What
is
the magnitude of the pull between the two parts of the ring when
He -> the excitation remaining the same as
CHAPTER
II
THE DYNAMO
Generator and Motor. A dynamo-electric
31. Dynamo,
machine, or a dynamo, may be defined as a machine for the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy, or inversely,
for the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy.
When
first
purpose
it is
called a generator,
and when
it is
called a motor.
when
is
completed through an
On
the other hand, motor action recurrent from some external source is sent through
# =
where
is
Hlv ab volts
is
the seat of
(1)
H is the intensity
of the field
field
and to
its
flow a current
upon
Ohm's law.
own
of,
The conductor
will
F =
HU
dynes
(2)
must be done
at the rate of
Fv
43
Hllv
= El
44
F = Hll
motion of the wire
intensity
and velocity
dynes
results,
there
E =
is
Hlv abvolts
flow there
of the field
must be impressed an
To maintain
e.m.f. of sufficient
work
El =
the current
magnitude
done by
Hlvl = Fv
is
is
machine.
The
THE DYNAMO
45
instant to instant, that is, it may be pulsating; or it may be conIn the former case,
stant in magnitude as well as in direction.
the current is said to be a direct current; in the latter case the cur-
rent
is
The
form
of
It is understood
to pole S.
field that passes across from pole
and S are the extremities of the field structhat the pole pieces
ture, and that the excitation of the magnets is effected by a direct
the
FIG. 27.
Elementary
alternator.
FIG. 28.
Multipolar revolving
field alternator.
r 2 will be negative.
After half a revolube seen that the polarity of the terminals reverses, so
that each terminal is alternately of opposite polarity.
In practice, alternating-current machines usually have more
tive,
tion
it
will
than the two poles shown in Fig. 27; in other words, they are
The winding consists of a number of coils connected
multipolar.
in series in such manner that the e.m.fs. of the individual coils
add together.
an 8-pole
46
revolving field machine with the winding of the stationary armature arranged in eight slots. Fig. 29 is a development of this
particular type of winding as it would appear if the cylindrical
surface of the armature were rolled out into a plane.
With the exception of the homopolar machine described in
FIG. 29.
motors consist
of
conductors
changes
its
is,
FIG. 30.
Elementary
alternator.
FJG. 31.
Alternator armature
in a general position.
tially
THE DYNAMO
of a concentrated coil
having
47
conductors (or
N=
v
on
z turns)
-^
from them passes straight across the air-gap between the pole
shoes and armature core, as indicated by the light horizontal
lines, and that the field in the gap is uniform and of intensity H
Further, let the armature rotate with a speed of n revogausses.
The generated e.m.f. may then be found
lutions per minute.
in either of the following
(a)
The
ways
V =
is
7?
ird
cm. /sec.
(3)
and at any general .instant, when the coil has moved 6. degrees
from the vertical (Fig. 31), the component of velocity perpendicular to the direction of the flux
v
Time
FIG. 32.
The instantaneous
e
and
e.m.f. per
Z
e
But dlH
e
is
sin
71
(4)
Hlv
= V
is
the entire
10- 8
conductor
conductors
TrdlHZ
flux,
7rZ<J>^sin
uU
<l>,
is
then
irdlH -^sinfl
bU
10~ 8
it is
i sin
10~ 8
(5)
10~ 8
27rJV<J>~sin
t)U
10~ 8
(6)
48
The graph
as
is
Emax =
irZ^^Q
10- 8
2irN3>
of this equation
~X
10~ 8
is
(7)
to 6 = IT,
period from 9 =
corresponding to a half revolution of the armature, is found by
dividing the area of one loop of the curve of Fig. 32 by the base;
or
Eaver -
ede
Z3>
10~ 8
sin OdO
10~ 8
j
7?
10- 8
(8)
>
(6)
tn*b flux
coil is
by equation
hence,
= -
(17),
= $
Chap.
N~ X 10~
at
But
-rr is
cos
I,
(9)
= N$sin6>^ X
at
= 2wN3>
sme X
is
10~ 8
is
equal to 2x
hence
1Q- 8
which
(c)
is
conductors cut
2$Z
and
71
2$Z^
Eaver =
lines
2$>Z
per
~X
with equation
second.
10~ 8
The average
= 4N
^Q Q X
10- 8
e.m.f.
which
is
is
therefore
identical
(8).
lent
THE DYNAMO
49
If
soidal.
is
whose
When
maximum
the
coil is
each
coil
edge
FIG. 33.
is
positive
so that
if
one direction and the other half in the opposite direcit is advantageous .to distinguish between
and
induced
e.m.f.
e.m.f., the former being due to the
generated
motion of a conductor across magnetic lines of force, the latter
As a
to a change in the total flux linked with a closed coil.
further instance of the distinction between these two views of
the matter, it will be noted that in the dotted position of the coil
the generated e.m.f. is zero, whereas if the coil were stationary
in this position the induced e.m.f., due to a given change in polar
flux, would be a maximum, since all of the flux through the coil
is then in the same direction.
flux acts in
For
tion.
this reason
50
General Case of the E.M.F. of an Alternator. The discuswas based upon the assumption of a bipolar field
structure, a sinusoidal flux distribution, and a full-pitch armature coil, that is, a coil spanning the arc from center to center of
poles.
Generally, however, there is more than a single pair of
poles, the flux distribution may depart considerably from the
sinusoidal, and the coil spread may be greater or less than the
34.
sion of Art. 32
pole pitch.
having p poles
and
let
FIG. 34.
conductor
HIV X
10-
is
Hlird
6Q
10"
(10)
and the graph of this e.m.f. will then be a curve which is the same
as that showing the flux distribution, except for a change in scale.
The average
e.m.f. per
if"?,
edx
Jo
conductor
is
= - V.>f
d\ Hldx X
Jo
10~ 8
PQQ& X
10- 8
(ID
T
where
<
= C Hldx
I
is
The
last result
might
Jo
<
e.m.f. is
equal to the
THE DYNAMO
51
77
or
p$
conversely,
If
hence
is
the
the armature
is
first
P^QQ
It is
is
pQZX 10-
Eaver =
(12)
FIG. 35.
E.M.F.
ous e.m.fs. of the two sides of the coil will differ in phase, that of
coil-edge a following curve a, Fig. 35, and that of coil-edge b following curve b. The total instantaneous e.m.f. of the coil is
obtained by adding the ordinates of the individual e.m.f. curves.
It is evident from Fig. 35 that the maximum e.m.f. of such a
52
"short-chord" winding
the same
number
is less
MA CHINES
of conductors.
an Alternating E.M.F.
If the terminals
the elementary alternator of Fig.
27 are connected, respectively, to the two insulated segments of a
35. Rectification of
a and
c of
the armature
coil of
commutator
tionary brushes,
as to
make
and negative
The
ively.
as in Fig. 38.
still
17
there are
two
coils,
each having
-^
turns, or
turns in
all.
The
part of the winding inside the ring core plays no part in generating
The windings of Figs. 36
e.m.f., since it cuts no lines of force.
and 38 are therefore electri-
36. Effect
of
Distributed
THE DYNAMO
53
it undergo commutation successively, the pulbecome insignificant when the number of such winding
small sections of
sations will
is
sufficiently large.
FIG. 38.
Elementary
FIG. 39.
Ring winding with
four sections.
ring-
wound armature.
now be
made up
of a pair of
series.
Since
FIG. 40.
generates a
E.M.F. generated
wave
of e.m.f. similar to
in four-coil winding.
that of Fig. 37, but of only one-fourth the amplitude since it has
but one-fourth as many conductors as the coil of Fig. 38. (A
sinusoidal flux distribution
is
assumed.)
Similarly, section
generates a
54
instead of the original two, but the range from minimum to maxiis much reduced.
The average voltage at the brushes will
mum
be
Eaver = $Z
or one-half as great as given
ductors are in
Similarly,
if
10-'
by equation
(13)
(8) since
series.
the entire
conductors are grouped in eight equidistant concentrated sections, connected to an eight-part commutaas in Fig. 41, the winding is
of two halves in parallel,
tor,
made up
series.
Each
of
these
four
A, B, C, D, generates a
wave differing in phase by 45 deg.
from its neighbor, and the maximum e.m.f. of any one section is
sections,
X
FIG. 41.
The resultant
eight sections.
is
10~ 8
and
their
is still less
27T
FIG. 42.
E.M.F. generated
in eight-coil winding.
The
physical explanation of this fact may be traced to the circumstance that the winding section cut out from the armature
circuit during its passage under a brush plays a smaller and
smaller part in its effect
is increased.
sections
upon the
number
of
THE DYNAMO
55
of E.M.F. Pulsations.
Assume a ring winding
peripheral conductors divided into s sections having Z/s turns each, Fig. 41, and assume also that the magnetic
As before, let <i> be the total
field has a sinusoidal distribution.
37.
Magnitude
consisting of
arma-
--
3>Z
sin
10~ 8
E'max sin
-f
es
= # wax
'
e s/2
sin(0
2-
Investigation of Figs.
-- l
4.0
and 42
occurs
when
of
will
minimum
deg.; a
-7
s
pul-
value of
=
s
deg.
E=
ei
+ e + e +.
2
+ es/2 = #'max
sin
it
+
+ sin (0 + -H
o
/
follows that
Emin
E max
r
= 5
sin
\
3>Z
sin
~ cotan S
OLf
'4sin
TT
--
cosec
--
-+.
X
sin(7r
\
o / J
10~ 8
(14)
STT
sin
10- 8
m*(,
TT \
"1
) J
(15)
56
The percentage
of the
minimum
variation from
value,
minimum
to
maximum
in
terms
is
7T
cosec
7T
cotan -
s^
100
cotan 7T
table:
s, is
THE DYNAMO
57
p$
is
X
x
a 60
10 s
(17)
of Fig.
commu-
middle
tial
zero.
ture
of
difference
is
...
FlG : 43.
Brushes displaced
of opposite polarity.
39. Resistance of Armature
Winding.
In an armature having
resistance of
The drop
58
potential through
any one
of the paths, or
ia /a
X Ra /a =
ia ra
volts.
40. Construction of
Dynamos.
The dynamo
consists essen-
THE DYNAMO
circuit is
made up
59
and pole
shoes,
and
and Fig. 46 a totally enclosed motor. The principal structural features of the various parts of the machine, with the exception of the armature winding, are described in the following ar-
type,
ticles.
in
The
Chap.
FIG. 45.
Semi-enclosed motor
FIG. 46.
(Sprague).
41. Bipolar
of simplicity
much
taken up
in detail
on the assumption
seldom used except in machines
number
is
actual
is
III.
from four to a
The
maximum
number
of poles
depends upon
when carrying
Further,
60
when the
FIG. 47.
Construction of commutator.
THE DYNAMO
61
Amber mica
is the same as that of the copper bars.
Commutators
this
used
because
it
meets
requirement.
largely
are sometimes built in such manner that the insulation does not
come quite flush with the surface, thereby obviating the necessity
of selecting the material for a definite rate of wear.
Commutators must be designed to have a sufficient amount of
exposed peripheral surface to radiate the heat caused by brush
rate of
wear
is
friction
and the
missible
1914.
limited
is
43.
The Armature
EDDY CURRENTS.
Core.
The armature
core not only carries the magnetic flux from pole to pole, but revolves through it in exactly the same manner as the conductors of
If
might be thought
very large number of metallic filaments running
parallel to the armature conductors and all connected together;
in such a case each filament would
of as
made up
it
of a
Eddy
solid
current paths in
armature
core.
e.m.f.,
..._,.
if
core
is
tion; in
of
paper
is
inserted at intervals of
an inch or two.
Laminating the core does not completely eliminate eddy currents, but the loss due to them decreases as the
square of the thickness of the sheets; the sheet steel ordinarily
used in armature cores
is
0.014
in. thick.
Armatures
of the
now
THE DYNAMO
63
obsolete disk type, Fig. 49, with active conductors arranged radially, had cores built up of concentric hoops, or, more practically,
of thin strap iron
wound
as a flat spiral.
are generally
blanked out
first
Disk Machine
FIG. 49.
in.
Laminated
Armature
Spirally
and the
slots are
cuts one or
more
slots at a time.
by end
FIG. 50.
One-piece armature
punching.
for the
The spacing
means
in.
of
along
made by
64
to
in.
The spacing pieces should be so
vary in width from
as
to
the
teeth
as
well as the body of the core,
designed
support
in order to prevent vibration and humming.
FIG. 51.
pieces.
current machines.
special machines.
used, except in the case of very small machines, for the reason that
they permit the use of insulated, formed coils that can be readily
Where
FIG. 52.
may
coil
be formed on a winding
must be slipped
jig,
slots.
The
coils are
held in place in open slots either by steel or bronze bandingwires, or by wooden or fiber wedges driven into the recesses at the
tips of the teeth.
The embedding
of the
armature winding
THE DYNAMO
65
double function; the air-gap, or distance from the pole face to the
iron of the armature core, is less than it would be in a smooth-core
construction having the same amount of armature copper, and so
reduces the
amount
produce the
flux;
and the armature conductors are supported by the teeth when subjected to the tangential forces caused by the reaction of the armaWhen the armature conductors
ture current upon the field flux.
in
slots
the
thus
embedded
are
they are apparently shielded from
the inductive effect of the field flux, since the latter in large
measure passes around the slots by way of the teeth. At first
sight, therefore, it seems surprising that the fundamental equation
for the generated e.m.f. is the same for a slotted armature as for a
smooth-core armature. It must be remembered, however, that
tooth in the manner of a stretched elastic thread, until the increasing tension causes it to snap back suddenly to the next tooth.
The
increased velocity of cutting of the lines of force by the conductors exactly compensates for the reduced value of the field
intensity in the slot.
44.
erally
usually have a circular cross-section because this results in minimum length and weight of the copper wire in the field winding.
Laminated poles of course require a rectangular cross-section.
Solid poles are commonly bolted to the yoke.
Laminated poles
in
be
secured
either
a
dovetail
may
place
by
joint or may be cast
into the yoke.
The
body
running as high as
than can be eco-
by means of projecting tips or horns punched integrally with the sheets composing a
laminated pole. The pole faces or shoes are almost always lamitailed to the core in the case of solid poles, or
66
nated, even
when
and heating due to eddy currents set up in the pole faces by the
armature teeth; for, as shown in Fig. 53, the flux passing between
the pole face and armature core tends to tuft opposite the teeth,
and as the teeth move across the pole-face these tufts are drawn
tangentially in the direction of rotation until the increasing
tension along the lines of force causes them to drop back to the
The
ously swaying back and forth, and if the pole face is considered as
built up of thin filaments, as at P in Fig. 53, each of the filaments
will
tufts first in
To
mini-
Tufting of flux at
THE DYNAMO
67
made
the total axial length of the brushes constituting a set is determined by the consideration that there must be a contact area
brush
difficulty in
The
its
the machine
which are
in turn
to,
but insulated
from, the rocker ring, as illustrated in Fig. 54. The brush holders
serve as guides for the brushes, and should allow the brush to
slide freely in order that the brush may follow irregularities in
the commutator surface.
The
will
68
per sq.
in. of
contact area.
is
made through
flexiis
at-
band
FIG. 54.
ring.
47. Motor-generator.
Dynamotor. It is frequently necessary to convert direct current at one voltage into direct current
some other
For this
voltage, higher or lower than the first.
a
As ordinarily constructed, a
purpose
motor-generator is used.
motor-generator set consists of two separate machines, a motor
at
that the voltage of the generator end may be controlled independently of that of the motor end of the outfit. The over-all
efficiency of the set
is
THE DYNAMO
the motor and generator.
The power
69
must
in general
the energy.
Instead of using two separate machines, as in a motor-generator
set, to convert the current from one voltage to another, it is
FIG. 55.
Motor-generator
set.
70
Em =
am
60
Em
10 8
Since the generator winding rotates through the same field as the
motor winding and at the same speed, the generator e.m.f. is
Eg
=
a~
g 60
10 8
or
E
(18)
and
is
practically
free
MB*
FIG. 56.
Turbo-generator
set.
condition.
The high
THE DYNAMO
71
withstand the centrifugal forces and to provide sparkless comThe end-connections of the armature winding are
held in place by metal end-shells in place of the usual banding
mutation.
and the commutator segments are prevented from springby a steel ring or rings shrunk over them. To provide for
satisfactory commutation these machines are provided with
wires,
ing
FIG. 57.
Commutator
of high-speed generator.
Company.
The interpoles,
interpoles must be deferred to a later chapter.
also called auxiliary poles or commutating poles, are small poles
placed midway between the main poles they are wound with coils
through which the armature current, or a fractional part thereof,
is made to flow.
Interpoles are used in machines where sparkless
;
72
commutation would otherwise be difficult or impossible of attainment, as in turbo-generators, variable speed motors, etc.
50. The Unipolar or Homopolar Machine.
In the type of
armature described in the preceding sections, the individual coils
have generated in them alternating e.m.fs. which are then rectified by the commutator; the latter plays much the same part as
the valves of a double-acting reciprocating pump.
In the centrifugal pump, on the other hand, the developed pressure acts
continuously in one direction, thereby obviating the necessity
for the rectifying valves, and the electrical analogue of the centrifugal pump is found in the so-called unipolar, or homopolar, or
In principle, this
acyclic generator, shown in section in Fig. 58.
Load
FIG. 58.
Homopolar or
acyclic generator.
per sq. cm., the axial length of the active part of the cylinder I cm.,
and its peripheral velocity v cm. per second, the generated e.m.f.
will be e = Blv X 10~ 8 volts.
The maximum e.m.f. obtainable
with this type of machine is determined mainly by the consideraB and v may not exceed definite limits; the length I is
likewise limited by such mechanical features as rigidity, freedom
tion that
THE DYNAMO
73
centrif-
ugal pump suggests the idea that, just as high pressures may be
obtained with the latter by using several stages, higher voltages
may
ductors in
is
The
following
types of
Separate excitation
f
Self excitation
Series excitation
Shunt excitation
Compound
J.
winding
is
traversed
excitation
In this type of
B. G.
field excitation
the
74
53. Self-excitation.
The
use
of
electromagnets, separately
excited for the production of
field, was introduced by Wilde in 1862. A
great step in advance was made
in 1867 when Werner Siemens
the magnetic
Diagram
of separately
excited machine.
whole or
ture
current,
part,
field
in
in
compound
excitation.
FIG. 60.
Connections of
series generator.
and N,
winding and the armature, since all these parts of the circuit are
The arrows indicate the direction of the current in the
in series.
THE DYNAMO
75
may
oping more e.m.f. and a still greater current, and so on. This
gradual increase of both e.m.f. and current will continue until
a condition of equilibrium is reached, this being determined
by the degree of saturation of the field magnet and by the resist-
ance of the
circuit, in
"
build
up"
field
terminals are
as described above.
For
magnetism.
critical value,
The
field
winding of
series
76
may
current
follows that r/
must be kept
conclusion that the wire of the field winding must have large
cross-section
55.
field
Fig.
manner.
FIG. 61.
upon the
now depends
of
it is
regulating rheostat
is
precisely the
same
as that of a series
it fails
the series type, develops full terminal voltage at open circuit, that
Supis, when no current is being supplied to the receiver circuit.
pose, now, that the external circuit is closed through a considerable resistance so that a small load current, i, is drawn from the
The armature current, which was originally equal to
generator.
THE DYNAMO
77
i), and the effect of this increased curalone, now becomes .(i
rent through the ohmic resistance of the armature is to cause a
is
machine
power
is
volts, the
loss in the
shunt
winding
be
= -E
be
will
If
2
is r s
Ts
and the
2
t
rs
since
is
fixed
by
field
current
i8 ,
ia
ia
(19)
is
is
obviously
(20)
is
resistances, for the reason that the armature, when running, is the
seat of a counter-generated e.m.f.
The field current is given by
is
ET
Tji
7*8
is i a
ET
Ta
where
Ea
is
Compound
Excitation.
78
load
is
compound windings,
illustrated in
They are
Fig. 62 and diagrammatic ally in Figs. 63a and 636.
combinations of shunt and
series
field
nections
Conwindings.
in accordance
made
which
the
is,
terminal
one
in
e.m.f.
falls
Connections of a compound
FIG. 62.
generator.
()
Diagrammatic scheme
FIG. 63.
stant for
all
machine or
;
Long Shunt
of connections of
compound machines.
rise to
THE DYNAMO
between armature current
rent
ia ,
79
line current
i,
given by
i, is
ia
The terminal
e.m.f.,
is
t,
e.m.f.,
Ea
are related
by the equation
Ea = E +
t
In the long-shunt
is
*>/
tr
(21)
given by
^-^ = il+i*
Ts
(22)
fs
compound-wound generator
these relations
become
= i + is
E a = E + ir,
ia
z>
(23)
(24)
f;
The
er
is
then
80
where
p
specific resistance of
na
= number
C.)
It
A =
of
A =
The mean length
of
winding of from
core
is
rectangular,
()
of a turn,
1 to
lt
.,
circular mils.
will
in.
is
lt,
(26)
If the cross-section
of
the pole
(6)
FIG. 64.
Ventilated field
coils.
eter of the core plus four times the winding depth; if the pole
core is circular, of diameter d c It
ir(d c
winding depth).
,
heat generated in the interior of the core cannot be readily conducted to the surface. As a check on the calculations, it must
be ascertained that the power lost in the coil (t*r/) does not
exceed approximately two-thirds of a watt per sq. in. of exposed
radiating surface.
Shunt coils are usually made of cotton-covered wires, of either
round or rectangular section. Sometimes they are wound on
THE DYNAMO
81
metal frames arranged to slip onto the pole cores sometimes they
wound on removable winding forms, the coils being held in
;
are
between pole core and winding, as shown in Fig. 64. The coils
motors are usually impregnated with
then
taped and varnished. The series coils
insulating compound,
air
of series-wound railway
FIG. 65.
of
coils.
compound and
made
of copper
by distance
pieces
number
is
an integer,
82
FIG. 66.
Diagram of connections of field rheostat.
The terminals
justable contact arm.
are always brought out in such a way
,,
i
i
f
that clockwise
rotation of the regulathandle
increases the resistance in circuit and so throttles the
ing
current in the manner of an ordinary valve.
.
Fig. 67 represents a
made by the
General Electric Company.
field
rheostat
Fi
FIG. 67.
fiS
is
very considera-
amounting to %L a i,
where L s is the induc2
ble,
The inductance
have a value of
several hundred henries.
For instance, if L s = 600
and i s = 4, the energy
may
FIG. 68.
Large
field rheostat.
stored
in
the
field
is
THE DYNAMO
current were
made
83
rate of energy
field
would be
600
4800
volts.
In this case
the arc would be very destructive, and the high induced voltage
would be likely to puncture the insulation of the winding. To
field
manner shown
in Fig. 69.
1
Exciting Circuit
Discharge Eesistance
Field
OOOOOOQO
FIG. 69.
Diagram
system further, that the initial flow of current through the exciting winding have such a direction that it will strengthen the
remanent field. In other words, the polarity of the machine is
determined by that of the remanent magnetism.
For example, consider the conditions existing in the shunt;
84
ing
FIG. 70.
If left-handed
similar role.
The
of
connections
of the
field
71.
Left-
when
between them.
there
is
a definite
in
THE DYNAMO
85
conditions
if
moved;
"
is
a sort of
Flux
FIG. 72.
Diagrammatic sketch
FIG. 73.
tically
constant speed at
Diagrammatic sketch
of series motor.
of series generator.
all
if
as a
motor
will rise in
Chap. VII).
Let Fig. 72 represent diagrammatically a series machine used
as a generator, the shaded half of the armature circle representing
a belt of current flowing into the plane of the paper and the
unshaded half representing current of opposite direction. If
this machine is now connected to mains of the polarity indicated
in Fig. 73, and is operated as a motor, its direction of rotation will
be reversed as may be seen by applying (the left-handed) FlemThis means that a series generator supplying a network fed by other generators may, if overloaded, tend to reverse
its direction of rotation and so buckle the connecting rod of the
ing's rule.
86
To
FIG. 74.
Showing direction
of rotation of
is
work
be affected since both field and armature current reverse simultaneously. The direction of rotation of a shunt motor can be
reversed by reversing the connections of either the armature
winding or the
field
winding separately.
PROBLEMS
A
100 turns is wound on a wooden frame measurrotated at a uniform speed of 1000 r.p.m.
about an axis passing through a diagonal of the square. If the coil is
in a uniform magnetic field of intensity 200 gausses, whose direction is at
right angles to the axis of rotation, what are the maximum and average
values of the generated e.m.f.? What are the positions of the coil with
respect to the direction of the field when the instantaneous e.m.f. has (a)
1.
concentrated
maximum
coil of
The
coil is
its
2.
If
THE DYNAMO
be the average e.m.f.?
Problems 1 and 2.
will
87
unit length of wire in
10 6 lines per
3. The 8-pole alternator of Fig. 28 has a field flux of 4
pole, distributed sinusoidally around the periphery of the stationary armaEach of the 8 slots contains 20 conductors, all conductors being conture.
nected in
series.
If
4. The alternator of Fig. 28 is provided with pole shoes that cover twothirds of the armature surface, and they are so shaped that the flux of
4
10 6 lines per pole crosses the air-gap along uniformly distributed radial
lines.
as in
If
the
Problem
e.m.f.?
to instant.
5. A ring-wound armature like Fig. 41 has 400 conductors distributed
uniformly on its periphery, and rotates in a 4-pole field structure that
6
produces a flux of 1.5 X 10 lines per pole. At what speed must the armature rotate to develop an e.m.f. of 120 volts?
6. If the total amount of wire on the armature of Problem 5 consists
of 500 ft. of No. 16 B. and S. wire, which has a resistance of 4.085
ohms per thousand feet at 75 F., what is the resistance of the armature
measured between brushes?
7. The commutator of a machine which runs at 650 r.p.m. has a diameter
There are four sets of brushes, each set consisting of three carbon
of 18 in.
brushes; each individual brush has a width of 1.5 in. and a contact arc of
0.25 in.
The contact pressure is 1.5 Ib. per sq. in. of brush contact area.
If the coefficient of friction of carbon on copper is 0.3,. what is the brush
friction loss, expressed in watts?
8. A small series- wound generator has a normal rating of 110 volts and
10 amp. and its field winding has a resistance of 1.4 ohms. If the machine is to be used as a separately excited generator, the field current
being supplied from 115- volt mains, how much resistance must be put in
series with the field winding to produce normal field excitation?
9. A 220-volt shunt motor takes a field current of 1.4 amp. and, when
number
CHAPTER
III
ARMATURE WINDINGS
Types of Armatures. Armatures, considered as a whole,
be divided into three classes according to the shape of the
core and the disposition of the winding upon it.
These three
61.
may
classes are:
1.
RING ARMATURES.
2.
DRUM ARMATURES.
3.
DISK ARMATURES.
is
dead wire
thread through the core. The only reason for having any openIn
ing in the core at all is to permit ventilation and cooling.
bipolar machines the end connections run across the flat ends
of the core and join conductors which are nearly diametrically
In multipolar machines they join conductors separated
opposite.
by an
interval
approximate^ equal
connected
88
is
approximately a pole
ARMATURE WINDINGS
The
89
is
"
"
progressively through the winding, a dead-end is finally reached
whereas, in a closed-coil winding, the starting point will finally
be reached after having passed through all, or some sub-multiple,
of the conductors.
as the
such
ton machines. 1
CLOSED-COIL WINDINGS
Ring and Drum Windings.
In designing the armature of a
F^. 75.-Ring wound armature.
generator or motor, the number of
armature conductors is determined by the fundamental equation
63.
Chap.
II).
The problem
is
then so
way
cal
1
Dynamo
Electric Machinery, S. P.
Thompson.
90
In Figs. 75, 76, and 77 .there are shown three distinct types of
a 4-pole machine having twenty-two
active conductors.
Fig. 75 is
77 are
in the
case
of the
FIG. 76.
Drum
armature, lap
winding.
FIG. 77.
Drum
armature, wave
winding.
of
Developedjtap winding.
'
\
An element
Figs. 76 to 79, inclusive.
may be defined as that portion of a winding, which, beginning at
a commutator segment, ends at the next commutator segment
encountered in tracing through the winding. It will be evident
J8.n
^
ARMATURE WINDINGS
an element may consist
more than two active conductors;
at once that
of
91
turn,
i.e.,
for instance, Fig. 80 represents elements of windings similar to those of Figs. 75, 76 and 77,
of
FIG. 79.
machines of large capacity there is, as a rule, only one turn per
element for the purpose of improving commutation. Every
time an element passes through the neutral zone of the magnetic
field the current which it has been carrying must be reversed in
direction; hence its self -inductance must be kept as small as
possible in order that the reversal of the current may not be im-
in
FIG. 80.
minimum,
wave
92
sides of a coil or
-f-
lies
nects to the beginning of the (x -\- l)st element, the latter is not
under the same pole as the beginning of the xih element, but is
the winding (a
2).
in the
}v
3>Zn
a60X10
or,
what amounts
to
the
same
thing,
the
same
e.m.f.
will
be generated with only half the number of conductors required by a ring or lap winding. Furthermore, the diagrams
show that four brushes are required in the cases of the ring and
lap windings, while two will suffice in the case of the wave winding.
use of
wave windings
to as parallel
and
ARMATURE WINDINGS
66.
Number
of
rent in an element
93
Brush Sets Required. Inasmuch as the curmust undergo commutation once for each pas-
element
Since the
number of
number
is
FIG. 81.
Six-pole
of poles, the
it
spans
94
and
a, 6,
of the
commutation
conditions.
two
FIG. 82.
in Fig. 83.
segments
bricated.
Armatures
in parallel.
of the
ring windings.
It will
mutator segments
of the
ARMATURE WINDINGS
95
13
12
FIG. 83.
FIGS. 83
and
FIG. 84.
84.
is
reentrant; triplex,
reentrant, etc.
triply
singly reentrant;
quintuplex, singly
simplicity.
68. General Considerations.
The
Karlsruhe, who published the result of his studies in 1891.
following derivation of the fundamental formulas is based upon
that of Professor Arnold.
96
covering
all
succeeding
is
derived in a
article.
Number
of Conductors, Elements, and Commutator SegWithout regard to the number of turns per element,
ring windings usually have only one active coil edge per element,
while drum windings have as a rule two active coil edges per element. Further, in accordance with the definition of an element,
there must be as many commutator segments, S as there are elements. Consequently, in ring windings the number of commuta69.
ments.
is
drum windings
FIG. 85.
(6)
(a)
coil edges.
but
it
may
ARMATURE WINDINGS
97
Fig. 78
in this
pitch,
or
it
will
way
is
which
5.
2/2, is
be designated by yi, is
7, while the front pitch,
In Fig. 79 both front and back pitches are positive
will
and equal to
5.
Again, in Fig. 78, the beginning and end of each element are
connected to adjacent commutator segments, whose numbers
by unity. Similarly, in Fig. 79, the terminals of the elements are connected to segments which differ numerically by 5.
This numerical difference between the terminal segments of an
differ
Lap windings
Coil or
depending upon whether y\ is numerically greater or less than 7/2In other words, if one faces the armature at the commutator end,
the winding is right-handed if it progresses clockwise from seg-
ment
On
to
segment
of the
winding
The
is
left-handed.
algebraic
sum
of the front
is
a measure
98
of the total
winding.
2y =
while in that of
yi-yz =
wave windings
2y = yi +
yz
2y
(1)
2y
(2)
the factor 2 arising from the circumstance that each element has
two coil sides. In cases where there are more than two coil
2y = ny
3)
or
^
'
is
-*-
~>
&
case
2Sf
y+m
(5)
The
determines whether the winding is right is positive the winding is rightor left-handed; obviously, if
handed, while if it is negative the winding is left-handed.
It has already been noted
72. Number of Armature Paths.
etc.).
sign of
that simplex lap and ring (or parallel) windings always have as
many paths through the armature as there are poles, while simplex
wave windings
(series)
ARMATURE WINDINGS
the
number
It
of poles.
99
exist-
ing between the number of paths and the winding and commutator pitches, since it will have been observed from Figs. 83 and
winding from any arbitrary starting point, say a segment in contact with a negative brush, one complete path will have been
passed over when the successive increments of the field displacement ( m) have brought the total displacement to a value equal
to a pole pitch, S/p.
This may easily be seen by referring to a
simple ring winding like Fig. 75, but it is equally true for lap
and wave windings. In the process of tracing through one path
of commutator segments (not necessarily an integral number), to each
of which there corresponds a displacement m.
The total dis-
placement
is
then
mS' = P
or
o
7
= mp
(6)
Since S' segments have been encountered per path, the total
number
which
is
of paths
must be
= mp
or
m=
(8)
P
73.
has
General Rules.
y=
it
that
-*--
wave windings
2/i
-+ -?y 2 28
(9)
it is
2Sa
-
do)
100
It will
differ
by the
term
beginning, so that /
for lap
Quite generally,
windings.
therefore,
-**--
<>
From this general equation there may be deduced certain convenient rules for determining the order of connections of the coil
edges, thereby fixing the design
OQQQQQQOOO
135
TN
r^
(a)
of the
winding elements.
has been pointed out in a
previous section that the number
It
TN
(6)
of
5
HO
DD
DC
79
coil
edges (nS)
then,
bered,
of
drum
necessarily even.
If,
the coil sides are num-
winding
is
half of
them
will
bear
ODD
ODD
have
commutator
a
another
segment must
path through
edge, the number-
return
coil
outgoing group while the odd numbers will comprise all of the
return group.
This means that even-numbered coil edges will
ARMATURE WINDINGS
>,
101
number
of elements,
yi
y*
CL
= 2y=
2m
from which
must not
y%
differ
2S>
It is
2S
essential that the average pitch
closure
is
As an example
Had
mere
so far as
approximate
not
Z = 22
= m =
of these rules, it
S =
a
-
made
purposely
2y
made
p = 4
y2
yl
may
is
yl
=
2/2
winding would
close,
but
chord winding.
Since m = ~
y, it
it
commutator pitch equals the degree of multiplicity. Thus, in a simplex lap winding the ends of an element are connected to adjacent
segments; in a duplex winding they are separated by one segment, etc.
2. WAVE OR SERIES WINDINGS.
The general formula
P
reduces to y
- for
of this type.
number
for a 6-pole
machine, a =
2,
6,
2S =
32, hence y
32
+ -2
102
5%.
The
5 or
take y
select
5.
2/i
?/2
we must
2S
5,
must approximate
though values
of 7
and 3 would
5J/3,
result in a
The
restriction
of elements in
wave windings
frequently causes the use of "dummy coils." Suppose, for example, it is necessary to design a simplex 4-pole wave winding to
accommodate
slots,
each
slot
being of
manner
of
Fig. 86c.
But
must be an
since y
258 (2S
2S nearest
262
to 260 that
impracticable because the maximum number of coil edges that can be placed in
the slots is 260).
Taking 2S = 258, it follows that there must
will satisfy the
equation
is
is
--
y,
sible:
f
2/i
1 2/2
=
=
65
65
etc.
ARMATURE WINDINGS
103
field
displacement
is
given by
m=
->
commutator segments.
number
of poles.
But
it is
possible to secure
any
2,
S =
77, a
there results y
74.
and p = 6
4,
in the equation y
>
25.
If,
in the
general formula,
P
the two sides of the equation have a
.
p
or y
common
q,
we have
factor
p
is
really
made up
of q
- elements and a
f
104
common
factor
</;
it
will
be singly reentrant
if
y and
are prime
to each other.
yfrom which
factor,
is
also be
if
2 (S
is
2)
even, that
o _j_
2
2S6 . 2JS_
P
the winding
is
reentrant
if
= S
to the
3)
which case y
a multiple of
Hence a
a multiple of
not a multiple of
in
3z,
S must be
triply reentrant.
is
and
is even;
2,
contains 2 as a
is,
even because
2)
~-
follows that
it
S must
2S
(/
3,
triplex
and
3,
hence
wave winding
be singly
it will
3.
cution.
But where
if
the conductors
ARMATURE WINDINGS
105
may
all
FIG. 88.
Partially
FIG. 89.
Samples
of
(lap winding).
winding elements.
all the odd and even numbered coil sides, respecconductors in the top layer must connect to others in the
lower layer, the transition being effected by the peculiar bend in
layers include
tively,
the coil
shown
at B, Fig. 89.
106
a) Lap Wound
Armature
I ) Wave Wound
Armature
end connections
FIG. 90.
Showing direction
FIG. 91.
of
in lap
Z =
62,
S =
31, y
2,
Thus, if the top end-connections, when produced, meet at or near the center of the core, as in Fig. 90a, the
winding is a lap winding; whereas if the top end-connections are
parallel, as in Fig. 906, the winding is a wave winding.
of the armature.
ARMATURE WINDINGS
76.
show
of
Examples
clearly
how
Drum
Windings.
107
FIG. 92.
Z =
64,
8 =
32, y
2,
except for the slight difference in e.m.f. due to the different number of active conductors.
Similar remarks apply to Figs. 93
and
94,
pitches of y
armature
like
parallel-wound
108
resistance as
FIG. 93.
all
circuits,
y*
namely:
Z =
64,
S =
32, y
yi
17.
(1)
the
summation
of all the
ARMATURE WINDINGS
109
equalizing currents of large magnitude, owing to the low resistance of the circuits, so that excessive heating of the winding and
sparking at the brushes may result if preventive measures are not
employed.
The causes
as follows
1.
FIG. 94.
16, yi
doubly reentrant.
= 15.
17, y t
Z =
60,
S =
30,
cause
is
armature
of
circuit
110
all of
upon by
is
free
from
may
differ
even
if
is uniform.
Thus, the
between the poles and the
yoke, or between the pole cores and
the air-gap
joints
rH
2 (TJOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
1
OOOOOOOQOOOQOOOOOOQ 2/
j)OQJ)QQ^!QOOOOOa(!_0(!
3'
2'
ti
Parallel-wound armature
FIG. 95.
the
FIG. 96.
Diagrammatic scheme of
connections of armature of Fig. 95.
field
coils are
3.
choice of
the
connection
it
is
should be ob-
FIG. 97.
ments
FIG. 98.
Equalizer connections
in parallel winding.
brushes short-circuit an unequal number of elements of the component windings (Fig. 97). This kind of asymmetry will give rise
to equalizing currents even if the individually generated e.m.fs.
are equal, because the circuits have slightly different resistances.
The
ARMATURE WINDINGS
extra heating caused
by them.
111
the commutator, resort is had to the use of equipotential connecwhich are low-resistance conductors joining points in the
tions,
winding which, under ideal conditions, would at all times have the
f
Thus, in Fig. 98, the points a, b, c, d, and a', b', c
potential.
d', etc., are always under the influence of corresponding parts of
Should irregularities exist, equalizing current
poles of like sign.
same
FIG. 99.
will flow
extra current
an alternating one. The equipotential connections, occasionally referred to as the equalizing rings, are sometimes placed
between the commutator and the armature core under the end
of course
Thus,
it is
clear
number
of brush
112
The
ing connections.
brushes
and
is
that
all of
cuits.
cir-
re-
PROBLEMS
Maka a drawing
front
and
indicate
3. Make a table showing the order of connections' of the coil edges of th(
winding of Problem 2 if the front pitch is + 11 and the back pitch + 13
4. A 6-pole drum armature has 450 coil edges.
Find all possible lap
and wave windings, up to and including triplex windings, that are possible
give front, back and commutator pitches and degree of reentrancy ii
each case. Assume that each element has two active coil edges.
6. The armature core of a 4-pole 110-volt generator has 63 slots each of>
pitches.
7.
If
CHAPTER
IV
Flux
= $=
m.m.f.
reluctance
Since
E =
it
p
a 60
10 8
follows that
Zn
a 60
m.m.f.
10 8
reluctance
is
curve, or the
If the magnetic circuit
had constant
no-load
characteristic
reluctance,
the
would be a straight
through the
but since the permeability of
the iron of the magnetic circuit falls
off as the flux increases, the flux does
not bear a constant ratio to the m.m.f.;
line
origin,
the result
teristic
is
Field
Ampere-Turns
FIG. 100.
Magnetization
curve of a dynamo.
The dashed lines in Figs. 101 and 102 represent the mean
paths of the flux in typical forms of bipolar and multipolar ma8
113
114
air-gaps,
two pole
is
FIG. 101.
Magnetic circuit
of bipolar machine.
The
FIG. 102.
Magnetic
circuits of a
multipolar machine.
the flux in
number
machine
is
magnetization curve
will largely
determine
its
form
of the
operating charac-
teristics.
measure
fix
it
115
can also be
cal-
of
Since
Zn
p
-
^7rr;~r
a 60
10
m.m.f. -
'
reluctance
kn
,.
turns
(1)
only necessary to run the machine at a constant speed n (driving it with a motor or other suitable prime
mover) and to observe a series of simultaneous pairs of values of
it is
clear that
it is
field
(1)
is
the e.m.f.
current;
therefore,
rectly,
to
Source of Current
.
.,-,..
FIG. 103.
Experimental determmation of magnetization curve.
source, controlled
an ammeter A.
current
is
This
may
nitude to react upon the flux and so affect the generated e.m.f.
To reduce the disturbing effect of these short-circuit currents to
a minimum, it is necessary to cut down the e.m.f. which gives
rise to
116
Chap. VIII.
The form
is
reduced from
to zero.
The
form
of Fig. 104.
difference between the
The
Field Ampere-Turns
is
FIG. 104.
teresis
Effect of hys-
on magnetization
curve.
due to the
of the
two curves
magnetic
the
name given
Part of circuit
number
117
units),
the requisite
is
But
10
j
.'.AT
AT X =
HTT x =
dtx
ata.L
2att.lt
2at a .S
2at s .l s
Q.8H), so that
terms of
and
of
of
at
2at c .l c
at y l y (3)
and
If
AT
flux,
<, as
this value of
the circuit.
<
Having determined
at x is
X)
- =
Bx
p 6n
,
in
60
each part,
10 8
x, of
20,
whence
AT =
the
Sok.Z,
c
circuit,
of the field
118
and in general between all points which have between them a difference of magnetic potential. This "leakage
flux," <p, increases the total flux from $ to
pole to pole,
The ratio
the usual radial multipolar type ranges from about 1.1 to 1.25, the
Since the leak-
age flux must traverse the poles and yokes, the cross-section of
these parts must be sufficiently large to carry it as well as the
useful flux, hence the necessity of keeping down leakage as much
as possible.
The conditions to be satisfied to attain this end are,
compact magnetic
circuit
made up
machine under
all
conditions.
is
not constant
The leakage
flux,
<p,
is
increased.
In general, therefore,
increases
subsequent
section.
it will suffice
in a
to state that
This introduces
a difficulty in a new design because the flux densities, etc., cannot
be determined until the dimensions have been decided upon, and
the dimensions are themselves dependent upon << and, conseIt is therefore necessary in such a case to
quently, also upon v.
is
assume a value
of
Calculation
of
119
Curve.
Magnetization
The
great
permeability of iron as compared with air is responsible for the
fact that the reluctance of the air-gap often constitutes from 70 to
The
air-
gap
is,
angle subtended
(a)
X 100
2~7
by the
is
g called
pole-pitch
is
The angle
subtended
2-jr
the quantity
If
the flux
FIG. 105.
Fringing flux at
pole tips.
Bg
FIG. 106.
Spread of flux at
flanks of pole shoes.
AT
and
is
from
mean
b to b
gap
is
then
B a
b'l'
(6)
120
and since
in air
B = H
follows that
it
AT =
0.8B g 5
all
(7)
the inch
If
is
taken as the
unit of length,
AT =
g
0.8
(2%^" X
= 0.3133B
2.54)
fl
"5"
(8)
Similarly,
/'
may
be taken as
V =
_l
5)
25
25
(9)
(10)
Ag =
(11)
where A' g is the area of the pole shoe and A" g is the area on the
armature core threaded by the flux. Obviously
A' g
bl.
(12)
and
/
Ck
(13)
(b)
Slotted Armatures.
complicated by
J,
Bg
is
the teeth
Fig. 107.
by way
face
game
is
in
by assuming a contraction
121
The problem
gap
To
is further complicated by the fact that the airfrequently not of uniform length over the entire pole face.
improve commutation it is common to chamfer the pole tips,
is
Fig. 108a, or to
(a)
FIG. 108.
polar space, as
shown by the
shoes.
component of flux
armature
on
the
The
periphery.
density at corresponding points
ripples at the crest of the curve are caused by the slots and teeth.
Similarly, there is a fringing field at the ends of the core, as
in Fig. 110, and if ventilating ducts are provided, there
will be dips in the curve of axial flux distribution corresponding
shown
FIG. 109.
FIGS. 109
and
110.
FIG. 110.
field
intensity.
I,
/,
at the flanks
effects
is
tend to
It
W.
122
and where
and
from
5 to d
f
,
where
123
ratio
clearance
The
is equivalent to an increase
but this effect is generally offset by the increased
1
gap space at the tips. Arnold has given a method for computing the increased length of pole due to fringing, but it is generally unnecessary to introduce such refined calculations.
The reluctance due to the ven84. Corrected Axial Length.
tilating ducts may be considered as reducing the axial length I to
in the
value of
6,
:
-
'
l '>
-~t~
The length
-r-
l'\
can
by the dotted
an additional length,
l' z
(T
l'i
Pole Shoe
hH
rp
FIG. 114.
FIG. 113.
FIGS. 113
and
The value
114.
of
1' 2
may be
flux.
estimated as follows:
is
(17)
J'
I,
p. 274,
2nd
ed.
is
124
end the
x
entire
and x =
limits
r,
b'dx
P =
2,
-b', log e
TTX
-f-
is
of force of length 5
and cross-section
made
to be
6 +
-
?rr
TT
hence
2j
and
ZY =
For values
from
of r
1.56logi
to 5 times
(l
6,
+y)
/' 2
(18)
Generally
sufficiently accurate to take /' 2 = 1.56.
b' and I', the corrected value of flux
found
Having
density in
the air-gap is
it is
$
B =
VV
and therefore
AT =
g
if
Q.8B
metric units are used (flux density in lines per sq. cm. and airin centimeters), or
gap
AT =
g
if
B" g 8"
0.3133
(B"
and air-gap
in
inches (6").
85. Ampere-turns Required for the Teeth.
The same difference of magnetic potential that maintains the flux through the
teeth also produces a certain amount of flux through the slots,
since the
two paths
are in parallel.
When
many machines the iron of the teeth is purposely worked at high flux density in order to limit the effect
of armature reaction (see Chap. V), and in such cases the permeance
125
t,
t.
and
slots,
lation
Therefore
$ = $,- + ^ air
$ iron- = M- X cross-section of iron =
f
$a
cross-section of air
-.
-.
(19)
__
u,K
(ZO)
ir
where
/x
is
cross-section of iron
where k
is
n v b v )k
b t (l
(21)
cross-section of air
From
bs l
and
equations (21)
given set of dimensions.
b t .n v b v
(22)
n v b v )(l
b t (l
may
k)
(22)
be determined for a
It follows that
Qiron
$ir on
3>air
$> ^ron
_t*K
= #J
x^v
of
it is
possible to
t ,
as
determined by
test, for
commercial sheet
steel.
t,
The remaining
126
Thus
K=
QR is
the value of
0.5.
of determining
150
M
140
K=
Magnetizat on Ciir
a 130
120
110
100
200
100
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
FIG. 116.
t,
B,
we have
R'
B>
provided
is
R
Bt
'
H
(24)
127
in
OM
of
K,
-r
OM
QR
intercept
fore,
will
PR = OS =
Bf
That
value of
B't,
is,
tan a, and
equal
H
A
if
OR
drawn
is
corresponding to
parallel to
= OQ.
MN the
There-
B' since PQ
for a given
t
lay off
OS on
the
in
MN
a point P.
Ordinate PQ is
then the actual tooth density
(B
t)
and
OQ is
the correspond-
ing value of H.
Since B and
same
plotted to the
are never
scale,
and
If
is
FIG.
117.
Graphical
to the scale of
in-
duction.
be-
relation
ON
to
am-
-77^
IU.DO
K, where
A = number
of ampere-turns per
of hori-
zontal axis
^4r
IU D
o
3.19
to the scale of
-DO
K, where
A' Q
= number
zontal axis
128
= number
B'Q
axis.
FIG.
118.
Variae xci tation
along tooth axis.
ti
on
of
in general result.
Evidently the true value
of at t is the mean ordinate of the curve;
'
is
parabolic, the
+ 4a< + at,
2
whence
AT =
t
86.
clear
(at t ) mean -l t
(26)
for
Ampere-turns Required
from Figs. 101 and 102 that the iron
of the core
It is
below the
roots of the teeth carries half of the useful flux per pole.
Therefore,
*--2z:
If
ofr
Aa =
To
nv bv )
Ba
ATa =
87.
Ampere-turns Required
The
ata
for
la
the
(27)
(28)
the value of
of ata
kh(l
is h,
value
(29)
Shoes.
flux carried
from section to
by the
shunted
129
off;
is
B =
c
V*&
V *&
and
-jAC
B =^~
"
(30)
and
at s
respectively; hence
AT =
C
at e 'l c
and
AT =
S
at a -ls
(31)
Then, usually,
(32)
y
and
AT =
y
89.
The
(33)
aty-ly
The leakage
Coefficient of Dispersion.
flux
<p
that
and originating
all
the armature.
If the leakage paths are correctly
out, the stray flux in each of them is equal to the m.m.f.
divided by the reluctance. The calculation can be simplified,
and a fair degree of accuracy attained, by assigning simple
through
mapped
all of
by the same
the armature, or
it is
equivalent to
AT + 2AT + 2AT
a
ampere-turns;
(34)
130
then points on adjacent pole cores that are each half way between the yoke and the shoe will have between them a difference
of
^X ampere-
turns.
Let Fig. 119 represent a development of a portion of a multiThe leakage flux in any one pole P is represented
polar machine.
the
dashed
lines
2
<^i,
by
etc., and the total leakage flux per
(f>
pole
is
<p
fyi
+
\r
4<p 2
==
+
=
2^3
4^4
(35)
(r~=-~=
-~:
^\\
)\
131
<p^.
f
-f- (lengths expressed in centimeters)
1U Z Is
or
(38).
= 1.6X -y-^
<ps
the pole cores are round, of diameter d c they may be asto have been replaced by a square pole of equal crossIn that case
section.
If
sumed
bc
= ~ \/^ =
lc
0.89d c
(39)
_47T
te
hc
-I
[\^)max
\^)max
(I'SJmin
(I'sjmax
-,
('s/mt'n
_ O
<ps
o.
OV
"V^max
vc ' vc
I
|_
(I
)max
(40)
1 "j
(Is) min
(41)
I*
The
coefficient of dispersion is
f
l+_
1
then
(42)
132
If
<
the coefficient
j-
more or
is
less variable.
on
PROBLEMS
The shunt-field winding of a 10-pole machine has 550 turns per pole
6
produces a flux of 9 X lT) lines per pole when the exciting current ia
Find the inductance of the shunt circuit and the energy stored
18 amp.
in the magnetic field produced by a skunt-field current of
18 amp.
1.
arid
Assume that
ARMATURE
;
(of
sheet steel)
Width
Depth
of slot
of slot
(cast steel)
Diameter
of pole cores
Radial length of core
(cast steel)
in.
in.
6%
in.
150
0. 56
1 80
in.
0.375
in.
in.
YOKE
in.
12
AIR-GAP (clearance)
POLE CORES
46
0.7
12
in.
13 in.
Radial depth
Axial width
in.
15 5 in.
.
ARMATURE WINDING:
Type
Total number of conductors
Simplex lap
900
6
450
COMMUTATOR:
Diameter
3.
Compute
Problem
2.
35 in.
the coefficient of dispersion of the machine specified in
CHAPTER V
ARMATURE REACTION
90.
the current in the armature conductors gives rise to an independent excitation which alters both the magnitude and dis-
This
tribution of the flux produced by the field winding alone.
magnetizing action of the armature is called armature reaction.
If,
is
much
less
134
fields
shown separately
equally well for the cases of generator and motor action. It will
be observed that in the case of the generator the field is strengthf
ened at the trailing tips, A and A and weakened at the leading tips,
,
is
FIG. 120.
netic field,
Distribution of mag-
armature currentless.
FIG. 121.
Magnetic field due
to armature current, field magnets not excited.
position a'b''; the effect is the same as though the flux had been
twisted or skewed in the direction of rotation in the case of the
generator,
As a
and
motor.
(assumed
to be
still
may
1
NOTE. It is not exactly true that the resultant field is made up of the
What actually happens
separate fields of Figs. 120 and 121 as components.
is that the windings of the field structure and of the armature each produce a
definite m.m.f., and that these m.m.fs. then combine to form a resultant
The composition of the
m.m.f., which in turn produces the resultant flux.
separate fields would give correct results only if the flux were at all points
proportional to the m.m.f., and this condition is, of course, not satisfied
in the presence of iron cores, especially if the iron is worked at a flux
(See
98.)
ARMATURE REACTION
135
under the brush, will cause sparking and perhaps blistering of the
commutator. Furthermore, the machine will not develop its full
e.m.f.; for of the Z/2 conductors in series, say on the lefthand side of the armature of Fig. 122, those between b and
b
will generate an e.m.f. opposite in sign to that of the e.m.f.
due to conductors between b and a. Both of these effects are
f
Indicates Current
FIG. 122.
objectionable, the former because it reduces the life of the commutator and lowers the efficiency, the latter because it unneces-
the armature
axis.
The net result is that the resultant field tends to skew more
and more as the brushes are moved toward the neutral axis.
Fortunately, however, the piling up of the flux in the pole
tips A and A' ultimately results in their saturation, so that
further skewing becomes insignificant
even pass the neutral.
axis
may
examine the
commutation
somewhat
more in
phenomena occurring during
91.
Commutation.
136
detail than has yet been done, in order to settle in a general way
the conditions that must be satisfied by the brush position.
Fig.
123 represents three elements, a, b and c, of a ring winding operat-
the initial to the final value in exactly the time required for the
element to pass under the brush, during which time the element
FIG.
123.
FIG. 124.
Ideal variation of
current in coil undergoing com-
Reversal of
during
armature current
commutation.
is
short-circuited in the
mutation.
manner
diagrammatically in Fig.
of coil
124, where
b.
This
and
is
represented
are, respect-
Now, the
commuta-
tion tends to keep the current at its original value and in the original direction, and in order to counteract this tendency, the
same
must be the
ARMATURE REACTION
The
137
position of the axis of commutation, with respect to the neushown in Fig. 125 for both generator and motor. It is
tral axis, is
is
When
motor,
it is
Components
of the
l<--y
|
/
'
Generator
/^Brush Axis
Brush Axis
FIG. 125.
Axis of commutation
and motors.
in generators
FIG. 126.
Components
of
armature M.M.F.
OA
magnetomotive force
may
138
the
field,
that
is,
Similarly
izing.
the demagnetizing component becomes magnetif the brushes of a motor are given a forward
commutation unfavorably, the armature reaction might be purposely exaggerated to such an extent as to self-excite the fields.
This feature is taken advantage of in the Rosenberg type of genlighting (see Chap. XI), but in general it
requires special auxiliary devices to take care of the commutation
difficulties.
93.
Tho
ponents
OA,
is
proceeding;
com-
qualitative rather
But it leads
than quantitative.
those between
CB, and those between
namely,
127.
Cross-magnetizing
and demagnetizing belts of con-
AD
CA
conductors,
and
and
when
indicated
constitute a
maining conductors, grouped in vertical pairs, constitute the demagnetizing turns, since their effect is in direct opposition to the
main exciting winding. It follows, therefore, that in a bipolar
machine the demagnetizing turns per pair of poles are equal to the
number of armature conductors within the double angle of lead,
2a; and the demagnetizing (or back) ampere-turns per pair of
poles,
AT
d,
conductor.
360
360
ARMATURE REACTION
139
AT =
C
360
by
(2)
720
where
'
180
2a
Cross-magnetizing and Demagnetizing Effect in MultiIn the foregoing discussion of the case of bipolar machines, a ring-wound armature was tacitly assumed.
94.
polar Machines.
FIG. -128.
Reduction
of
by
fractional
windings are generally so shaped that the brushes are opposite the
middle of the poles when the sides of the coil undergoing commutation are in the geometrical neutral.
An extension of the principles developed for the case of the bipolar machine leads to the generalization that all of the conductors lying within the double angle of lead have a demagnetizing
140
effect
upon the
field,
=
=
Z =
ra =
p
4
4
80
1
15 and y 2 =
13.
On tracing through the winding
a
of
which
is
shown in Fig. 128, it will be
portion
diagram,
found that the current in the interpolar region is alternately in
Take
y\
opposite directions.
FIG. 129.
in multipolar
machine.
ARMATURE REACTION
The
belts
number
total
of
141
is
~- 2a.p
and, therefore, the
pair of poles
number
is
AT
i'
/2
'
?p
"
360
it
'
p/2
(3)
180a
ft
subtended
them
is
negligible; attention
n
r?
may,
The m.m.f.
is
upon a path C
whose reluctance is mainly due to the
double air-gap and two sets of teeth;
the teeth consume a m.m.f. equal to
and
gilberts,
n (2A T
1
J.V/
will
this acts
gilberts,
Cross field in
multipolar machine.
FIG. 130.
^
J-V/
0-7.
l_OO\y
"
2A L
Tn oTfri a
10L360
I
where
5'
is
'equal to the
The
- 2A T
CL
BD
\
c)
at the
\
(
(4)
7777
slots.
leading
.
.,.
trailing
)
\
\,
I
/D
(B g
is
pole
h
tip of a
*
[generator)
\
motor
142
and
+B
(Eg
at the
c)
trailing
,
,.
leading
pole
*
tip of a
f
\
[
generator
e
1
\
motor
Now,
Bg
it
follows that
an
<B
Generally,
c,
(1.26 to 2)
,
s
S
1.6
from which
B,
the clearance, 5, has been fixed, the formula gives an idea of the
extent of chamfer to be given to the pole tips.
The above formula also leads to a relation which serves as an
Thus, neglect-
t ,
(1.25 to 2)
~^=
1.65,3'
= 2ATg
(6)
or
(7)
Now,
/?
360\i/
- where
^, the ratio of pole arc to pole pitch,
is
is
the
total
number
of
from
(8)
The factor
ordinarily
1.1 is
it will
in practice;
ARMATURE REACTION
143
ATd
=yo7r^
due to the fact that the coils in the neutral zone carry currents
which are not all in the same direction.
In the first place, it will be evident that if the winding were of
2S
coil sides lying to
same
current in the
the
direction (vertically
FIG. 131.
left of
upward
would carry
in the figure).
In the second place, however short the chording may be, the current in the coil sides immediately to the right 1 of, and including,
AZ will all be in the same direction, or downward in the figure.
It follows, therefore, that the reversed currents all lie in a zone
to the left of A 2 the extent ot this zone depending upon the differ,
by the brushes.
If coil
edge
versed current
is
is
numbered
(y\ -f 1),
number corresponding
2S
the
first coil
the second
is
(yi
edge carrying
3),
etc.
re-
The
be-~-'=yi
1
This
is
>
<
144
Summarizing these
+
+
+
+
+
2/i
yi
T/i
?/i
2/i
results,
5
(2k
/2
1)
\
Si
(~
2/1)
25
2n-l=
2/1
or
Since the current in each of these n coil edges balances the demagnetizing effect of the current in n bundles whose direction is
^a
ATd
Bi(nce
less
2/1+1) ampere-turns
(10)
turns,
will
be
puted value by
Zb
It
(
tt
may
cause some of
fall
But such
and, therefore vitiate the above correction.
extreme chording would not be used in practice, hence the correction may be safely used.
It should be noted, further, that
neither the formula for A Td nor for the correction due to chording
takes account of the number of coil edges in the neutral zone which
are short-circuited by the brushes during commutation.
If 2/1 is the back pitch of the
(6) Wave Windings.
(Fig. 132).
lead,
2/2 is
_ 2/i_+J/2
_ 2S
+a
p
would
result in
ARMATURE REACTION
either side of coil sides like AI,
A2
145
which are
Fig. 132,
in contact
Due
which
reversed current
is
(y t
1),
the second
is
(yi
3),
carries
If
etc.
there are n such conductors, the number of the nth conductor will
All of these conductors bear even numbers,
be yi
1).
(2n
~n
since y\
is
necessarily odd.
Now,
2/S
(coil sides)
but which
number
may
in the
wave winding.
Fractional pitch
FIG. 132.
is
the
a
-,
be taken as equal to y.
1, whence
group is y
y
2/1
(2n
number
of conductors
is
1)
or
(11)
if
is
even,
2n
(2n
T/
y *~~
(12)
is
is
odd,
(13)
96.
Shape
of
10
side.
146
distributed around the periphery in a series of alternately directed bands or belts, equal in number to the number of poles.
is
This
is
of the
broken
line.
The m.m.f.
it is
Rotation
FIG. 133.
them.
If
be at
ing the reluctance of the flux paths in the iron in comparison with
those in the air).
The number
of conductors
rr
is
-^ 2x where d
Calculation of armature
FIG. 134.
ture.
is
amperes,
2x where q
= Z
i
,
is
the
flux.
number
ia
P is^ r a
10 *d
~~
'
2#
of ampere-conductors
The
is
147
then
(14)
xq_
0.85
it will
FIG. 135.
97.
a, 6,
in
is
(a)
(6)
(c)
tip,
field is clearly
F means
shown.
148
and
it is
FIG. 136.
In
98. Demagnetizing Component of Cross Magnetization.
the preceding article the shape of the resultant field R was determined on the theory that it may be considered as made up of two
components: one, a field produced by the m.m.f. of the field winding acting alone; the other, a field produced by the armature m.m.f.
As a matter of fact, this theory is not strictly
acting alone.
correct, as the following illustrative analogy will
show:
ARMATURE REACTION
149
Imagine a rod of cast iron acted upon simultaneously by compressive and tensile stresses, and suppose that these stresses are
If we assume that the stresses act independently in
equal.
deforming the rod, the elongation due to the tension would considerably exceed the shortening due to the compression, provided
the tensile stress is beyond the elastic limit; on this basis there
would be a resultant elongation. But it is quite clear from the
assumed equality of the stresses that the resultant stress and,
therefore, the resultant deformation are both zero, hence the
absurdity of the first method.
In the case of the magnetic circuit, m.m.f. is analogous to
Hence we must conclude that
stress, and flux to deformation.
the only correct procedure is first to combine the several m.m.fs.
form a
single resultant,
distribution
flux
though
not
this effect is
very
usually
is
it
pronounced,
nevertheless appreciable.
99.
OM
of Poles
Let
curve
Excitation Required
of Fig.
OE
FIG. 137.
Excitation required
of a generator,
The
and
let
150
compensate
in order to
The ohmic
(a)
of the current
The demagnetizing
(b)
effect of the
turns.
(c)
the
of
armature cross
ampere-turns.
If
(a)
same
as at
no load, the
is
to remain the
where
ra
(AT),.
(b)
If
FIG. 138.
of
Comparison of paths
main and cross field.
to
corresponding
e.m.f. of
an open-circuit
volts.
has been shown that the cross field is due to the con(c)
ductors lying under a pole, and that the path of the cross field is
The number of cross
as shown by the line marked C, Fig. 138.
It
R7
is
o^--
'
the main excitation at pole tip A, the other half reinforcing it. at
These two excitations act on different magnetic paths, C and
B.
F, but
it will
ARMATURE
REDACTION
151
body.)
@Z
360'fl
ampere-turns at each
number
of
tip.
ampere-turns is to be
on either side of
d'
may
the
excitation
must
creased to (AT) 3
on the curve
be
in-
the point
b'
FIG. 139,
area f'd'e'g'
area 6
9 9'
conditions.
OM
f'(AT) 2
is
area a'b'd'
(15)
area/cfegr
The
The curve
(R Fig.
t
produced a flux distribution as represented by curve A the ordinates of which were taken to be proportional to the m.m.f.
,
152
let
C be
show the
distribution of flux
under the pole due to the armature cross magnetization for the
reason that curve abc relates to that part of the magnetic circuit
acted upon by the cross-turns. The straight part of curve A,
Fig. 136a, should then be replaced by a curve similar in shape
to abc of Fig. 140 (see curve A', Fig. 136a).
Ampere Turns
per
Pair of Poles
FIG. 140.
Determination of flux distribution due to armature m.m.f.
100. Experimental
FIG. 141.
Determination
of
Double
Flux
pilot brush.
Distribution.
Since the instantaneous e.m.f. generated in an armature conductor is proportional to the radial component of the flux
binding.
The
free
ARMATURE REACTION
153
thickness
lap or a simplex
pitch;
respectively; in general,
once per revolution with the insulated stud. If the moving coil
of the voltmeter has sufficient inertia and is well damped, it will
give a steady reading proportional to the e.m.f. generated in the
search coil at the instant
is
established between
the brush and the rotating stud. If the brush is made capable
of adjustment around the arc of a circle concentric with the shaft,
the contact can be
made
to occur
coil is in
any
154
e\, e z , e 3 , etc.,
coils.
It is evident,
4-6,
will
is
FIG. 142.
FIG. 143.
Determination
of potential curve.
of the dotted
ARMATURE REACTION
number
of elements.
is
155
coil
i
FIG. 144.
The change
is
F, Fig. 136),
W.
XV,
p. 515;
Vol.
XVI,
p.
Thompson, "Dynamo
W.
(1909).
B. G.
XXX,
XXXI,
and 1019
156
of the
lines of force in
Distribution of
FIG. 145.
it is
main
field.
manner
one
trial is
is
will
Curve of
FIG. 146.
flux distribution.
Under the
have a permeance
b x /8 x
surface will be
Br =
If
B g is taken as
m.m.f.
bx
ax
8
6X
d
"
6
$xX
ax
(16)
from
ARMATURE REACTION
the scaled values of
d x , bx
157
results
when
FIG. 147.
Magnetic
lines of force
curve, F.
The area
FIG. 148.
lines of force
and
Ox
if
is plotted, as curve
of Fig. 148, and the ordinates
are multiplied by the corresponding ordinates of the
curve of armature m.m.f. (M.M.F.), the resultant values will give
of
permeance
of
curve
158
the curve of armature flux (A). The field due to the armature
m.m.f. has greatest influence in the axis of commutation, shown
at B in the figure; in the paper by Lamme (loc. tit.) it is
recommended that the mean path of the flux issuing from the
axis of commutation be taken as the arc of a circle extending
to the middle point of the pole core, and intersecting the
surfaces of armature
at right angles.
PROBLEMS
The machine specified
commutator segments.
1.
six
in
Problem
2,
delivering 600
when
amp. ?
Compute the
sufficient to give an average air-gap density of 50,000 lines per sq. in.
Under the conditions assumed in Problem 2, what additional field excitation is necessary to compensate the demagnetizing component of cross-
tion
is
3.
magnetizing action?
4. The armature resistance of the machine specified in Problem
2,
Chap.
pilot
10.67 volts.
CHAPTER
VI
Requirements.
or other
translating devices supplied with electrical energy from a distribution circuit may be connected to the supply mains in parallel,
in series, or in series-parallel, as
149a,
b,
and
shown diagrammatically
in Fig.
c.
is
(6)
'oOOOO
FIG. 149.
(O
Parallel, series
and
series-parallel circuits.
and
rail.
system
is
current.
If
160
as in
A common
example
of series-parallel connection is
found
any considerable power limits the use of series circuits to outdoor service. Thus, if 125 arc lamps, each consuming approximately 50 volts, are connected in series, the total voltage consumed by the lamps will be 6250 volts; adding to this the voltage
consumed in overcoming the resistance of the line, the e.m.f.
required at the generator will be of the order of 7000 to 8000 volts,
or much too high for safety in indoor service.
Although the parallel system of distribution is ordinarily
called the constant-potential system, it will be readily apparent
of
may
161
of the
the
investigate
characteristic
behavior
of
is
istic of
tage at
full
difference
difference
is
In order to
make
this
full-load voltage,
1
The new
(or
and multiplied by
100. 1
162
full-load current.
The speed
regu-
E =
E =
t
ra
generated e.m.f.
terminal voltage
resistance
of
contacts
=
R =
=
=
=
n/
n =
if
current taken
by load
No-load Conditions.
being driven at
its
Under no-load
Chap. IV
(see
Fig.
100).
a
it
FIG. 150.
follows that
60
if
<S>
v^rmied
10 8
kept con-
is
if
is
constant),
f
will
to
hp
the
directly proportional
then, E, ifj and n are plotted along three axes of
coordinates, there will result a surface of the kind illustrated in
Sections of the surface cut by planes parallel to the
Fig. 150.
speed.
If,
(E,n) plane are straight lines whose slope increases as the distance of the section from the (E, n) reference plane increases
163
FIG. 151.
Separate
excitation,
vary as the external load resistance R is varied, and the terminal voltage E will be less than the generated e.m.f. E by ira
volts, the latter being consumed in the internal resistance of the
will
armature.
That
is,
In this expression
ra
E = Et
ira
(1)
contact surface between commutator and brushes is approximately constant, and is of the order of 2 volts with ordinary grades
of carbon brushes, provided the current per sq. in. of contact area does not exceed 45
sq. cm.).
amperes
(or 5 to 7
amperes per
164
In the case of copper brushes, which are used only with lowvoltage machines, the contact drop is of the order of 0.04 volt
with current densities ranging from 65 to 160 amperes per sq. in.
(10 to 25 amperes per sq. cm.).
Strictly, therefore,
E = Et
where
is
ra
'
is
ira
&e
(2)
In what follows
FIG. 152.
on open
On
circuit
(i
0,
R =
<).
the terminal voltage drops below its no-load value; (1) because
the demagnetizing action of the armature reduces the useful
<f>,
and therefore
165
drop
in the
AH
HD
de-
tan
to the scale of the figure.
to the scale of volts, and if
KP
<p
The
AS
is
ra
intercept
AS
will
deducted from
OK
into account,
if
P P is
Speed of Rotation on the External CharacterFor a given value of the excitation and, therefore, of the
107. Effect of
istic.
166
flux,
O'M
of Fig. 152
Po
FIG. 153.
is
Now
load characteristic or magnetization curve, OM, Fig. 154.
circuit
external
suppose that the resistance R (Fig. 151) of the
varied, and that the field excitation is so adjusted that the curThe
I.
rent is maintained at its normal full-load value, i
is
167
AB =
require an excitation
tions the generated e.m.f.
GK =
An
ordinate through
v(AT) d
lies
DF
Since
and
GK = FP
DP,
ad Characteristic
as
shaded triangles.
This construction
strictly accurate, for
the
excitation
creasing
is
not
with in-
de-
component of
cross-magnetization becomes
magnetizing
rn
r,
eld
c G
~o
FlG 154.
-
teristic,
Amp-Turns
should increase in magnitude as the curve rises. Further, remembering that the
cient of dispersion, v, is itself not constant, but that
coeffiit
in-
increase in FP.
109.
The Armature
Characteristic.
It is evident
from
Fig.
to
OC
to
OK
168
The curve
in order to maintain a terminal voltage equal to OA.
showing the relation between field excitation (as ordinate) and
load current (as abscissa), under the condition of constant terminal voltage is commonly called the armature characteristic
"
regulation curve."
(Fig. 155) though a better name would be
vm/mwm
Load Current
Armature characteristic
FIG. 155.
or regulation curve.
110. Characteristic
FIG. 156.
Connections of series
generator, determination
ternal characteristic.
of
ex-
External
Characteristic.
Let
E =
E =
t
=
=
ra
generated e.m.f.
terminal voltage
current in the circuit
resistance of armature winding, including brushes
=
=
n/
R =
=
77
speed in r.p.m.
(i)
circuit
and therefore
Curve
II
is
the
internally generated
This follows beoausfi,, ir
E = E
e.m.f.
169
(4)
II
The remainder,
Repeating
PG
A'
FIG. 157.
External characteristic of
series generator.
and
of
DP,
will
to point.
current,
i,
But
since
their ratio,
remain constant.
This
the machine. 1
The demagnetizing
is given by
effect
AF
= OA
''
aZi
180a
1
"
nf
This
Vol.
I.
is
170
A'B
at an angle
tan" 1
to B'A' until
it
curve
M in D
f
,
P'.
FIG. 158.
magnetization curves for various values of speed laid off along the
speed axis n. Corresponding to each magnetization curve there
will be an external characteristic constructed as in Fig. 157, and
the locus of all such external characteristics will be a surface indicated
by the heavy
lines, as
OAoP.
The
intersection of this
surface with the base (n, i) plane is a curve OA which shows the
relation between speed and current when the machine is short,
circuited
(E =
t
0).
171
initial
and
final
is
in a
evidence of instability.
The reason for this behavior will be evident from a consideration of Fig. 159, in which the curve represents the external characteristic of the generator.
It
is
Et
external circuit, or
E =
iR
This
the
is
equation
line
straight
through
being
R\
of
to
OR 2 OR
,
the
the line
proportional
Thus, ORi,
correspond to
of
3,
R.
etc.,
successively
smaller values of R, and these
external circuit.
values of
and
their intersection.
When R = R 2
the line
OR%
coincides
characteristic,
P" 2
at points P 3 and
4
respectively.
113. Regulation for Constant Current.
,
series
generator will
172
become nearly
vertical, in
in-
160.
series
Diagram
showing connections of
constant current gener-
as in Fig. 160.
It is clear that a portion
of the exciting current is then by-passed
ator.
shown
in Fig.
in a simple
161.
OM
Let
manner
be the magneti-
winding
ampere-turns), and
rent
of
(instead
OA
let
machine
that the
to
is
in
required
develop;
other words, the external
characteristic
vertical line
is
AY.
to be the
Lay
off
AB to
FIG. 161.
BC
of the series field winding, and to the same scale lay off
equal to any arbitrarily selected value of the resistance (r) of
be variable.
AB
will
Vertically
upward from
set off
AD =
BC
irf
DN
constant, also
off
AG = OA =
The
173
total current,
i,
will divide
between
r/
and
r in
set
such a man-
ner that
ir
in
(5)
and
TJ-
Hence,
if
C and G
parallel to
that
AH
winding.
by a
BH
is drawn
straight line and
= i into two parts, such
will divide
AG
HG = i
Joining G and 0, and drawing HK
OK will be the current through the series-field
= v ^7.
or the equivalent deSetting off KL
parallel to
are joined
CG, point
(6)
ITS
ir
and
r/
GO,
LM
MP
is
--
-\
),
the
fore,
P is
MN.
point
parallel to
found by joining
Finally, therefore,
and
AQ
is
and drawing
FP
Other
points
of a series generator can also be controlled by varying the position of the brushes, thereby changing angle a and affecting the
in Fig. 161.
length
KL
114. Characteristics of
E =
E =
t
ia
i
is
ra
Let
Conditions.
=
=
=
=
generated e.m.f.
terminal voltage
armature current
external or line current
shunt-field current
armature resistance
Open-circuit
174
re
R =
of poles
When the load or receiver circuit of a shunt generator is disconnected, as in Fig. 162, the armature and shunt field constitute
a simple series circuit identical with that of Fig. 156. It is therefore easily seen that variation of the shunt-field rheostat will give
rise to changes in
and i a in the manner already discussed in the
There
FIG. 162.
is,
Determination of external
characteristic.
that the high resistance of the shunt-field winding will limit the
flow of current (i a ) to values that are small compared with the
current carrying capacity of the armature, therefore the observed
readings of E t under the conditions assumed will not differ appreciably from E, the total generated e.m.f.
nal circuit open
E = E +
t
since both
and
2> a
= E
(7)
ra are small.
means
Since
i8
-p
,
fa
the value of
r a will
The External
Characteristic.
The form
175
current
line
From
Fig. 162
evident that
it is
E = E +
'
iara
(8)
(9)
i.
(10)
The
relation
open
circuit
.-,
<),
(R
let
so adjusted that the excitation is represented by OF the generated e.m.f. then being F QL] this will then be nearly equal to the
,
line, its
4 =
slope being
Tls^s
sponds to the
lines
J
,
that
is,
proportional to r s
it
corre-
fl>s
ORi, ORz,
Now
let
armature winding,
i.e.,
from equation
.'*, =
voltage
since
is
'
-,>.
(12)
(8)
-p
--
rs
of.
hence,
flow-
I.
176
GV,
line
CVP
then
OF
= E - E
CG would represent to scale the value of ia ra But since armature reaction does exist, the net excitation is less than OF by
.
aZi n
--
F F D
FIG. 163.
is
is
E = BD
ia r a
= E - E = BD t
HD
BH
tan V
constant.
and
BH = BH
r<ij
~^n
LtL
ru
ar
aiia
180a
180ar
-T~~
vaL
ON
CB
draw
KP
111
that
tan 6
to the scale of the figure.
ra
KV
*> _
tan0
hence P is a point on a curve whose ordinates are terminal voltage (Et) and whose abscissas are total armature current (ia ).
Corresponding values of line current (i) can then be found by
this can be done graphically by drawing the line
an angle ^ such that tan ^ = rs to the scale of the figure;
subtracting
OP
at
for it
is
is
0_F*,
tan $
Hence AP = E and XP =
t
rs
this condition of
consumed
in
It might be
driving the current through the armature resistance.
inferred from these facts that a shunt generator can be shortcircuited without danger, but this is not the case .except in very
small machines; for the critical point at which the line current
begins to decrease is generally far beyond the current-carrying
capacity of the armature, and the winding will burn out before
the current has had time to decrease to a safe value.
115.
Speed.
Dependence
of
The diagram
the
Form
of Fig. 163
dition that both the speed and the resistance of the shunt circuit
remain constant. A change in speed (r s remaining the same)
12
178
will alter the form of^the characteristic, and the new relations
between E ia and n can be most easily shown by a three-dimendonal diagram such as Fig. 164. In this figure the surf ace OOi M,
t,
drawn
is
shown
in
the
diagram.
If the shunt field resistance has a constant value, the locus
of the field resistance lines (ON) will be plane OOiJV, and the
intersection of this plane with the magnetization surface OO^M
FIG. 164.
will
be a curve OL'L.
will give
(E n) plane
between terminal voltage and speed when the generator is operatIf there were no residual magnetism, curve
ing on open circuit.
OL'L would not pass through the origin, but would intersect
the speed axis in a point Z\ that is, if there were no residual
magnetism, the machine would fail to build up for any speed
below a critical speed, OZ.
t,
of
179
V o
FIG. 165.
upon external
Characteristics.
t,
E =
(13)
where a and
a and b will make this hyperbola agree very well with the actual
magnetization curve within the working range of the machine,
but it cannot be made to follow the irregularities in the actual
curve at low magnetizations, and it does not take account of
residual magnetism.
180
am
E=
E
whence
anE
+E
E =
brs
(14)
t
FIG. 166.
is
small
E =
an
-
brs
an
ira
"
br8
ira
an
br s
)a
(Vira
ir ar,l
ira
- Vbr
s)
[an
- (Vira + Vbr
2
s)
(15)
This
is
t,
surface
is
E
which
is
shown
an
br s
in the figure as
ira
(16)
ABC.
If in
tuted
first of
these
substi-
br s and E = 0;
(17)
two equations represents open-circuit conditions,
E =
the
is
181
an
FIG. 167.
fail
to build
up
if
residual
mag-
the condition n
t
Inserting in the general equation for
constant, there will result the equation of the external characterIt is obvious
istic corresponding to the chosen value of speed.
that there are two values of the current
(i)
which
will
reduce the
the other
(Vo^ +
is
is
ABC
of current
Shunt Connection.
Curve
The drop
of the
Compound Generator.
in terminal voltage
Long
between no-load
182
and
full-load inherent in a
partially or wholly, or
is
the
line.
(Fig. 168)
may
FIG. 168.
manner
Let
as follows:
ON
line, its
=
J(n.i.);
equation being
(18)
the intersection of this line with the magnetization curve deterL whose ordinate is (very nearly) the terminal
mines a point
Assuming that we are dealing with an overcompounded machine, let F&i = AP be the terminal voltage
voltage at no-load.
_-
= demagnetizing ampere-turns
183
is FG.
The
between FG and FiGi, or GH, must, therefore, be the
the armature and series field, or i a (r a + r/). Summariz-
drop in
ing,
GH =
M
FIG. 169.
(ra
compound
generator.
GGiG 2
are
is
ing to
parallel to
T,
sects ordinate
is
a point
184
If it is
desired to
show the
ia .
To
this
relation
i,
line
\f/
PX
and
OA'j respectively.
It will be observed that this method presupposes a knowledge
The
of the coordinates of at least one point on the characteristic.
chief value of the construction lies in the clearness with which it
shape).
If
when the
is,
the point
L is so
figure
LGiG approaches
triangular
placed that
it is
nearly horizontal.
If it is desired to
make
is
is
full
It
generator, like that of an over-compounded genetcannot be exactly a straight line because of the curvature of
the magnetization curve.
Short-shunt Connection.
In this case the current through the
series winding is i = ia
is hence the construction of Fig. 169 is
not strictly applicable. But at or near full-load the difference
between i and i a will be relatively small, especially in large
compounded
ator,
185
number
sufficient
of turns to
compounding that
of
the series
winding and
The
its
divide between
resistances.
When
120. Connection of Generators for Combined Output.
the load on a circuit exceeds the capacity of a single generator, one
or more additional units must be connected to supply the excess.
Thus, in a constant-current system in which the voltage varies
must be connected in series when the voltage limits of the machine or machines already in service have been reached.
Similarly, in constant potential systems, additional generators must be put in
parallel with those already in service when the safe currentcarrying capacity of the latter has been reached.
The series system, in which series121. The Thury System. 1
wound generators, regulated to give constant current, are connected in series, has thus far found no application in the United
States, save in those now obsolete plants in which constant-current motors were supplied from high voltage arc circuits.
But in
been
this
has
to
a
state
of
Europe
system
developed
high
perfection through the work of M. Thury, who has installed a number of
most
of
them
in Switzerland,
The load
which
186
alternators) for the supply of current at the receiving or disIn other words, the system is generally
tributing end of the line.
The individual
distinguished from merely local distribution.
generators are grouped in pairs, each pair being driven by a water
wheel (or other prime mover). In plants now operating, the
maximum
is
about 3600
volts,
though
it is
voltage
use
in
at
the
contemplates
the
use of a
The
the
FIG. 170.
system
Diagram of .connections,
Thury system.
starting
generators
is
generator
and stopping
in
the
of
Thury
Each
very simple.
equipped with an
is
with the
line.
To
the prime
all of
LXI,
p. 294, 1913.
187
accordingly
rise;
reverse
when
it
^T
/
g<
Equalizer
s eric
,
becomes a motor,
buckle.
FIG. 171.
Series generators in
nected in parallel
being no inherent
the load between
a consequence of
its load,
Shunt Generators.
drops
if
shows that
of
if
rise.
the external
such a machine
Consequently
188
tage of the
The
first
FIG. 172.
Shunt generators
parallel.
in
in
Fig.
173,
curve
(a)
shown
repre-
condition to be satisfied
r"
is
and machine
that
OA = OB
(b)
at
such
OA
per
The
per cent.
loads, therefore it
OB
all
is
189
This is a
with the same equalizer connection shown in Fig. 171.
consequence of the rising characteristic. But if the machines have
drooping characteristics, that is, if they are under-compounded,
the equalizer is not necessary.
174.
It
is
clear that
if
livered
for
the
FIG. 174.
generators in
Compound
parallel.
other lightly loaded machines and at the same time the ammeter of the loaded machine would read low while that of the
other machines would
For this
read high.
reason
the
individual
lead
the
that
is,
in the
connects
armature
on
to
the
to
the
opposite
connection.
equalizing
For the same reason, if
single-pole circuit-breakside
lead as the
FIG. 175.
tions,
them should
suffer a
ammeters;
full-load
momentary drop
cur-
in speed,
its
circuit-breaker also.
190
of
two compound
generators are shown in Fig. 175. The main switch and the equalizer switch are usually combined in a triple-pole switch.
must obviously be
Neglect of this
generator
grounded
supplying
circuit.
in this case it is
is
191
breaker (E) must be put in the lead to the grounded bus, as shown
For if circuit-breaker B were not present and the
in Fig. 176.
armature winding were to become grounded to the core, the shortcircuit current through the armature and series field would hold
up the excitation and maintain the short-circuit without the possibility of protection by circuit-breaker A.
123. Three-wire Generators.
Economy in the use of copper
and power dictates the selecand moderate current, rather than low voltage and large current; but in incandescent lighting, lamps designed for 110 to 115 volts are more efficient than those operating
in distributing circuits for lighting
<o
192
FIG. 178.
When
set.
system employing a balancer set becomes unbalanced, the voltage on the more lightly loaded side tends to be higher than on the
more heavily loaded side; in this case, the machine on the side
having the lighter load operates as a motor and drives the other as
a generator; the latter then supplies current for the excess load on
its side of the system, and thus automatically tends to balance the
system. With perfect balance of load both machines of the balancer set operate as motors running without load.
Outside Wire
Neutral Wire
Outside Wire
FIG. 179.
Systems
of the kind
shown
coil
mounted
in Figs. 177
inside
armature
core-
to the
objection that they involve the use of more than one piece of
running machinery and so require extra attendance and mainfirst cost and lower in
same capacity. These
overcome by a system originally devised by Do-
193
is,
C and D,
180 elec-
Y
I
FIG. 180.
slots.
of potential
by an
traversed
on which the
coil is
wound.
The middle
point
FIG. 181.
coils
midway between the potenmidway between the potenthe potentials of C and D are
tials of
13
and B, respectively.
194
tap brought out from the point E may then be used as the neua three-wire system. In machines of this kind built
by the General Electric Company, the coil CD is wound on a core
tral wire of
that
is
mounted
FIG. 182.
a single slip-ring
The Burke
Electric
Equalizcrs
\ / ^
^^Series
Field
FIG. 183.
Diagram
of connections of
compound
three-wire generators in
parallel.
tor,
and
C",
D' are 90
electrical
zero,
and
balance
this
is
is,
vice versa.
195
generator
is
regulated either
shunt
field circuit or
of voltage
this device
may
makes
when the
field rheostat.
regulator
is
shown
196
The
magnet.
latter is
wound with a
may
and a current
potential
coil.
The operation
If the generator
of the regulator is as follows:
the
coil
of the main
the
current
potential
voltage falls,
through
control magnet is weakened and the spring closes the main con-
tacts.
FIG. 184.
Diagram
magnet which is then demagnetized and the spring closes the reAs the
lay contacts, thereby short-circuiting the field rheostat.
voltage rises the armature of the main control magnet is again
is
may
The
sating shunt with which the current coil is in parallel.
condenser shown in the figure is for the purpose of reducing
sparking at the relay contacts. A perspective view of a simple
regulator built
Fig. 185.
by the General
Electric
Company
is
shown
in
197
FIG.
185.
serving to short-circuit sections of the field rheostat of one generator, the others performing a like function for the other machines.
In the case of very large machines, it is advisable to use sepaand to connect the regulators so that they act
upon the exciter fields. Of course, in such a case the main control
rate excitation
line
198
PROBLEMS
A
~~
The armature has a simplex lap winding of -800 conductors, each element
having one turn, and the angle of brush lead is 15 deg. The armature (hot)
The shunt field winding has 550 turns per pole
resistance is 0.0033 ohm.
and a (hot) resistance of 10.5 ohms. The coefficient of dispersion is 1.16.
If the field winding is separately excited from 220-volt mains, how much
resistance must be put in series with the field winding to develop an opencircuit voltage of 250 volts at 225 r.p.m.?
2. The machine of Problem 1 is operated as a separately excited generator
at 200 r.p.m. and with a field excitation sufficient to develop an open-circuit
What will be the terminal voltage when it is delivering
voltage of 240 volts.
1000 amp.? Solve analytically and graphically.
3. The separately excited generator of Problem 1 is run at a speed of
200 r.p.m. Find the field current required to produce a terminal voltage
of 240 volts when the armature current is (a) zero, (6) 800 amp., (c) 1600
amp. Plot a curve showing the relation between field current and armature
current, the terminal voltage having a constant value of 240 volts.
4. A series generator has a resistance of 0.2 ohm, and the armature demagnetizing turns per pole at full-load amount to 6 per cent, of the field turns
The open-circuit characteristic may be expressed by Froelich's
per pole.
by A and B,
CHAPTER
VII
MOTORS
In the industrial application of
125. Service Requirements.
the motor drive, there are three principal classes of service, characterized by constant speed, adjustable speed, and variable speed.
large
number
and when so
of values
set will
lative
characteristics
their
compound-wound motor;
make them especially suitable for that
is
speed
class of service in
which
it
which
will
armature which
is
field
the
motion
is
whose direction
is
200
dependent upon a proper space relation between the field flux and
the armature current. If, for instance, the brushes are so set that
the axis of the armature current coincides with the axis of
field
FIG. 186.
e.m.f.
in
e.m.f.
to the
E =E
arc
(1)
where
p
a 60
10*
In the series and long-shunt compound motor, there is an addidrop due to the resistance of the series field winding, hence
tional
E = Ea +
t
r/)
E = Ea +
t
ia (ra
ia r a
irf
(2)
relation
is
(3)
MOTORS
201
In general
E =
t
E,
ia r'
^^ +
=
I
iS
(4)
or
E - i a r'
~*Z^t
(5)
where
r'
resistance of armature
and
circuits in series
therewith
and
a 60
10 8
E - Ea
t
(7)
r'
an equation which
is
of
Multiplying equation
(4)
by
ia ,
there results
E ia = E a ia +
t
za
(8)
i a r'
is
amount
losses.
If
/.
or
P =
total
T =
torque in dyne-centimeters
mechanical power,
armature
p = E a ia = 2ir~T
T =
E a ia =
The above
watts
Z'$i a
in watts,
-r-
developed in the
10 7
(9)
(10)
inches, respectively,
202
AO
in7
60
2;r
1Q
980
453.6
la
30.48
Q.$75Z'&i a kg-m.
7.05Z'<H a
(11)
lb-ft.
of speed.
127. The Starting of
Motors.
If
a mo tor
is
called
upon
to start
a heavy load from rest, the starting torque may be as large as, or
even larger than, the full-load running torque. If the flux at
starting has its normal full-load value, the starting current, by
equation (11), will then have to be equal to, or perhaps somewhat
when
at the
the armature
moment of
is
stationary,
starting
ia
it is
clear
from equation
Et
(7)
that
normal
rf)
small running resistance of the armature circuit (r a or r a
must be increased during the starting period by the insertion of
0.5
220
0.5
^7j-
The
ohms
is
somewhat
is
torque.
Fig. 187a
of the start-
ing rheostat in the .case of a series motor, and Fig. 1876 those of
a shunt motor. It should be carefully noted that in Fig. 1876
the rheostat
is
field
MOTORS
203
full line
(a) Series
FIG. 187.
(<?)
Shunt Incorrect
thereby reducing the flux and also the torque, and, if the
motor is unloaded, causing the speed to rise dangerously high.
If an ordinary rheostat of the kind illustrated in Fig. 187 were
used in commercial installations, there would be danger of burn-
start,
FIG. 188.
Diagram of connections of starting rheostat
having no-voltage and over
load release.
FIG. 189.
Motor
starting rheostat
ing out the armature if, after an interruption of the service and
the consequent stopping of the motor, the voltage should again
line; for in
full line
voltage
204
of the ariria
It is seen
small
It follows
n
that were
E t
corl-
ia ra
~7
it
in other words, that the temperature of the armature is maintained at its normal running value. The separately excited
motor with constant excitation is, therefore, inherently selfBoth equation (5) and Fig. 190
regulating as regards speed.
indicate that
if ia
0,
n =
-^7.
Actually,
if ia
When
the motor
is
0,
there
is
no
"running free"
MOTORS
205
that
unloaded), there
is,
;he
point
The speed n =
in the figure.
pi
;here
It is
t
)y varying either 3> or
?an be raised by reducing
may
or both of them.
or
t
)y increasing
However,
she possible range of speed due
to the adjustment of the excita-
ion
S-r.
is
are
to
limits
because
the
field
gives little or
Variation
of
no trouble so far
commutation
if
FIG.
190.
^0?^
Approximate
f
speed
separately excited
concerned, provided the flux is originally adnormal value unless, indeed, E t is raised to
.bo great an extent.
The fact that the field excitation and the
armature impressed e.m.f. are independently variable in the
separately excited motor gives to this type its chief advantage.
is
usted to about
is
its
be designed magnetically more powerful than the armaan otherwise identical machine intended for use as a
therefore
;Ure of
generator.
relation
n/if )
to the left of 0)
206
representing values of <J>Z'. Select any convenient scale of armature current along OA, and a scale to represent the impressed
voltage along 0V. Assume that the field excitation is constant
t.
FIG. 191.
EC
Draw
a straight line
so that tan <p
through the point
to the scale of the figure; then for any value of i a} such as
between
and
will
OA, the intercept on the ordinate at
ra
be
is
BC =
ia ra
= ohmic
EB
EC
The back
e.m.f.
then
Ea = E - iara = AB - BC = AC
Similarly, draw OD making an angle with OA, such that tan
t
dju
V-IQK ;
loUft
then when
ia
= OA,
AD =
CiZ
PtoA~&
loUtt
demagnetizing
n =
OE
OL
MOTORS
207
E t
laTg
OM
~~
OL
S>Z'
In this
of
ia
way
and the
itself
tion, as follows:
Select
parallel to
L and
on the $Z'
OE ~
_ ON
n ~
Similarly, join
OL
axis,
OQ
OM
OL
ON
_
:=
OQ
ON
ON
and
are respectively
it follows that
be
and
made
to
n
and
equal to the speed by
may
proportional
n,
across to P, the latter
a suitable choice of scale. Projecting
Since
OQ is
constant,
T =
T = 7.05FG.OA =
when
ia
= OA.
This
may
OA
7.05 OL.
OA
be written
constant
208
draw LR, and then draw OP perpendicular to LR (using the semicircle on OR as a construction line) until it intersects the ordinate
through
By construction
AP = OL ~ PL
in the point P.
OA
OR
constant
line
of
ia
FIG. 192.
is
all
values
Shunt Motor.
SPEED AND TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS. A plain shunt motor
operated on constant potential mains, and having fixed field,
resistance, differs in no way from a separately excited machine
with constant impressed e.m.f. and constant excitation. The
129. Characteristics of the
determination of
its
ceding
article.
MOTORS
209
chief point of difference between the shunt and the sepamotor is that in the former the field excitation
excited
rately
and the impressed e.m.f. are not independently variable, as in
The
The
the latter.
less in
Speed Characteristic.
speed
for the
<
ia
decreases,
3>
and
AC
will
where n f
AD
is
the
Also,
number
draw
of
OD
field
so that tan
turns
per
pair
of poles; then
will be the demagnetizing effect expressed in
equivalent amperes instead of in ampere-turns per pair of poles.
When the armature current is ia = OA, the field excitation (in
14
210
HK
ig (r +
E t
is
$Z
r/)
OL.
~
AC
HK
OM
~~
OL
FIG. 193.
==
OM
OL
OQ is
constant, and
~ ON
OQ
ON
hence
is proportional to the speed.
upon the
Projecting
ordinate at A, the resulting point P is a point on the speed-current
curve.
Since
FH = AD =
OH = OF - FH = L - L
tan 6
and
OT-f
tan
\f/
= .j =
tan Q
constant
MOTORS
211
any other current, as ia = OA', it is only necessary to draw A'H' parallel to AH in the process of locating P
As before, the torque is
(b) The Torque Characteristic.
it
T =
when
ia
7.05
&Zi a =
7.05
pound-feet
= OA.
OR =
APT
OA
whence
OL.OA
AP T
is
OP
OL
OR
PT
is
a point
parabolic curves.
Lines such as OP T can readily be drawn perpendicular to
as a diameter and drawing
by constructing a semicircle on
LR
OR
a line through
discussed
LR
rately excited, shunt and series motors refer to the total developed torque, as given by equation (11). The actual torque
at the pulley that would be measured by a brake test is less than
the total torque by an amount which corresponds to the torque
The
required to overcome internal friction and iron losses.
curve of useful torque may be obtained from that of total torque
by subtracting from the ordinates of the latter the "lost torque";
the useful torque passes through zero value
ciable value (see Fig. 209).
131. Characteristics of the
when
ia
has an appre-
If
as a generator, then,
212
is
is
simi-
netizing effect.
;(
jlfiM^n
Generator
FIG. 194.
pound machine.
(b)
(I)
Differential
The only
Compounding.
between this case and the one discussed
difference
is
tan v
now
that
ra
rf
and
aZ
assuming that the resistance of the shunt field winding is constant.
The construction has been carried out in Fig. 195, from which
appears that if n/ is sufficiently large, the speed rises with
It is clear that there is a particular value of
increasing load.
for which the speed will be the same at full load as at no load,
it
is
also
MOTORS
FIG. 195.
O'
FIG. 196.
213
\A i
214
(II)
Cumulative Compounding
Here,
tan
(p
ra
r/
and
OD
OA
instead of below
it;
now
speed
curve
is
when
full
load
is
FIG. 197.
On
e.m.f.
MOTORS
The current
215
and with
it
the generator,
it
is
is
motor
M%
moment
will build
of inertia of its
the process of picking up speed; moreover, the greater the excitation, the less will be the speed to produce a given back e.m.f.
Finally, therefore, it will be seen that the reversals of Mz will be
and as
it
The current
zero,
and then the battery discharges through the generator, tendmake it run backward as a motor.
ing to
reason that in most cases the slightly drooping speed characterthe plain shunt motor meets the requirements of constant
istic of
216
up
in the
wrong
rheostat to the
direction
first
inductance of that
rotation.
ter e.m.f.
rent flow and the torque; the acquired momentum of the armature
cause
shunt winding, and so bring about another reversal of roThis process may go on indefinitely unless the design
constants of the machine are such that the successive impulses
are damped out, that is, do not synchronize with the natural
period of oscillation of the armature.
A similar state of affairs may arise in the case of shunt motors
provided with interpoles if the brushes are not properly placed.
Normally the axis of commutation coincides with the axis of the
interpoles, but if the brushes are accidentally shifted backward,
of the
tation.
MOTORS
217
istics of
a differentially
wound motor.
E t
ia r'
reveals the fact that there are three principal methods for regulating the speed, namely, rheostatic control, by varying the resistance
voltage control,
r', which includes the armature resistance r a
',
by varying the impressed voltage E and field control by varying $. A fourth method occasionally used involves changing Z'
by using an armature having two windings and two commutators which may be connected either in series or in parallel.
t ]
of the
armature
is
\\\
Baluucer,
Armatures Mechanically
Connected
FIG. 199.
218
field
field flux
Supply
FIG. 200.
of speed control.
changed by
an ordinary
distributing circuits.
MOTORS
electrically controlled rudders, the
be used.
The motor
219
is
to be regulated,
is separately excited from the main supply lines and its armature
is supplied from an auxiliary generator G, the latter being driven
which takes its power
at constant speed by a shunt motor
from the line; instead of driving the generator G by a motor, any
The field of the generaother form of prime mover may be used.
tor is excited from the constant voltage supply line, and may be
adjusted from zero to a maximum, in either direction, by means of
FIG. 201.
way
it is
possible to obtain a
motor-generator
set.
The
Field Control.
yond this point the field intensity at the pole tips becomes so
weakened by armature reaction, especially under load conditions,
220
range of speed
The
will suffice.
interpole
speed is
or 6 to
of
made
FIG. 202.
ture, the winding of the auxiliary poles being so designed that the
m.m.f. of the armature is either exactly balanced or else slightly
overcompensated. In this way the main field may be varied
MOTORS
The methods thus
221
by
Commutation difficulties at
readily obtained in the smaller sizes.
are
avoided
weak
by using interpoles.
field)
(and
high speeds
Fig.
FIG. 203.
and Engineering Co., the motor here being geared to a pipe cutting machine.
Speed variation
armature, thereby weakening the field; the thin shell of iron thus
at the pole tips becomes saturated, and the commutating
field is therefore sufficiently intense to prevent sparking at the
left
222
of
FIG. 204.
ventilation.
(General
Electric Co.)
FIG. 205.
istic like
Split
the shunt motor are seldom used for the reason that the
current taken
by such a motor
constant
if
MOTORS
FIG. 206.
223
FIG. 207.
Brush holders
of
of
motor
motor
of Fig. 204.
of Fig. 204.
224
The
series
In
rail-
100
FIG. 208.
(General
MOTORS
225
In the box
the cooling air being at the pinion end of the frame.
frame type the armature may be removed from the frame through
the opening at the commutator end.
Fig. 205 shows a split
frame commutating pole motor made by the Westinghouse
Electric and Manufacturing Company.
Figs. 206 and ^07
show the commutator and brush rigging of the motor illustrated
20
40
100
120
140
1GO
180
200
Amperes
FIG. 20.9
205.
(Westinghouse
are
shown
226
hour without exceeding a temperature rise of 90 C. at the commutator and 75 C. at any other normally accessible part, the
motor being tested on a stand with an impressed e.m.f of rated
value, and the motor covers being arranged to secure maximum
.
1
ventilation without external blower.
motors must be so selected that they will not overheat and the
heating depends in part upon the average value of the square
of the current taken throughout the whole of the working period,
including stops. The current has its largest value during the
starting or acceleration period, hence the heating is largely
When
the car
O
FIG. 210.
of stops in
or train
a\
l>i
is
Time
in
Seconds
with the motors should be cut out step by step in such a manner
that the current through each motor remains practically constant until all the resistance is out of the circuit.
The torque per
motor
When the resistance is all out, the speed will continue to increase,
but at a steadily decreasing rate, as represented by the curved
line ab, and during this interval the current will decrease from the
initial constant value Oe in the manner indicated by curve fg.
The cause
e.m.f.
1
due to the
rising speed.
Ofri,
the current
is
MOTORS
227
off,
in the
nected in
series,
and
resistance
starting purposes.
E =
/
r
t
=
=
=
resistance of each
motor
At the moment
of starting, the
motors being
must have a
such that
E
or
Ri =
E -
2r
in series (Fig.
resistance of
R\ ohms
228
The
PRi
at a uniform rate.
in parallel
FIG. 211.
Elementary
diagram
of
made
and
E/2
ohms
w,
I 2 R z t watt-seconds.
MOTORS
The
229
WRi + WR2
=
?*t(-T
+Rz)
~
HI*t(j
watt-seconds.
r
]
in parallel, as in Fig.
If, now, the motors had been originally
2116, with a resistance of Rz ohms between them and the line,
the value of
3 would have to be
r
E
R = 2I~2 hmS
*
motor.
The
/E
Pi(j
watt-seconds
rj
control.
riesor exactly twice as great as in the case of series-parallel
138. Railway Controllers. The successive changes in the
starting resistance and the change from sefies to parallel connection are accomplished by means of a controller. As the,
controller
is
varied
finite
The two
in full series
and
by
characteristic letters
230
connection.
Type L
of
opening the power circuit during the transition period; this type
is now seldom used.
Type B controllers have the usual power
circuit connections,
and
motors to run as
FIG. 212.
K-10
controller,
Westinghouse Elec.
&
Mfg. Co.
out the arcs that form on breaking the circuit. Fig. 214 repremore recent type of
controller made by the General
sents a
MOTORS
231
Controllers
A' 10
Res.
and K\\
Motor
Motor 2
[EQ-o-AA/Wo-AAAAr-
FIG. 213.
ously in circuit.
in Fig.
215
is
The system
of transitional connections
shown
These
its motion.
such a manner that
the reversing handle cannot be moved unless the main handle
is in the "off" position, and the main handle cannot be moved
the other for the reversal of the direction of
in
232
is
of rotation
field windterminals.
the
armature
to
with
respect
ings
If the car is running and it is desired to reduce speed, the controller handle should be turned quickly to the off position and
then brought back again to the proper notch before the speed
FIG. 214.
coils,
General
Electric Co.
has fallen too low. A slow turning off is apt to draw destructive
arcs at the contact fingers.
A characteristic feature of all of the controllers described above
is that the main current
This is
passes directly through them.
perfectly feasible in the case of a single car, or motor car and
but where several motor cars and trailers are to be
trailer,
MOTORS
233
the main
FIG. 215.
end
is
of the train.
234
^rZ^
TPT
To Lights and Pu
Kicking Coil
MU Tripping Sw
Main Switch
Trolley Terminal
Auxiliary Contacts
in Controller
T~
FuauBos
FIG. 216.
FIG. 217.
circuits.
MOTORS
235
is
shown
in Fig. 216,
Fig. 217.
is
possible that
may
be
insuffi-
manner discussed
the
in parallel.
Series wound
series in
a constant-
the load.
to keep the speed constant, the series motors in the Thury constant-current system (see Chap. VI) are provided with regulators which change the position of the brushes, thereby affecting
wound motors
is
afforded
grade on slippery
rails.
by the case of a car starting on an upAssume for example that the rear end
same
speed
any
rises,
must
236
PROBLEMS
A 220-volt compound wound motor has an armature resistance of
ohm, a shunt field resistance of 169 ohms, and a series field resistance
Find the line current, the shunt field current and the counter
of 0.15 ohm.
e.m.f. when the armature current is 25 amp. (a) if the connections are
1.
0.44
long-shunt,
2.
The
(6) if
series field
full-load value.
5.
What
is
6.
in series
(a)
is
is
amounts
reversed.
shown
street-car
in Fig. 208.
:
is
Each motor
CHAPTER
VIII
COMMUTATION
140.
Fundamental Considerations.
Each
of
the a parallel
commutator segments
about to be connected, and the result of the final equaliis a spark between the brush and the commutator segment. The study of the commutation process therefore has
for its object the determination of the conditions which will
coil is
zation
value
AB
in the
typical curves as a,
237
6,
c,
d, e, f,
238
each of which corresponds to a definite set of physical condiThese curves are called the short-circuit current curves.
Curve a shows that the current has been reversed too rapidly,
tions.
overreaching
proper
final
it
may
involve such
between
Curve
b represents a case in
FIG. 218.
Types
its
factory commutation.
Curve c indicates a uniform transition of the current from
its initial
When
commuta-
tion
is
said to be linear.
is
a minimum.
is
so-called
"
sinusoidal" commutation;
Such a short-circuit cur-
COMMUTATION
Curve
239
change of current
vertical line
drawn through B.
Curve / shows
undercommutation," that
is,
the current
is
curves
may assume an
and
final
always
be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign, the armature winding being assumed to be symmetrical.
No account has here been taken of the effect of mechanical
irregularities such as vibration of the brushes, unevenness of
the
commutator
surface,
etc.
will
saw-tooth form.
141. Physical Basis of the Theory of Commutation.
The
theory of commutation is much less advanced than that of
other parts of the theory of direct-current machines; that is to
say, the commutation characteristics cannot be predetermined
with anything like the degree of accuracy that is possible in
the calculation of the general performance characteristics.
fact, practice based upon more or less
empirical rules has so far outstripped theory that manufacturers
commonly guarantee sparkless operation between no-load and
Notwithstanding this
240
more
coils
mutual induction.
For these reasons the theory may be designated the " inductance" theory. There is also to be considered the fact
that the short-circuited coil may be situated in a magnetic
there will also be induced in it an e.m.f. of
field
tip,
If,
commu-
due to
self-
to rotation through
the magnetic field. The contact resistance between commutator and brushes is very much more complex in its nature than
that of ordinary metallic conductors; it resembles that of the
electric arc in
many
it is
dependent upon
tact pressure
1
found
and the
1
relative velocity of the surfaces.
all of
I.
COMMUTATION
It
is
241
transition surface
sets
stream.
From
contact surface
ment
But
is
not constant.
is
is
242
scribed in Chap. V,
will
of flux distribution is
between pole
tips;
closely represented
by the function
E =
c
kt
(1)
where
t
h
e
= constant
= commutating
when = 0.
FIG.
219.
Short-circuited
FIG. 220.
element,
Successive phases
of short-circuit of coil.
a, b,
In position a the
initial,
coil C.
z'
been fully reversed, and the combined current of the two paths
must reach the brush by way of lead 2. The b position, in
which
coil
segment
A2
COMMUTATION
243
hand branch may reach the brush by way of both leads 1 and 2,
and coil C therefore carries less current than before; as the
contact area of segment AI diminishes and that of A 2 increases,
the original current through C is diverted more and more from
lead 1 to lead 2. At the same time that the right-hand branch
current is being throttled in this way out of coil C, the left-hand
branch current finds its way more and more readily through
coil C and the increasing contact area A 2, and less and less
readily through the diminishing contact area AI.
If the transfer of the brush current, 2?!
from lead 1 to lead 2
,
when the
commutating
become
that
field
is
too
weak
will
same
and 2
ii
iz
.'.
ii
z' 2
=
=
=
are, respectively,
to
2io
i
i
(2)
\
}
total current
(3)
244
Now
let
R =
RI =
Rb =
resistance of coil
resistance of each
commutator lead
A
T
RI
T -
of coil
are, respectively,
= Rb
R*
t
2,
must
sum
The
FIG. 221.
coil.
we have
L-jr=
=
=
iiRi
iiRi =
iiR'i =
izRi =
Ec =
ohmic
ohmic
ohmic
ohmic
ohmic
drop
drop
drop
drop
drop
di
._
iR c
in coil C (positive)
in lead 1 (positive)
in contact area AI (positive)
in contact area
2 (negative)
in lead 2 (negative)
commutating e.m.f. (positive).
dt
+iRc
T -C C*0
>T
RI
vJ
+E
_T__
J.l/1)
pjy
1
c
~*
j,
(4)
COMMUTATION
which
may
245
be written
S+
iR
<*''
f'-^t
i}
^T
(i
&
(5)
where
R = R + 2R
c
This equation involves the justifiable assumption that the resistances of the commutator segments and of the brush are negligible.
when
when
= T,i =
iQ.
0, i
i Q)
and
E =
c
T7
7?
General Equation.
when
O'o
T, and
iQ
hT = E T
= 2Rbio
i)
T
R--m
i(*o +
i
b
i)
The value
of the expression
o
or indeterminate.
n
o
,
(* _
by
di
T The
di
dt
dt
Tj
j,
t'Qfl
ac
J?
di
T ~TT
-flfr-i
97?
'
^/t5?-o "f*
at
xaf
n
U
or
A\
c?^
1
-^f
RbT-L
die
by Paul
Riebesell.
Kiel, 1905.
246
j~
(-77)
\(lt J
= T
1,
provided
oo,
may
(R
will
-rr
be
infinite, i.e.,
ET
If this
di
were the
infinite,
2.
must in general
Inspection of Fig.
218a shows
commutation the
be
also
/77
Therefore, -j
brush.
would
L-rr,
final rate of
differ
that
from
unity.
case
of
over-
coil is
in
same
sign.
If,
^>
and
if
(6)
must be
of
then,
~r <
1,
iQ
1,
(R
274)
(R
> ET
274)
(7)
< ET
(8)
>
LJ
is
in
3.
The
final
i.e.,
/di\
ET =
in
274)
able.
7?
(R
145. Modified
V7
j-~
>
affairs is
Form
of
shown
(9)
will
be favor-
in curve
Sparking
6, Fig. 218.
Criterion.
The condition
COMMUTATION
interpretation;
2i Q L/T,
multiplying
both
247
sides of
the inequality
by
we have
L=e
(10)
The term 2i Q R b is the drop of potential at the brush contact surand is usually of the order of 1 volt with carbon brushes.
The term 2i /T is the average rate of change of current during
face
248
But
The
criterion
R b T/L >
or e r
1,
2i QL/T
<
1 is
frequently ex-
is
still
different form.
the
is
origin O,
and
its
maximum
2-irt
COS
IQ
om
Hobart
value, which
calls the
is
then
reactance voltage,
is
_ 2io j
7T
Hence,
emax< 2.
or e max
>
er
if
<
e max
1,
<
7T
7T
As usually
1.57.
stated,
however,
It follows
2,
E T >i
(R + 2R b ).
146. Linear Commutation.
Equation (5) can be utilized to
determine the conditions necessary for a uniform transition of
the current from its initial to its final value.
Thus, in case of
linear commutation, curve c, Fig. 218, the current i at any instant
t
is
given by
.
2i
*0
4
I
yT
T -2t
If)
jT~
'
and
2i Q
di _
~
dt
some
trans-
formation
"?
~ %
(T
2t) ]
(12)
COMMUTATION
It follows
from
when
(12) that
t
E =
0,
e '=
T,
249
(^r
E = ET =
IQ
-=jr
Rj
must
also
it is directly proportional
conditions for perfect linear
commutation were satisfied for one particular load they would
to
iQ.
if
is
constant.
Thus, referring
to Fig. 221,
iz
and
it
IQ
if
T-
2t
follows that
ii
T-t
9
2i
j,
iz
2iv
j,
and
!
are given
rA
T
by
T
where
is
-r-
^1
It
jV2
2iin
Ar
constant.
is
(13)
can also be shown that the ohmic loss due to the resistance
brush contact is a minimum in the case of linear commu-
of the
For let it
is, when the current density is uniform.
be assumed that the short-circuit current in coil C, Fig. 221, is
not linear; in this case the actual non-linear current can be
tation, that
250
ii
ix
and
i\
The contact
?o -f- i
io -\- ij -|-
ix
AI and
A2
are, respectively,
T
and
# =
Rb
Substituting for
rp
?'o
21
,
we
ii,
iz ,
Ri and
7? 2 ,
it
find that
=-
4i Q *R b
i f *R b
i x *R b
~--
loss is a
minimum
if i x
0, i.e.,
COMMUTATION
251
sequently important to determine in what manner the distribution of current density is affected by a non-linear short-circuit
For this purpose the following graphical method, due
current.
to Professor Arnold, 1
may
be used.
commutation have
will
The
JL
i\
iz
=io
ii=-o
*2
*i
a
FIG. 223.
*s
Three distinct
instant to instant as
iz
the
upward
ti
is
i\
io
taken as positive.
Phase
2.
The current
3.
The current
iz
hand branch
1
circuit, i.e., i\
ii
is
to the brush
is
to the brush
is
ii
iz
Phase
iz ~\~ io>
I,
p. 438,
2nd
ed.
left-
252
shown
ment S
is
When
just beginning.
the commutator has
moved
i\
etc
i\
io
is
ab,
ab
be
f_i
FIG. 224.
The
current density
is
proportional to
ii
io
be
Me
Xi
Draw
it
until
it
cuts the
vertical
'Me
MP
MP
and since
COMMUTATION
253
initial reversal of
the brush.
after a travel of the
commutator
i.e.,
iz
ii,
C A and C B
given directly by
This intercept is also proportional to the current density to the
is
same
scale as
ce.
During the third phase of the motion, or after a travel indicated by x 3} the current across S is
iz
i\
iz
^'o
hk
o'
FIG. 225.
-,
^,
kQ>
or,
by IN
is
of the
segment
mk.
The point
is
it
still
is
is
in contact
proportional
represented
line Qhl.
225
254
of
tact of the brush, nor does it remain constant at any given point.
For instance, in Fig. 225 consider the point 7 of the brush, which
is just about to make contact with segment S'"
At this instant
.
the
dc to
e
In
precisely
cusps at
line
the
with
MN
or PQ of
that corresponds to the curve of commutation
the local
from
226
that
224.
It
is
Fig.
Fig.
readily apparent
densities may differ considerably from the average
current density of the brush as a whole.
149. Further Examples.
Using the above methods, curves
current
of current density
short-circuit
current curves.
shown
They
linear commutation
are
is not shown,
The case of
obvious from the previous analytical discussion, as
well as from the geometry of the construction, that the current
228,
since
and 229.
it
is
COMMUTATION
255
Short-Circuit Current
Curve
Segment Density
Axis
of Ordiuatea
FIG. 227.
Short-Circuit Current
Curve
Segment
Density
FIG. 228.
Short-Circuit
Current Curve
Axis coordinates
FIG. 229.
FIGS. 227, 228, 229.
256
density
is
the same at
all
is
in
too great during the initial stages of the commutaThis results in correspondingly great current densi-
tion period.
ties at the commutator segments as they
of the
much
as the process of
FIG. 230.
commutation
of
Coils.
Inas-
affected
by the
Adjacent
in a coil
is
mutual induction
COMMUTATION
257
in
Z =
y =
S =
122
m=
2/1
61
23
2/2
= ~
19
12
2.5
Arnold. 1
1.
Lap Windings.
It will
BI and B% are not identically situated with respect to the segments of the commutator in contact with them. This is a
consequence of the fact that S/p is not an integer.
Coil edges 1, 3, 5, etc., drawn in full lines to indicate that
they occupy the tops of the slots, are connected to commutator
segments which are correspondingly numbered in the top row of
The other sides of the same coils, whose numbers are
figures.
l + 2/i, 3 + 2/i, 5 + 2/1, etc., are connected to segments which
are numbered 1', 3', 5', etc. (i.e., dropping the term 2/1 and
priming the numeral) in the bottom row of figures. A coil will
then be short-circuited when the brush BI is in contact with any
A similar
pair of segments which bear the same numbers.
arrangement
Now,
is
coil
is
1 from 1.
Segment 2
separated by a pitch 2/1 from 2, and by 2/1
But
is therefore separated from 1 by J^ (2/1
1) segments.
brushes B% and BI are separated by S/p segments, hence the
relative shift of segments in the vicinity of B 2 with respect to
those at
is
A
and
it
is
is
toward the
positive.
left
when
is
M(j/i
(15)
1)
when
%.
The simultaneous
1
I, p.
354,
2nd
ed.
258
by means
larly
coils will
be simultaneously
short-circuited
FIG. 231.
2.
Diagram showing
simultaneously short-circuited
winding.
coils
lap
Wave
Fig.
Windings.
232 represents a portion of a duplex wave winding having
Z =
y
122
2/i
2/2
61
21
2.5
coil
edges 122,
1, 2, 3,
circuited.
FIG. 232.
Number
them.
The brushes
are separated
2 Sf
segments,
COMMUTATION
m =
where
a/p; segments
1',
3',
5'
259
the
if
is
other, as in the
segment
2' is
FIG. 233.
of
is
A
are
segments.
coils
wave
=
|
in
1)
to the right if
%), to the left
shown
^ (y\
of
A
and
by
simultaneously short-circuited
winding.
Diagram showing
The displacement
is
y yi
2(
i)
if it is
Fig. 233.
If
is
and B 2 it will touch a series of similarly numbered segments and the corresponding coils will be simultaneously short-
A%, Bi
circuited.
151. Successive
Phases
to investigate the
order in which the coils occupying a given slot undergo commutation. Two distinct cases may be distinguished:
260
Coil edges lying in the same radial plane (one above the
other) enter and leave short-circuit simultaneously.
1.
same
2.
and leave
Case
1.
ence to Figs. 231 and 233 shows, therefore, that if coil sides 1 and
2, 3 and 4, or, in general, any two in the same radial plane, are
is
that
A =
or
2/i
~+
(tfi
1)
(16)
made
condition
shown
in
diagram
During a
will exist,
that
is,
all
the
coil
study
of Fig.
slot.
coil
edges
and 2 leave
next
slot; obviously, because of this separation of the short-circuited group of coils, the inductive effect upon coils 3 and 4 will
be smaller than in the case of coils 1 and 2. Similarly, when
COMMUTATION
coils
261
coils
The commutating
3 and 4.
condi-
tions are, therefore, not the same in all of the winding elements,
and their short-circuit current curves will have different forms.
(a)
1
IDD
II
IDD
II
(d)
135
Dll
Dll
246
Dll
IDD
DDI
IDD
DDI
262
and 4, and much too great in coils 5 and 6. In the latter coils
there will be a condition of overcommutation, and under these
in 3
intensities acting
(O
oo
1
CO
3
79
11
III
an
IQD
II
ii
135
(/)
79
11
135
IDD
DM
8
FIG. 235.
10
12
II
II
III
246
246
00
79
11
II
IDD
8
10
12
246
coils,
10
12
A =
1.
A^O.
Case
2.
It follows
when A ^ 0. An interesting
when A = 1, that is, when
case arises
occurs
->
(17)
CO MM U TA TION
263
short-circuit simultaneously.
152. Selective Commutation in
Wave Windings.
study of
the simplex wave winding shown in Fig. 81 (p. 93) will show that
the several brushes of one polarity are connected to each other
coils are
fringing fields
them.
Both
field,
though small,
rent
brushes.
ponents
the total
current
.
.
236.
FIG. 00
Diagram showing duration of short-circuit.
satisfied.
This shifting of
wave windings
is
commutation.
153. Duration of Short-Circuit.
called selective
264
ft,
will
where
ft
is
until edge
n reaches
of the
When n
q.
is
Short-circuit of coil
p',
which
equals
b
The time
(mft
of short-circuit
is
ft)
ft
(l
-}
then
(18)
where
An
some
in
ft
the
above equation
154. Simultaneous
Wide Brushes.
of
Commutation
When
of
Several
is
a/p
<
Coils.
1.
Effect
equal to or
less
LV,
p. 804,
March, 1910.
COMMUTATION
of self-
265
and mutual-induction
respectively.
necting leads,
currents in the coils
become
di*
^+E
dt
ci
=
(19)
Rb
di.
Vo
_x _
Ec2 =
Xl
(20)
FIG. 237.
dx
coils
simultaneously
short-circuited.
266
(^
i)
i\
and x =
IQ
must remain
this
0, so
finite.
can be expressed as
remain
finite
if
and
negligible
iQ
Ax and
ii
Aax
-r-
Also,
if
shift of the
x coordinates, -Tdx
'
= Bx a ~
-}-
ci
finite
quantity (23)
and
ff,
>
M Aa) X
A
,-,
(LT
-\-
-fff
r>
r>
I^Rc
^&
Xi
finite
1
#i_l
quantity (24)
than unity, x
would approach infinity as x
hence
to
approaches zero,
preserve the finite value of the lefthand terms we must have
If
a were
^ 2
"
EcZ =
a
**
r^~ 2
less
^ Aa +
^B
= ARb
(25)
and
^Aa + ^B
Eliminating
and
R T
b
(26)
COMMUTATION
But
267
it
to be avoided,
is
(27)
is
2
j^f
of a single coil.
shown that
in general
>i
(28)
where
Li Miz
L2
Mi
Mi n
23
2n
n3
(29)
M:
3n
-jj
+ 2M X
where
is
dt
If
-jj-
ohmic
drops
+ SM
X)
commutating
e.m.f.
(L
-f-
-r
2i /T),
ohmic drops
di
all
the
coils,
-r.
coils, x.
would be con-
hence
commutating
e.m.f.
(30)
In other words, when a coil undergoes commutation in the presence of others that are simultaneously short-circuited, the effect
is the same as though its self-inductance had been increased.
268
155. Calculation of the Self -inductance, L, in Slotted ArmaThe self-inductance of a coil has been shown to be equal
tures.
In
to the number of flux linkages per ampere, divided by 10 8
the case of an armature coil embedded in a slot, the self-excited
.
The
flux
<
Fig. 238.
2.
The
flux passing from tip to tip of the teeth within the space
tips, as indicated by <p 2
between pole
3.
The
flux
^> 3
^^
(">
FIG. 238.
Paths of leakage
flux
(6)
surrounding
coil.
coil
layer.
4ir
current
tube dx
is
^.z gilberts.
will
The m.m.f.
then be
4?r
acting
upon an elementary
COMMUTATION
269
slot.
The
47T^
Wh?
bs
I'dx
where
I'
sions
being in
is
and th
ries
.'.
by
dL'
number
of linkages
due to
270
In the same way the inductances due to the flux in the region
A 3 and & 4 are
= ~;
10- 8
(33
and
* 7r
<
7'
(34
60
The
total inductance
due to
L lb
slot
leakage
is
L' 16
?-+.^rr + rJ
(35.
(a)
slots,
Fig. 240a
this reduces to
(SG;
it
be-
(6)
FIG. 240.
/Q7
tin
arc
fQS
force
a straight portion
circles, as in Fig.
47T
I'dx
242.
The
flux
COMMUTATION
271
coil is
dx
'J
JQ
bo
10 9
+ TTX
l'
T.46
Iogio[l
+ ^^-
(39)
The
flux.
272
Arnold 1 gives
L =
zHf
zHf
[o.46
[0.46
logic
.(^p)
logio
(j~)
0.092J
0.23]
10~ 8
10- 8
(41)
nab)
a-
ULi.
FIG. 243.
Cross section
FIG. 244.
of coil.
L =
Li
+L +L
2
i O..J
(42)
Parshall and Hobart have published 2 the results of measurements of the inductance of armature coils of commercial machines
is
that,
at the rate of
I,
p. 376,
2nd
ed.
COMMUTATION
per cm.
and 0.8
of
"embedded" length
of
273
lines per
depth to width
ratio of
is
an average
value of
for
of
(M
lo glo [1
is
#0
+ M) X10-
(% + 1%) X
^ X 0.73
cm.,
Lu=or
1 (Fig.
is
coil,
15.7]
10~ 8
3.05
10- 8
1.11
with
10~ 8
and V =
The
1, is
10~ 8
in
1.
lie
side
by
dis-
side;
lie
lie
side
by
274
and therefore
is
no
= L
(6) Since the coil edges are in different layers, the end connections run in opposite directions, hence the mutual inductance is
due only to the slot and tooth-tip fluxes.
coil.
of the slot
and
4ir
exerts a m.m.f. of
on
^.z gilberts per ampere
FIG. 245.
On
10
-}
(43)
the
Same
COMMUTATION
275
linked flux will consist of tooth-tip leakage flux along the embedded portion and end-connection flux along- the free lengths.
Considering the tooth-tip leakage first, coil edge 1, Fig. 246,
acts
4?r
Yp:
z gilberts
coil
per ampere.
then
47T
To*
op
I'dx
this flux
coil is
FIG. 246.
Mutual inductance,
coils
coils
-b
Mutual inductance,
not in adjacent slots.
FIG. 247.
in adjacent slots.
-I
X)
(r
"
(44)
10 9
is somewhat too large since in carrying out the integration continuously to the pole tips the effect of the slot openings
This value
is
ignored.
The mutual inductance due to end-connection leakage is diffiArnold recommends taking it as one-half of
cult to estimate.
coil.
On
this basis
276
logio (
)
\ S /
0.05]
J
10~ 8
(45)
and
= M' l2
If 12
M"i2
(46)
M'i 3
zH
slots,
but are
+ 7r(2* +
60
zH'
1U
X)
logio
7T
jr~~T~o~T~~~
OQ -f- ZlTl
and
Mu"
= K^3 =
z 2 Z/ [o.l logio (
)
L
\ s I
0.025]
J
10~ 8
(48)
consecutive
(6)
slots.
ductances
Same
3t
same
as before; the end-connection leakage reduces to zero because the coils separate and run in opposite directions after
Then
leaving the slots.
6
M'
zH'
+ ^ (T "
6)
lo
(50)
arid
,,
M
ls
,,,
= M'
=
13
4?r
4.6,
zH'
logio
(51)
b~~+2-jrt
effect of
the inequality
T7
~rf~.
>1
is
not in
It
itself
a sufficient criterion of
COMMUTATION
277
In
are in the neutral zone or only slightly displaced therefrom.
other words, the above relation is of importance in the case of
resistance commutation.
is
r>
therefore true in
them
^ >1, among
7?
condition
T7
j
L
<
1.
some other
therefore,
viously,
must
relation
which de-
exist
L^ + iR +
-r
RbT
y
..
(I Q
j
i)
RbT
..
(i
e.m.f.,
',
^)
+E =
rn
(5),
t\
L -r.
the commutating
when
there
is
V in
connection with
while it is
appears,
desirable to keep the average reactance voltage small, it is even
more important to keep the commutating e.m.f. within limits.
For instance, consider a machine which is to operate with
that has already been discussed in Chap.
armature
reaction.
It
therefore,
that
brushes fixed at a definite angle of lead at no-load the commutating field will have a certain value and will generate an e.m.f.
in the short-circuited coils; this e.m.f. will set up currents in
;
278
mutating
machine
is
of
the m.m.fs.
of
is due to the
and armature windings
there were no saturation the
the
field
is
judgment
of
his experience
lar
sideration.
Armatur
Field
FIG. 248.
Commutating field
distribution.
and
armature windings can be determined by the methods described
in Chap. V, and in the commutating zone will have the
forms indicated in Fig. 248,
which represents the case of a
generator with a forward lead of
the brushes. It will be seen
that the strength of the commutating field decreases with increasing load, if the field excitation
remains constant, the change being unfortunately in the wrong
direction inasmuch as the commutating e.m.f. should increase
with the load. If the armature is magnetically too powerful,
or if the brushes are not given a sufficient lead, the commutating
e.m.f. may even reverse under load, assuming, as in all the pre-
ceding discussions,
devices present.
that
there
are
no
special
commutating
COMMUTATION
279
may remain within the sparking limit^In over-compounded generators^ on the other hand, the commutating e.m.f.
e.m.f.
limit,
without introducing
difficulties.
In
either case/af the excess of the reactance voltage over the commutating e.m.f. at maximum (125 per cent.) load is equal to the
commutating
e.m.f.
at
no
load,
and the
latter
is
within the
\
"
/'\
"J
satisfactory.
The above
FIG.
249.
Series
circuit
through short-circuited
of
coils.
commutating
E co
ttl'vB*
10- 8
(52)
280
where
Z/2S
B
is
is
the
element becomes
e.m.f. per
E = jg
cl
with
similar
now nac
is
I'v
reservations
Bo)
concerning
number of
we have the
the
by the brush,
(B
10- 8
chorded
(53)
windings.
If
simultaneously short-circuited
relation
coils
17
2E CO = n -^
Zo
sc
It
is
I'v
B X
10- 8
<
12 to 18 volts
(54)
BO, the flux density in the commutating zone, must be sufficiently under control to allow the brushes to be placed in a
To
commutation under
all loads.
strength in the neighborhood of the commutating pole tip should shade off gradually instead of abruptly,
a condition which can be realized fairly well by making the airthis
end the
field
gap at the pole tips longer than it is under the central part of
the pole shoes.
158. Pulsations of Commutating Field.
During the period
of commutation the rotation of the armature periodically
changes the positions of the teeth and slots with respect to the
pole shoes, thereby giving rise to peripheral oscillations of the
armature flux in the interpolar space. The changing current
in the short-circuited coils produces a further pulsation of the
flux in this region.
There
may
also
COMMUTATION
281
The
expression
= -~ L
er
+
Vc
and
L
where F is a function
have also
=^~
of the
zH
XF
and
where
v
d
dcom
=
=
=
diameter of armature
diameter of commutator.
Also,
~
= C
I'vq
where
27T/3F
&.
10- 9
+ /m -
er ,
we have
We
282
r7
The quantity
-~
Vvq
may
coil
tion
the
if
250,-Magnetizing action
of short-circuited elements.
is
will
be demag-
netizing.
Obviously, these statements are to be reversed in the
case of a motor.
When
a generator
is
will
be
by the brushes. The direction of the current flow will depend upon the direction of the
field in which the coils are moving, and, therefore, upon the
direction of displacement of the brushes.
With a forward lead
set
up
have
shown
the direction
may
be sufficiently great
COMMUTATION
283
to materially influence the field flux, hence also the experimentally determined open-circuit characteristic.
component
of the flux,
but
in
ture
flux
in
FIG. 251.
the short-circuited
neutralized
by an
e.m.f. of opposite
greater magnitude
plus e.m.f. to effect the reversal.
direction
may
be a
and somewhat
sufficient sur-
vantage that
in the
1
it
commutation
Theory
of
Commutation and
XXX,
Part
3,
1911, p. 2359.
Machines,
284
self-
problem."
The
tion of the
commutating
flux;
of the
armature
of the
flux
which
is
commutating zone.
PROBLEMS
What is the ratio of the energy losses due to brush contact resistance
two machines, which are identical in all respects except that in one of
them the commutation is linear and in the other sinusoidal, as indicated in
curves c and d of Fig. 218?
NOTE. This problem may be solved most simply by plotting a curve
showing the variation of contact loss throughout the period of commutation.
The energy loss will then be proportional to the area under the curve.
2. Construct a curve showing the variation of current density at a commutator segment, and curves showing the variation of current density at
five points equally spaced along the brush arc, for the case of a machine
which has a brush covering 2^ commutator segments and in which the
1.
in
COMMUTATION
285
circuit in
each case.
The diameter
of
slot is ri
tributed uniformly over the cross-section of the circle, what is the inductance due to slot leakage flux, assuming that the lines of force pass Straight
across the slot (horizontally in Fig. 52)?
CHAPTER IX
COMPENSATION OF ARMATURE REACTION AND
IMPROVEMENT OF COMMUTATION
The cross or transverse
162. Principle of Compensation.
is the primary cause
armature
current
of
the
action
magnetizing
of the field distortion which in turn necessitates the shifting
and thereby brings into existence the demagnetizthe armature. Clearly, then, if the transverse
of
action
ing
magnetomotive force of the armature were balanced by an equal
of the brushes
287
the latter
is
The patent
specifications call
lines
ing
is
faces.
armature
reaction
complete.
is
__
Jrp^
shown
number
tl
practically
in Fig.
current, the
FIG. 252.
Diagram
of
com-
pensating winding.
of turns in the
machine
of this
Company.
iron frames; the main pole pieces that carry the coils of the shunt
winding are bolted to the yoke, and the cores that carry the com-
pensating winding are held by the bolts which pass through the
main poles and by the wedges which hold the commutating
lugs in position.
288
down magnetic
FIG. 253.
from pole to
pole,
and so keep
leakage.
Frame
of
Ridgway
circuit of a
FIG. 254.
conditions the magnetomotive force of the compensating winding acts in the directions shown by the dotted lines, assuming
generator action and clockwise rotation. Section q of the bridge
289
acted upon by two m.m.fs. having the same direction, but the
not materially increased on account of the initial saturation of the iron; and section p is acted upon by two m.m.fs.
is
flux is
FIG. 255.
Frame
of
Ridgway
it
produces a local
field of
and n somewhat larger than the others (see also Fig. 253)
and winding in them more than the normal number of conductors.
The arrangement of the compensating winding and
main field winding is shown in Fig. 255.
Closely akin to the Thompson-Ryan device is an arrangement
19
290
in Fig. 256.
are indicated
FIG. 256.
Deri's arrangement of
C, sets
distortion
is
FIG. 257.
ing
Bayers' winding.
principal consideration
field of sufficient
The
is
main
commuta-
tion period
coil
291
not in
circuit.
commutation
tion so that
is
at the leading pole tip, as in the ordinary machine, but upon that
at the trailing pole tip; and since the field intensity at the latter
increases with increasing current, the commutating e.m.f. increases
with
it.
adjustment of commu-
The
tating conditions by the saturation of the trailing pole tip.
is
device
of
historical
rather
than
as
is
Sayers
practical interest,
also that of Swinburne. l
In the latter, small U-shaped electroby the main current, are placed in the
Swinburne's com-
FIG. 258.
mutating device.
FIG. 259.
High resistance
leads to commutator.
which serves to limit the current and, therefore, the energy that
The simplest method
at the brush contact.
must be handled
arrangement
motors.
It
is
is,
292
by making them
short-circuit current
however, that brushes of this type may fail to operate satisfactorily for the reason that the short-circuit current may pass
from one copper layer to the next by way of the commutator
A
surface instead of through the intermediate layer of carbon.
better design, due to Young and Dunn, 1 provides for the final
rupture of the short-circuit at an auxiliary carbon brush insulated
from the main brush, in the manner indicated in Fig. 260. This
has the effect of considerably increasing the resistance of the
commutation process.
At the present time, however, the
device that
exclusion
ITT
FIG. 260.
all
commutating
T.
is
of
special difficulties,
conditions
is
present
the intervale or
.
The
by means
Commutation
shims, or
165.
It goes
of a shunt
in
is
of
same
293
S#c0 =
n sc
-^rvB Q
10~ 8
<
12 to 18 volts.
is
should
T~)
-j
LI
be
less
than
=
~7p
volt,
L<
as
2i Q
Rb
fjl
> 1.
The
limiting value of e r
is
set
at
The
the brush contact, 2i Q Rb which is of the order of 1 volt.
harder the grade of carbon used in the brushes the greater will be
,
the drop.
resistance
The
contact drop with current density for an average carbon.
tendency toward constant drop with increasing current density
is obvious.
The contact drop in the direction from commutator
294
hood
of 30 amperes per sq. in. (5 amperes per sq. cm.) for hard
carbons and as high as 65 amperes per sq. in. (10 amperes per
i.o
0-8
0.6
0.2
10
20
50
40
30
60
70
80
90 100
FIG. 261.
An
sq. in. is
sq. in.
Since the
number
of simultaneously short-circuited
coils is
given by
sc
encountered.
The
is
fixed
p
@' a
by usual
p/a
is
if
maximum
circuit) windings,
remedy
is
_b
295
reducing the
-T-
--
77!
= ^~ which
t
maximum
less
difference of potential
The
sufficient
flux as a whole.
5.
It
was shown
reversal of the
armature
it is
in
<
1.1 field
field
296
The
first of
FIG. 262.
FI.G.
The
thereto.
263.
FIG. 264.
addition of reluctance to the path of the armamore or less to the reluctance of the
main
the
circuit,
cost
of
the
FIG. 265.
FIG. 266.
faces.
in Figs. 262,
tion
behind the
FIG. 267.
FIG. 268.
265,
The
saturation feature
is
297
most important
at
the trailing tip in the case of generators and at the leading tip
in the case of motors; the desired saturation is obtained by
using a long thin tip, or, in the case of laminated poles, by using
a stamping of the form of Fig. 267, in which case the laminaup to the required thickness in such a manner
then like Fig. 268. It is, of course, not necessary that the
entire pole be laminated to secure this construction, as the pole
shoe alone may be built of stampings and bolted to a solid pole
core.
the same
way
as
saturation
is
of the
therefore
as high as
140,000 lines per sq. in. (21,000 per sq.
This is particularly true in the
cm.).
FIG. 269.
Pole of
Lundell generator.
case
r,
5'
as
(1.25 to 2) |_360a
1.6 E
shown in Chap. V.
Commutating Poles.
166.
- 2AT
Commutating
poles,
or
inter-
298
range of speed, as discussed in Chaps. VI and VII. InterInterpoles are also extensively used in series railway motors.
obviate
the
for
the
various
poles
necessity
expedients commonly
in ordinary machines.
They are superior to forms
construction involving compensating windings in the pole
employed
of
is
not possible
by the use of interpoles for the reason that the space distributions of the m.m.fs. of armature and interpoles are different.
This
is
is
zone
is
of
minor importance.
The presence
The span
is
greater than, the distance moved over by a slot while the coils
it are undergoing commutation.
The axial length of the
of
can
be
made
than
that
the main poles, for it is
less
interpole
in
Commutating Poles.
The
calculation
of
299
ically
the
FIG. 270.
Magnetic
d>
quadrants, and
flux
ing
5i>
*
produced
circuits in interpole
interpole.
_
o
^>
of the
machine.
Similarly,
two
in
by the
which
flux, in
$t
is
the work-
in
two
$t 4- ------&u
--~
'
of
an(^
of dispersion
of the
main
$ = v& where
t
poles,
the coefficient
commutating
v is
is
the
of the
by
where B ig the flux density in the gap under the interpole, is determined by the value of the commutating e.m.f. to be generated,
,
300
and
b'i
and
l' t
and length
actual lengths
air-gap, d {
than the
under the
interpole.
main flux
<
AT =
ic
and shoes
AT =
ig
AT =
it
=
=
=
=
A T' a
A T" a
A T' v
A T" y
ampere-turns
ampere-turns
ampere-turns
ampere-turns
armature
armature
for the
core, b to c
core, c to d
for the yoke, e to f
for the yoke, f to a
for the
sum
t,
larm
interpole
is
ATi
r
*,
p 2
^ ==_Zia
Trd
ird
number
'
_=
''
of turns to
^
be wound on each
coils are
not shunted.
2-a
Fig. 270,
polar machines.
168. Effect of
The presence
of
L =
LI
+L +L
2
coils
In the
L 2 due
,
is
affected.
Its value
may
301
be computed
Suppose the center of the slot containing a coil edge to be a distance x cm. from the center of the commutating pole of corThe tooth-tip flux within the
rected breadth b i} Fig. 271.
r
limits' of
the pole
is
10
10
FIG.
271.
Z
45'i
&'<
(Vi
Pi)
rO
fT^2
is
d%
f
10
t
b'i is
5i r^_
If l'<l'i,
jgi
(*'
I'd
1.46 logic
[l
.,
302
pounding action.
If
the generator
Generator
(O
FIG. 272.
Compounding
effect of interpoles.
and
g.
303
the flux and raise the speed. In Chap. VII it was shown that
a considerable backward displacement of the brushes of a com-
may
If
may
backward displacement
to
the effect of a
The
and so
increased current further strengthens the interfurther weakens the field and accelerates the
still
time that saturation of the interpoles sets in, the speed has been
continuously increasing, and the momentum of the armature
will cause the speed to continue to increase even after the flux
has reached a practically constant value; especially will this be
if the rotating parts have large moment of inertia.
The
result will be a rapid increase of counter e.m.f., possibly to a value
greater than the line voltage, in which case the machine would
true
its kinetic
energy of rotation
changes.
CHAPTER X
EFFICIENCY, RATING
170. Sources
of
Loss.
is
AND HEATING
less
(6)
(c)
(a)
2.
LOSSES, due to
and pole
faces.
3.
THE MECHANICAL
LOSSES, due to
(a)
bearing friction,
(b)
friction
air,
or "wind-
age,"
(c)
4.
(6)
(c)
(d)
171.
i
friction.
of
brush
coils,
up by the current
in the
EFFICIENCY, RATING
commonly
z
i r
AND HEATING
losses in the
referred to as the
loss in all
Pea
"
305
armature and
wind-
field
"
copper losses.
types of generators and
*aV a Watts
(1)
at the
Ta
where
p
la
sa
t
Po
(1
sa
~
0.00420 a" ohms
(2)
at
C.
degrees
Centigrade
a
If
= number
of
armature
circuits in parallel.
mils, po
The
(6)
copper
field
P cf =
and
if r f
PC/
(3)
and motors
2
ia ?/
i*
r8
#.2
- -
is
watts
is
watts
(4)
Pcf =
0.016 ohm.
loss in
= E is
t
field
winding
watts
(5)
TS
where
is
r a includes
Pf =
C
where
ia
if
one
used.
20
ia
=
is
is
in
in case it is
z
i a rf
case
the
a motor.
2
is r s
watts
machine
is
field
loss (total) is
(6)
a generator, and
306
In short-shunt
compound machines
P cf =
i rf
the total
z
-f i s r s
field loss is
watts
(7)
2i a
Ae
If
the
watts
(8)
volt
Values of
Ae
as determined
1
by Arnold are as follows:
0.4
Medium
0.9
to 1.1 volts
1.2
to 1.5 volts
carbon brushes,
mutator in that
sufficiently
common, however,
It is
to 0.6 volts
to include the
of the
Hysteresis Loss.
reversal of the
loss
of
Pha =
rjfVB a
watts
where
!Die Gleichstrommaschine, Vol.
I, p.
(9)
AND HEATING
EFFICIENCY, RATING
77
T)Yl
= ~T =
V =
Ba =
If
a constant depending
the
number
of
of the core
maximum
the
and
cubic centimeters
rj= 0.0021
307
(volume
in
10~ 7
flux
pressed in cubic inches and flux density in lines per sq. in.,
= 0.0017 X 10~ 7 Since the weight, W, of the core is pro.
77
150000
50000
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.1-' 0.13 0.14 0.15
FIG. 273.
Curve
of hysteresis loss.
portional to its volume, the equation for the hysteresis loss can
be written
also
Pn a
= rifWB a
watts
(10)
in
which case
in
in.,
308
volume
dV =
where k
is
is
blkdx
(b t
bi
tip
b '*
Ikdx
ri
tr
dx
1
FIG. 274.
where
tooth.
is
Computation
The
dPht
dx
(11)
is
AND HEATING
EFFICIENCY, RATING
309
1 '*
(12)
In other words, the expression for the hysteresis loss in the teeth
similar to the general expression, but with the addition of the
is
factor
The
ordinates of Fig. 275 give the value of this factor for various
values of
b' t /b t
0.1
0.2
(b)
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
FIG. 275.
Eddy Current
Losses.
That part
due to
loss
its lateral
OB
walls
is
it is
in the horizontal
the flux
is
zero.
310
2c(x+
dx), respectively.
elementary circuit will be
where
Ba
is
the
maximum
where /
second.
The average
lQB a cfx 2
10~ 8
volts.
is
e.m.f. in the
The
r4cx
7 1 hdx
FIG. 276.
where 7
is
loss in the
elementary circuit
of
eddy currents.
elementary path
1\
total loss
Pea =
c)
is
X * dX
~~
7x~io 16
c2
ijo
be
4x
"[
hcdxl
Elementary paths
hdx
and the
will
is
==
7X10 16
c2
The
EFFICIENCY, RATING
But
hct 2 is the
volume
7
311
R. 2/2/2
AND HEATING
10 16
,.2
c2
(13)
This equation shows that the eddy current loss varies as the
square of the flux density, the square of the frequency of the
magnetic reversals, and the square of the thickness of the laminations;
and inversely
may
differ
312
the loss in watts per pound by the above formula is 0.22, while
the observed value for these data in the case of annealed sheet
steel is 0.44 watts per pound.
Fig. 277 shows the variation of eddy
current loss with flux density at frequencies of 25 and 60 cycles
per second and for laminations 14 mils thick. The loss at other
frequencies and thicknesses can then be computed by observing
dP et =
volume
fir
where
e is
T-J
let.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.5
0.6
efH
0.8
0.7
0.9
1.0
FIG. 278.
rt.
-.
*x-I
tv
B X volume
2
Integrating,
*/
of tooth
J-^
(14)
(13), in that it
log e bt/b't
is
shown
as a function of
b' t /b t
in Fig. 278.
AND HEATING
EFFICIENCY, RATING
in
313
the face of the pole because the direction of the induced eddy
currents is always such as to damp out the flux pulsations that
The flux pulsation at any given point in the pole face will
pass through a complete cycle of changes in the time required
for a point on the armature to move over a distance equal to
the tooth pitch, that
a frequency of
gives
in a time
is,
ft
,.
seconds.
number
of teeth
^i
This
rev.
per sec.
Fig. 279 represents the variation of flux density at the pole
face on the assumption that the curve of distribution is sinus-
FIG. 279.
slots.
T>
T>
The amplitude
oidal.
Then
of
B =
the
pulsation
is
^~
if
second
fj,
=
=
pp =
1
*ir
STT \ HP
10
~7
is
x
fSTT- \/~
\ HP
7
fc2
10
~7
(
Rudenberg, Elektrotechnische
Zeitschrift, Vol.
XXVI,
p. 181, 1905.
15 )
314
where k 2
/B'\
(
is
Adams
slots.
Pv =
k*
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
1.65
10- 7 k 2 B a 2 ^l~
MP
(16)
EFFICIENCY, RATING
AND HEATING
315
the peripheral velocity of the shaft in the bearings, up to velocities of about 1800ft. per minute; at higher velocities it varies
The windage loss, as in the case
directly with the velocity.
Let
d com
=
p =
/ =
Ab
(Ib.
per sq.
30
10
20
15
Total core
100
25
30
Watts per Lb.
FIG. 281.
Pbf =
in.)
coefficient of friction.
746
35
40
45
50
loss.
is
(17)
Ordinarily the value of p c is from 1.5 to 2 Ib. per sq. in., and /
about 0.3 for carbon brushes and 0.2 for metal brushes.
is
(a)
solid
of
e.m.fs. of
316
cross-section,
and
(d)
Miscellaneous Losses
Due
to Short-circuited
Summary
losses.
of Losses.
COPPER Loss:
Armature ...............................
i a *r a
Field
if r/
................................. i a 2 r/
shunt .................... ............. is z rs
compound, long shunt .................. i V/ + is zr9
2
compound, short shunt ................. i r/ + is 2 rs
Commutator ............................ 2i a Ae
series
CORE Loss:
1
Hysteresis: armature core ................. rjfVB a
Eddy
*-(rT
X 5 --
/p\Z~
^j
ge&
constant
MECHANICAL LOSSES:
Bearing friction and windage ..............
^ to 3
upon
Brush
friction
size
MISCELLANEOUS LOSSES:
2
i a ra
and speed.
AND HEATING
EFFICIENCY, RATING
317
ical; in
efficiency
outputT-T
input
is
output
"
ri~~
losses
output
lossses
"
input
"
electrical.
~~^
(18)
input
and
(19)
Ei+P
t
where
That
is
the summation of
of a
all
the losses.
motor becomes
two groups,
may
be divided
into
(1)
remaining
losses.
input
which include
loss,
all
the
Then
output
ohmic
losses
(21)
input
output
ohmic
losses
(22)
~
= efficiency
77 C
is
is,
input
ot
conversion
input
The
electrical
power developed
-r
r
mechanical power input
;
output
copper losses
input
electrical
power
318
electrical output
-
electrical efficiency
is
electrical
power developed
out P ut
output
(24)
copper losses
Evidently,
f]
(25)
f\cf]e
copper losses
input
output
(26)
conversion; that
copper losses
input
is,
output
The mechanical
efficiency is
to the mechanical
rj
input
input
power developed,
mechanical efficiency
or
output
output
input
- copper
losses
It follows that
rj
177.
Loss.
Ticrim
The
(29)
loss includes all
stray power
the losses except those due to the pure ohmic resistance of the
various windings, and is, therefore, made up of the core loss,
friction
load losses.
more
tendency
is
manner by running
it
as a
EFFICIENCY, RATING
AND HEATING
319
armature; or
P = E
s
(i a )
- (Oo
ra
(30)
This test should be made immediately after the machine has been
running under load in order that the armature shall have reached
its
working temperature.
In machines in which the speed or the
flux, or
down
into friction
may
supplied, less the ohmic losses in the armature and field windings,
the core loss being negligible under these test conditions.
The
is
320
same speed.
14W
1200
1000
2800
^COO
400
200
EFFICIENCY, RATING
178. Variation
Maximum
of
Efficiency.
AND HEATING
321
with Load.
Condition for
be assumed that a certain 250-kw.,
Efficiency
Let
it
COPPER Loss:
Armature and series field at full load
Shunt field loss, including rheostat
STRAY POWER Loss:
Core loss
Friction and windage
Commutator
loss,
5500 watts.
1250 watts.
3500 watts.
2000 watts.
1000 watts.
average
1000
200
250
350
400
450
Amperes Output
FIG. 284.
322
These
losses
__
is
55(H'
77
shown graphic-
550*
7750
+ r )i
(r
where
i
2.27
the load.
when
clear that
77
have
will
its
value
Writing
t
(31)
Pconst
maximum
its
E
it is
has
efficiency
,
,
-\
h (r a
maximum
value
is
zero,
(r.
r,)
or
i\ra
77)
= Pconst =
i a *(r a
(32)
r/)
which agrees with the statement above. A second differentiation will verify the statement that the condition thus determined
is
for
minimum
When
is
compounding
effect, or
Ph+e =
where (Ph+e )o
2.
will
is
(Ph+e ) Q
+d
(33)
c is
a constant.
friction
AND HEATING
EFFICIENCY, RATING
3.
The
20
so that the loss
drop
may
be taken as
1
Pb
ia
4.
The armature
5.
The shunt
323
\20X
is
+V
(35)
loss is i a r a as before.
2
t
in plain
field loss is
irj)*
ra
r/ in
short-shunt machines.
The summation
;erm, a
77
____ E i
E i+~Pconst + Cli + C
E
t
E + i-^i
t
Differentiating the
iition for
2Z
Ci
(36)
+ C*
maximum
or
Pconst
n this expression
Pcon
st
is
and C 2 ^ 2
= C
2i
(37)
lo-load
(i
0),
ng Co.
Electric
and Manufactur-
324
Hence, for
maximum
armature and
series
field
maximum
be
efficiency
may
made
to
fall
at
losses
the point
oi
be
xP
where x
is
Then the
r]
Y
1
efficiency at full-load is
+x+y
(38)
Let zPo be the output at which it is required that the efficiency be*
a maximum. The variable loss will be z 2 (yPo), and for maxi-
mum
efficiency
= xP Q
z (2/Po)
or
(39:
For example,
way
let it
that the
maximum
Then
-
0.85
0.75
from which x
It is
load.
seen that
To make
the
maximum
and only
EFFICIENCY, RATING
AND HEATING
325
as to
(kilowatt-
326
B' while
y
if
5 per cent, of the rated output, the power input will be given by
curve C. In the former case the all-day efficiency is 85.8 per
The difference between the
cent., in the latter 81.7 per cent.
and
short-time
the machine
is
subjected to a heat run, or test under load conditime to bring about a constant
EFFICIENCY, RATING
AND HEATING
327
and 120
minutes.
output of a generator is limited only by the possibility of sufficiently reducing the resistance of the receiver circuit, at the same
time maintaining the generated e.m.f. and supplying the driving
power; practically, however, the capacity of the machine is
by the ability of the insulation to withstand without
deterioration, and for long periods, the maximum temperature
caused by the heating due to i z r and other losses, though in some
cases the load limit may be determined. by commutating conditions.
For each kind of insulating material there is a limiting
temperature above which deterioration is very rapid, but so far
as useful life of the insulation is concerned there seems to be no
particular advantage in operating at temperatures below the safe
limits.
In case the machine is designed to operate at temperatures well within the safe limits, there will be a margin between its
rating and its capacity, hence these terms are not synonymous.
limited
If
tion
new
December
1,
1914.
328
(1914) rules, it was specified that the allowable rise of temperature of the parts of a machine (excepting railway motors)
should be as follows: armature and field windings, 50 C.;
was further provided that if the room temfrom 25 C., the observed rise of temperature
It
perature differed
should be corrected by
In the
new
rules (effective
December
1,
1914), emphasis
is
Class
EFFICIENCY, RATING
whatever
may
AND HEATING
329
test.
by the manufacturer.
The temperature limits of commutators
special guarantees
no
difficulties
so constructed that
130
C. less 5
95
C.
These temperatures hold for the metallic parts only. The temperature of insulation used in the commutator, or of any insulation whose temperature would be affected by the heat of the
commutator, must in no case exceed the limits prescribed in the
table of hottest-spot temperatures.
The new rules abolish the requirement of a correction of the
rise of temperature due to a difference between the
ambient temperature at the time of the test and the standard
reference temperature (except in the case of air-blast transformers
which are not considered in this text). This is due to the fact
that numerous tests have shown that the effect of variations of
the ambient temperature is small, obscure and of doubtful
It is, however, recommended that tests be condirection.
ducted at ambient temperatures not lower than 25 C. The
observed
types of
Water-cooled
oil
330
1000 meters or
is
satisfactory
THERMOMETER METHOD,
tests.
including measurements
by mer-
is
C. instead
C.
is
to be measured
by means
of
several thermometers placed at different points around and halfway up the machine at a distance of 1 to 2 meters, and protected
from drafts and abnormal heat radiation. To this end the
The temperature
the
pit.
must be
AND HEATING
EFFICIENCY, RATING
331
2. RESISTANCE METHOD.
This method consists in the determination of the temperature of windings by measurement of their
increase of resistance;
of
method
be taken as the highest observable temperature and a hottestspot correction of 10 C. added thereto. This method is not permitted in the case of low resistance field coils where the joints and
connections form a considerable part of the total resistance.
In the case of resistance measurements the temperature
coefficient
I/ (234.5
-f-
t),
copper
where
is
to
is
the
(234.5
initial
R
t)
^-
l)
(40)
where
Rt+e
R =
t
resistance of winding at
(i -f-
resistance of winding at
6)
degrees
degrees.
This
IMBEDDED TEMPERATURE -DETECTOR METHOD.
3.
method involves the use of thermocouples or resistance coils
located as nearly as possible at the estimated hottest spot, but
is to be used only with coils placed in slots.
The thermocouples
or resistance coils are built into the machine, and a sufficient
number shall be employed to insure locating the hottest spot.
coils
and
in the case of
in at least
core;
C. for each
tion in the case of single-layer windings, plus 1
1000 volts above 5000 volts terminal voltage (single-layer
windings are commonly used in alternators, seldom or never in
direct-current machines).
332
Operating conditions in
the case of railway motors are much more severe than in ordinary motors because of restricted space and the nature of the
It is therefore good practice to permit higher workservice.
ing temperatures for short periods than in other types of machines.
Further, the variable nature of the load makes it more
difficult
rating of a railway
motor
The nominal
C. at the
air, by thermometer, not exceeding 90
commutator and 75 C. at any other normally accessible part,
rounding
The system of
cooling system, if any, arranged as in service.
ventilation must be defined, and if cooling is by means of forced
draft the volume of air on which the rating is based must be given.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES AND TEMPERATURE RISES
Class of
insulating
materials
EFFICIENCY, RATING
AND HEATING
333
334
has
Manufacturers,
the
adopted
direct-current generators
following
specification
for
"The temperature
and enclosed types, and for various classes of service, are summarized in the table on page 333.
185. Output Equation.
A definite relation, originally derived
G.
between
the rating, speed and dimensions of
exists
by
Kapp,
the armature. This relation, when expressed in algebraic form,
is
commonly
E =
^a =
t
\l/
=
=
let
Since
E =
>
eT^To*
(nearly)
and
3>
Thus,
= BgU =
Bg
(nearly)
EFFICIENCY, RATING
AND HEATING
KW
335
is
Eia
where
*
"
60
(42)
10"
called
is
coefficient
of utilization of the
is
FIG. 286.
Thus
let q
be expressed in ampere-
cir.mils.
in.
of armature surface.
square.
Each conductor
will carry
a current of
Qi
and
its
cross-section will be
inch of length
h circular mils
is
length
=s
1
x Y~ =
a
1
inch
'
XXIV.,
p. 653, 1905.
a
Y~h
its
amperes,
resistance per
336
The
i r
very nearly
per conductor is then
loss
is
/%A
a
-.--r
\a
ia/
-,
ia
ohm
ia
T watts
ah
ijfi
hence the
dli
i r
armature periphery
is
armature surface
is
-jr
1a
working tempera-
in.
(43)
fl
The value
or
less,
up
The
ratio q/h (watts per sq. in. due to copper loss) is generally in
the neighborhood of unity for ordinary peripheral velocities of
2500 feet per minute, but may be as high as 2.5 in large machines
running at high peripheral speeds (6000 feet per minute) where the
ventilation is more effective.
Values of B g range from about
40,000 lines per sq. in. in small machines up to 60,000 lines per
The value of generally lies between
sq. in. in large machines.
0.000015 (small machines) and 0.000056 (large machines).
186. Heating and Cooling Curves.
The energy losses in any
machine are converted into heat and cause a rise of temperature
whose final value depends upon the heat capacity of the materials
of the structure and upon the facility with which the heat may be
radiated or otherwise dissipated. The temperature will become
stationary when the rate of heat generation becomes equal to the
rate of dissipation.
It is of interest to derive the
homogeneous body
of a generator
Let
Q =
s =
=
A =
a =
cooling
= amount
of heat in kg-cal.
EFFICIENCY, RATING
AND HEATING
337
0i
=
=
surrounding medium
temperature of body in degrees Centigrade
temperature of surrounding medium in degrees
Centigrade.
dissipated, to the
amount Aa(0
Qdt
= sWdB
Aa(B
(44)
Oi)dt
Transposing,
~
Assuming that
sWdB
Q- Aa(e-
when
61
J>
e,)
0,
d6
- sw
Aa(0-0i)
which gives
When
=
,
(0
and
equation (46)
temperature
be written
may
-0i)-> =
Q = aA(B -
(46)
rise of
0i)*
the body.
The
last
(47)
co
()
If
the temperature
22
= sWdB
is
Aa(0
O degrees when
0i)dt
t
0,
Q =
(48)
338
dt
Jo
dd
= - sW (
JQ Aa(9
which gives
0,
(0
sW
j,
that
is,
if
If
(49)
0i
(B
0j)*
= 00
is
20
10
12345G789
Time in Hours
FIG. 287.
the equation of the cooling curve is the same as the variable part
of the heating equation, but with a change of sign.
Hence, in
this case, the heating and cooling curves are of the same logarith-
shown
is
in Fig. 287.
_aA
-
and substituting t =
origin is found to be
~sW
EFFICIENCY, RATING
that
AND HEATING
339
is,
not upon its cooling area or the nature of the radiating surface.
In fact, at the first instant, all of the heat is absorbed and none
of it is radiated; hence, the slope of the curve at the origin gives
the rate at which the temperature would rise if all the heat were
If the temperature continued to rise at this rate, the
absorbed.
limiting
temperature
sW
T =
.seconds; T
rise,
is
cxA.
would be
reached in a time
To
substitute
Q =
=
s =
s =
0.2386
0.527
The value of a may be found from the experimentally determined fact that when air is blown across the bare (or thinly
1
where
v is
where
a
0.906
v is
12.89
v is
10~ 6 kg.
cal.
(51)
(1
per
0.00127*0
C.
The experiments
.core is
1
sq. in.
where
0.250*0
sq. cm. per 1 C.
(1
sec. per
(52)
Ludwig
Ott,
London
340
is
0.0030
(1
0.107
Temperature
rise
v)
will not
observed rise in actual machines because it neglects the transfer of heat from the winding to the core,
or vice versa; likewise, the irregular distribution of heat evolution
and the thermal capacity of the insulation. But in general terms
it will be true that the ultimate rise of temperature can be expressed
by the equation
watts dissipated
B
,.
0i = constant X
,.
(53)
^-j
agree in general with the
radiating surface
in each case to
be determined by experiment.
is
given by
61
~_ w
460
+ O.Mv
where
w =
a =
v =
333
a
(55)
0.107v
is
w =
found by putting
a
1.
The temperature
71.3
rr for
7v
+ 0.00127z>
52
_
JL
~f~
U.UUuo4v
watt per
a bare surface
watt
rise
sq. in.,
EFFICIENCY, RATING
AND HEATING
Metric units
English units
85 _
55C
Kapp
Wilson
O.lv
300
Arnold
Esson
'+0.10
354
46.5_
0.00051*;
O.OOOSlz;
O.OOOGy
640
99
+ 0.180
+ 0.3 \/v
0.00091z;
645
Thompson
are
100
embodied
1000
341
2000
0.0213 \/v
in Fig. 288,
sq. in. as
3000
4000
5000
6000
FIG. 288.
rise of
experimentally determined.
tween the curves of Fig. 288
A
is
342
Some
in different directions;
j^-;
2di -f c2a 2
(56)
+ bv
where
2i = sum
Sa2
c
less
than unity.
The value
of c will be smaller the greater the ratio of heat conductivity along the laminations to that across them.
for rise of
Ol
where a and
respectively.
~ w
a
armature temperature
is
(40 to 70)
1
0.00051
be taken near the lower limit of its range when the ventilatior
good. In using this formula, however, it should be notec
that w does not include the watts dissipated in the end connec
tions, nor does a include their surface; in other words, the rise*
of temperature of the armature core is to be distinguished fron
that of the end connections. Consequently, to estimate the rise*
of temperature of the core, the value of w to be inserted in th(
is
formula
1
Ott,
is
London
EFFICIENCY, RATING
w =
-\
AND HEATING
embedded length
r~n
~~c
total
of
length
The value
recommended by Arnold
of a
of winding
^~r-
winding
is
343
<58)
of the core, plus the two end surfaces, plus half the lateral area
of the walls of the ventilating ducts; or (Fig. 289)
irdl
nv )
(59)
free length of
,
total length of
2irdL
winding
winding
X
(60)
344
it
replaces.
Measurement
of the
rise of
is determined
thermometer readings at the middle and
of
rise of
temperature of
of the
watts lost in
coil
minute, or
C =
75(1
0.00005?;)
(62)
where
is
v is
in enclosed
by equation
(62).
rise
the ventilated
coil will
EFFICIENCY, RATING
AND HEATING
345
more watts per sq. in. than an orwhat amounts to the same thing, C may' be
formula
where
commutator
TTUcomvcom
2\.
peripheral velocity of
commutator
in
feet
per
minute.
190. Rating of Enclosed Motors.
If a motor of the open type
converted into one of the enclosed type, it is clear that its
rating must be reduced to avoid excessive temperature rise.
is
The
give a temperature rise within standard limits.
reduction in horse-power rating decreases the current and con2
sequently the i r losses, and the increase of speed permits a
will
loss
the increase of speed, for the effect of reduced flux density more
effect of increased frequency of the magnetic
reversals (see Fig. 281); the core loss varies nearly as the square
PROBLEMS
A
ohm and a
169 ohms. When running without load the armaFind (a) the stray
ture current is 1.5 amp. and the speed is 997 r.p.m.
power loss and the loss in the shunt winding; (6) the true efficiency, the efficiency of conversion and the electrical efficiency when the armature current
has its full-load value of 25 amp., assuming that the stray power loss remains
constant at its no-load value.
1.
shunt
field resistance of
346
Find the efficiency of the above motor when the armature current has
5, 10, 15, 25 and 35 amp., and plot a curve showing the relation
between efficiency and horse-power output.
3. At what value of armature current will the above motor develop its
2.
values of
maximum
efficiency
What
From the
rating?
6.
will
results of
motor
tator
is
5.5
in.,
what
will
be
its
probable
rise of
conditions?
9. A 220-volt shunt motor takes a field current of 1.3 amp. when the
machine has been standing idle for several hours in a room which has a temperature of 30 C. After running under load for several hours the shunt
field current is found to be 1.1 amp.
Find the average rise of temperature
and 600 amp.-conductors per in. of periphery. If the ratio of pole arc to
pole pitch is to be 0.7, and if the pole faces are to be square, what must be
the diameter and the length of the armature core?
CHAPTER XI
BOOSTERS AND BALANCERS. TRAIN
LIGHTING SYSTEMS
A booster is a dynamo-electric machine whose
connected in series with a circuit, its generated
e.m.f. being added to or subtracted from that of the circuit,
depending upon the polarity of its excitation. Boosters may be
191. Boosters.
armature
is
driven by any form of prime mover, but are generally directconnected to a shunt motor taking current from constant potential mains.
192.
The
Series Booster.
An
to
is
istic
series-wound
generator
with
flux
densities
well
within
the
its
action.
347
drop
348
dinarily,
if
and therefore
made by an
of the weight
and cost
of the line.
Up
to a
it
install
of conditions,
than to
duction would be
may
of a circuit
by
in electric rail-
ratio of
tracks a
take place through the earth
along paths of low resistance afforded by underground metallic
structures, resulting in damage wherever stray currents leave
these paths to return through moist earth to the track or to the
their
resistances.
may
common
practice to use a
with the bus-bars. The battery
it
is
battery in parallel
then be used to carry the entire load at times of light load,
and in parallel with the generator at the time of peak load. At
storage
may
349
other times the battery takes charging current from the generator,
thus insuring a fairly uniform load on the generator during its
working period, with consequent economy in cost of fuel: In
a system of this kind a so-called shuntbooster is used to force charging current into the battery against the latter's counter e.m.f.,
the connections being shown in Fig. 290. The field winding of
is connected across the main bus-bars, never across
its own armature, hence the machine is really separately excited.
the booster
is
is
manually controlled
FIG. 290.
made when
may
is
low, or
when discharged
if
the
assist-
demand
to the permissible
limit gives 1.8 volts per cell, and when fully charged requires
"
an impressed e.m.f. of 2.65 volts per cell to give it the overcharge" that is periodically required to keep it in good condition.
load.
350
capable of generating
E (^rir
l)
110-
maximum
The capacity
when the latter delivers its maxiand when the voltage is highest,
overcharge, the current must be consid-
low,
51
cells.
Consequently in such a
system 61
number
cells
would be
of end-cells
may
installed, 10 of
be reduced
if
them
The
as end-cells.
the booster
field is
pro-
vided with a reversing switch, for in that case the booster e.m.f.
can be made to oppose that of the battery to a sufficient extent
to bring the terminal voltage to the proper value.
In
194. The Constant-current or Non-reversible Booster.
isolated plants supplying a
load, as in hotels
and
office buildings, it is
fluctuating
motor
necessary to maintain a
351
is
FIG. 291.
motor load
results in
up the fluctuations
of
If
352
fully charged.
115
laver
0.05
magnetic
circuit
rates of discharge produce chemical changes of great velocity in a thin surface film of the active material, thereby preventing the electrolyte from
'
that
353
Booster.
In
systems in which
it
is
not
in Fig.
booster in that the current through its armature is not unidirectional, though in both types the shunt and series field windThe object of the booster is
ings are differentially connected.
to hold the load on the generator at a constant value equal to
the average load on the system, leaving the battery to take up
the fluctuations.
It is adapted to systems in which the average
load
is
large
FIG. 292.
of the fluctuations.
The
charge
mature
23
On
if
the load
354
falls
ing,
with the result that a charging current flows into the battery.
of the booster is determined by the fact that
maximum current and maximum e.m.f. occur simultaneously.
Although the open-circuit voltage of the battery is nominally
equal to that of the generator and of the system, its actual
voltage may vary over a considerable range, depending upon
the state of the battery charge. To compensate these changes
The capacity
the excitation of the shunt field must be adjusted by hand regulation of a rheostat in series with the shunt winding.
196. Auxiliary Control of Boosters.
Both the reversible and
its
nor
An
discharges.
results in
increase
an increase
of
load
355
of the current
generated e.m.f.
Shunt
FIG. 293.
Hubbard counter
e.m.f.
S consisting
of
FIG. 294.
in such a manner
of the electromagnet is balanced by a spring
that the lever presses upon the piles of carbon plates, R i and R%,
with forces that make the resistances of the two piles equal to
each other.
The carbon
piles are
356
the top and to one terminal of the field winding /' of a small
motor-driven exciter E; at their lower ends the carbon piles are
equal to that of the line, will neither charge nor discharge. If the
load current increases there will be a tendency to increase the
generator current through S, and the pressure on RI will be
increased; this causes a reduction of the resistance of RI and
the auxiliary battery will send a current through /', thereby
generating an e.m.f. in the exciter armature and energizing
the field of the booster. The field windings of E and B are
connected in such order that the booster voltage adds to that of
the main battery and a discharge results. In case the load falls
below its average value, the spring
overpowers the pull of S
and the resistance of R 2 becomes less than that of Ri producing
is
affected
way
357
S can produce
of
variation
the
a
narrow
on
carbon plates,
range
pressure
only
hence the unbalancing of the bridge circuit can produce only
moderate current through circuit/' (or/).
199.
The
Bijur System
external
illustrated
control,
Wheatstone
principle of the
or
bridge,
potentiometer circuit.
The equal
ratio
arms Ri and
#2,
graduated
Spring
S or by the
The battery
restraining spring.
designed to have a normal
IS
FIG. 265.
will neither charge nor discharge when the system is carrying its
average load if the control apparatus is adjusted so that under
these conditions the lever is horizontal for the booster field / is
;
will flow
through
it
in such a
358
e.m.f.
and a flow
in that the latter involve a variation of generator current proportional to the battery charge or discharge, whereas the former
The
parts will produce a continuous movement of the lever.
excitation of the booster will then go on increasing in the proper
direction to relieve the generator of all but the initial variation.
200. Balancers.
Fig. 296 (a, b and c) represents three
methods
of
possible
connecting a balancer set for the purpose of
maintaining equality, or approximate equality, between the voltages on the two sides of a three-wire system (see Art. 123, Chap.
VI).
If, with the connections shown in Fig. 296a, the load becomes unbalanced, the voltage on the more heavily loaded side
will fall while that on the more lightly loaded side will rise.
Under these conditions the unit on the heavily loaded side will act
as a generator, thereby checking the extent of the voltage drop,
while the other unit will act as a motor and so limit the rise of
voltage on that side; but the drop in speed of the balancer, due to
the load on the motor element, will prevent the generator element
from assuming a sufficient part of the unbalanced load to maintain the potential of the neutral as nearly constant as would be
the case were the speed to remain constant. A partial compensation of this shift of the neutral may be effected by the system
of field connections
in voltage
shown
motor, thus tending to increase its speed, while at the same time
the rise in voltage on the lightly loaded side will strengthen
the field of the generator element, thereby tending to still further
balance the voltage on the two sides of the system; but the
359
balance cannot be perfect for the reason that the automatic response of the balancer depends for its inception upon an actual
unbalancing of the voltage. Perfect regulation is however posif the units comprising the balancer are compound-wound
as in Fig. 296c, where the series windings are connected in
such a manner that the current in the neutral excites the gensible
motor
it
acts
differentially.
The
a
FIG. 296.
Connections of balancer
set,
three-wire system.
1
The condition to, be satisfied by
Lighting.
any system of train lighting is that the lamp voltage shall be
maintained at a constant value independently of the number
201. Train
of
with
under each
car, is
360
The straight storage system was used in the earliest installations of electric lighting on steam railroads.
It has the disadvantage that the gradual exhaustion of the battery results in
toward the end of long runs. The batteries
must be charged at terminal or division points, or else be reinferior illumination
from the car axle will not only vary through wide
the
machine
but
must be capable of operating in either
limits,
direction.
Generators of the ordinary types do not possess
inherent operating characteristics suitable for such service, and
to make a machine of ordinary type conform to the requirements, more or less elaborate regulating devices must be used.
Naturally, axle-driven generators must be used in connection
with storage batteries in order that the lights may not go out
when the train is stationary or when the speed is so low that
the generator voltage is less than the normal lamp voltage.
The design of generators for automobile lighting is similar
to that of axle-driven machines for train lighting except that
there is no need to provide for reversal of the direction of rotation.
This follows from the fact that in the former case the
generator is driven from the engine, which always runs in the
positively driven
same
direction.
202. Voltage
prevent
Regulation
in
variation
Train
To
of
the
Lighting Systems.
the candle-power of
objectionable
lamps, automatic regulation must be provided to compensate
charge and
361
full discharge,
Under
electrical
or electromagnetic
methods
of regulation
be grouped
which voltage control
of resistance in the
variation
by the automatic
all
systems in
is
may
obtained
(a)
lamp circuit or
by the utilization
Examples
of
articles.
following
203. Resistance
Regulation.
Fig.
362
If
the
movement
pile
r,
increase of
EB
solenoids Si
as an ohmic drop in R.
Since the response of the
and $ 2 is dependent upon a variation of EL the
,
204. Generator
method
Field Regulation.
Fig. 298 illustrates a
of regulating the generator voltage by the variation of a
FIG. 297.
resistance
ing
its
voltage.
To
of solenoid
is ar-
363
FIG. 298.
is
field
rheostat
established
S',
series
FIG. 299.
364
The pole-changer
is
repre-
of Fig. 298,
but
contact C.
Thus,
the
field
if
closes contact
FIG. 300.
Combined
field
and
&
erted
Coil
winding of the generator, is controlled by the pressure exupon it by levers operated by the plungers of coils S and A.
and
is
adjusted to hold
the current at
line, is
having 16-cell lead batteries (2.45 volts per cell); and at 78 volts
on "60-volt" equipments having 32 cells of lead batteries. If
Edison batteries are used, these voltages are set at 43 volts and
on part of
86 volts, respectively, by opening the short-circuit
The object of
the resistance in series with the voltage coil A.
XY
365
limiting the generator voltage to 2.45 volts per cell of lead battery is to prevent excessive overcharging of the battery when the
;
fully charged, the charging current will then automatThe limitation of generator
ically taper down to a safe value.
current imposed by coil S prevents overloading of the generator
battery
is
is normal.
In this system the armatures of the magnets controlling the
generator and the lamp circuit are provided with air dash-pots
having graphite plungers. The effect of variation of temperature
upon the voltage coils of the generator and lamp regulators is
compensated by means of resistors, having zero temperature
coefficients, placed in series with these coils.
The automatic switch for establishing the connection between
falls
diagrammatic form another system which inlamp regulator and a generator field regulator, F. The
300a shows
cludes a
in
366
automatic switch
coil
their
AHM,
contact,
is
energized, contact
is
closed,
The
4=^=3C
367
berg generator,
first
properties are
which
it
(1)
that
it
is
The diagram
is
is
increased.
shown
in
Fig. 301, but it will be understood that with suitable modifications the principle is applicable to multipolar machines.
The
FIG. 301.
Diagram
of
battery E, which must be used in connection with the generator if the latter is to function properly, supplies current to
when the
the lamps
winding
//,
The brushes
1
368
its
load.
circuited
auxiliary
is,
ordinary generator.
Rotation of the armature through the magnetic field set up
by // will produce a flow of current through the short-circuited
armature along axis bb, thereby creating a powerful cross-field,
b,
the main
The machine
what
is
usually
culty as might
still
exist
is
further overcome
by notching the
369
fore,
may
directly
on the axle
itself.
On
Thus
let
n = speed
armature in r.p.m.
of the
If
flux
may
duces
it,
Eb = c^ B n
(1)
(2)
$B =
$6 =
E =
t
c z (n/if
C 3 n6
Ci$b n
ia r a
(5)
(n/if
n a i a )n
(3)
(4)
there results
(4),
CiC 2 c 3
na ia )
XXVI,
1005, p. 525.
(6)
370
and substituting
this value of
E =
--
Ci c 2 c 3
in (5)
3?b
n a i a )n 2
(nf if
i a ra
(7)
and
-E
ra -f c^n a n
n f if ~
na
_1
2
ra
J.
JL^
(>
where
C4
9
2
Ci C 2 C 3
From
(a)
If
equation
(8)
0, i a
II.
may
be drawn:
TT
~,
which means, simply, that were it not for the aluminum cell C the
armature, at standstill, would be a dead short-circuit on the line
(or battery), the negative sign of
into the armature from the line.
(6)
If
n =
oo
}
ia
= --
or
n a ia
Tl a
ia
= nf if
- --fl>a
the
field circuit
controls
ia
must be
positive,
hence
^= E
n2
c4n
or
a
Et
a
K TO.
(ia)max
- -
~^
is
~
c^ria
n2
maximum ohmic
drop in
371
the armature to the line voltage, and since this ratio must be
small from considerations of efficiency,
still
follows that
it
5 is
speed
Equations
(8)
and
(9)
H =
and that
it
~
pi
= Mmax ~
-i
'~2
(9)
HQ
\l
-- -I^t
r-r-r
\c 4 na ^ a ) m ax
rapidly approaches
(ia } max
ia
zero
is
Et -
*/
when
ftf\\
(10)
\c4nt
increases.
For example, suppose that the generator is to supply a maxi50 amperes at a terminal voltage of 50 volts and
that it is to pick up its load at a speed of 300 r.p.m.
From (10),
mum current of
50
'
300
c 4 na
50
and from
(9)
.
This
is
4.5
shown
10 6
in Fig. 302.
The manner
(2), (3)
and
path
66,
(9), resulting in
the expression
(il)
4 =
of
372
80
70
60
&
50
40
30
20
10
2
000
800
77
Uevoluti ns per
1000
1200
1400
Min
-20
-40
-GO
-80
-100
FIG. 302.
ence of small values of n, they depart only slightly from the correct curves within the range shown in the diagram.
An examination of Fig. 301 will show that in two of the quadrants of the armature winding the currents i a and 4 flow in the
same direction in the conductors, and in the other two quadrants
former
is
.
and reaches a
when n =
maximum
Et
'
\^a)max
d(4
or
373
i b)
~^*
value
2E
_!_
Et
_
1.
"
when
1
-1 = o
O)
FIG. 303.
same
direction
The
figure
is
drawn
in
374
two parts in order to show with greater clearness the effect of the
two pairs of brushes; the arrows on the armature conductors of
part (a) show the direction of flow of ia and those in (6) serve
,
similarly for
ib .
The
direction of
is
determined by applying
initial
ia
produces a torque
in
value from
(8) is
is
from n
I~~P
to
^
n = \
\ C^Uf
compound motor.
modification of the Rosenberg type of generator, together with a special method of voltage control, developed by
Inthe Electric Storage Battery Co., is illustrated in Fig. 304.
stead of connecting the shunt field winding across the machine
209.
375
coefficients.
The
junc-
field are
lamp
circuit
effect of
Auxiliary Switch
GOAmp.Fuse
FIG. 304.
circuits,
Electric
Storage
376
tween the voltages of generator and battery; and the switch will
open when the current in the series coil drops to zero.
210. The Wagner Automobile Lighting Generator. 1
The principle of the utilization of armature reaction embodied in the
Rosenberg generator is also used in the Wagner automobile
The
lighting generator, though in a quite different manner.
FIG. 305.
Diagram
of connections of
connections of the
Wagner machine,
midway between
winding
field
1
is
1914.
II, Pt. I,
No.
1,
July,
377
of the
shunt
field
action.
is
such
that the shunt winding is connected across that part of the armature winding lying under the leading half of the pole face, as
shown in Fig. 305, and moreover the machine is intended for
variable instead
directly
of
constant-speed operation, as
The
of the automobile.
chine presents a
number
it
is
driven
Wagner ma-
motor
been modified by the omission of the series field winding, experience having shown that its effects contributed little or nothing
The analytical theory presented below has been
of value.
worked out on the assumption that the series winding is present,
but it is interesting to note that the form of the equations indi-
378
minor
effects,
thus checking
tend to
will
weaken the
field
in
netomotive
force
and
the
of
decompounding
(2)
by
away from
the lead-
FIG.
306.
netizmg
-Demagdue to
effect
short-circuited coil.
it
from the fact that the auxiliary brush b shortan element of the armature winding that lies opposite tha
middle of the pole face and in which there is generated an active
circuits
under the leading half of the pole face (see Fig. 306).
An examination of the diagram of connections given in Fig. 305
will show that the operation of this machine is not independent
of the direction of rotation, for a reversal of the direction of
rotation will cause the shunt winding to subtend the trailing half
of the poles
This feature
and radically
is
not
it
379
ANALYTICAL THEORY
The
sis
following symbols recur frequently throughout the analyand are tabulated below for convenient reference:
E =
Ea =
shunt
speed in r.p.m.
resistance of shunt field
=
i =
n =
r =
=
r/
ra =
field
armature
current
winding
=
= series field turns per pair of poles
Z = number of armature conductors
$> = flux per pole
d = diameter of armature
= length of core
T = pole-pitch
= air-gap
= ratio of pole arc to pole-pitch
=
number of poles
p
a = number of parallel paths through
Bg = flux density in air-gap.
n,
nf
I'
<5
\l/
armature
to divide into
currents
ii, i z
and
i 3)
l
= Ai
l
Ais
(12)
380
the sloping line aba' of Fig. 307. Under the pole faces this
m.m.f. will produce a transverse field whose intensity at any
may
represented by the saddle-shaped curve. The resulting demagnetizing effect in the leading half of the pole face, between
a'
FIG. 307.
i.
line P,
ductors under a pole face, the m.m.f. acting upon this circuit
will
be
'o
>
na rf
consumed
in
the air-gap at each pole tip (assuming that the reluctance of the
iron part of the circuit is negligible in comparison with that of
the air-gap).
If the length of the air-gap, corrected to take
slots,
2'
10
is
10 326
(15)
current
%i
flowing in the
381
opposite quadrant, as indicated in Fig. 309, this being a consequence of the fact that the winding has two layers. Under the
leading half of the pole face between brushes b and BI, the effect
X'2
N
Distribution of m.m.f. due to current
FIG. 308.
of this current
due to
1 47T
o 77;
is
this
^ ne
anc*
is >
Ir47r
is
3Zis
'
2L10
corresponding
The magnetizing
at a
current
point
opposite
The m.m.f.
brush b is
Tyr qnrjj.
is,
belt of
it .
'
flux represented
by the hatched
then given by
r_
3~26~
field
4ir3Zi s
10 ^26^
47r
3Zi s rl
(16)
10 2566
Consider now the effect of the current Yi8 flowing from brush
brush BI by way of the long path through
conductors.
Again bearing in mind that the actual space distribution of this
belt of current is as shown in Fig. 310, it will be clear that the
currents in the two layers of the first and third quadrants neu-
%Z
6 to
tralize so far as
sideration
Comparing
magnetic
only those in
the
this distribution
due to
%i
s)
Yi
effect is
&
is
only
382
<t>
4?r
m = 3'TO
The
face
is
[1
(2^
I)
4rr
ZisTl^
To"
-l)*] (17)
it is
(18)
10 325
FIG. 310.
FIG. 309.
FIGS. 309
Taking ^
and 310.
0.7, (18)
becomes (nearly)
(19)
brush
b.
through the strongest part of the field, so that the current set
up in them may have considerable magnitude. Since the
is opposite the center of the pole face, the field intensity
at that point is not appreciably affected by the cross-magnetizing action of the main current i and not to any great extent by
brush b
the currents
%4
and
}i
a.
It
may
383
the e.m.f. generated in the short-circuited element and, therethe short-circuit current as well, is directly proportional
fore,
the speed.
Since this short-circuit current is always so
directed that it produces a demagnetizing effect in the leading
to
Pis
(ai
yn), where 7 is a constant depending upon the average flux density in the air-gap, the number of turns per armature
winding element, and upon the resistance of the element and the
(***
p =
(20)
8p
is
Y^ -
The
and
e.m.f.
<l>,
ai
- yn
pi,
then
b is
(%<
where Z'
OU
Xr^n
\/ ins'
/\ JLU
ai
Pi,
yn)Z'n
arma-
Q^$ -
ai
Pis
yn) Z'n
i s ra
~^~
Substituting in (21) the value of
there
is
i3
from
(14)
and solving
for
itt
(22)
384
The
useful flux
shunt and
3> is
produced by the
may
magnetic saturation is
be taken as proportional to the net
if
is,
$ =
and the
and
Ea =
n fi)
Ci(n a i8
3>Z'n
(23)
is
cn(n 8 i s
n f i)
(24)
where
(25)
Since the total generated e.m.f. must be equal to the sum of the
terminal voltage and the ohmic drops in the series field winding
and in the armature, there is the further relation that
Ea = E +
t
irf
i,(2r a }
= E
i(r a
rf )
+^
i.
(26)
ii
from equation
(12).
and
E4 l
-o) = E>+
'+ r
z/nl (28)
where
R =
ra
+ %r a
*+yZ'n* + E
a
pZ'n
i,
it is
(29)
found that
(ra +r,)j8Z'
7
aZ']
+ (ra+r^ + y^}- ^
(30)
385
(31)
= n
(an s
(ra
is
+ rf )(3Z' -
a Z'
(r a
rf ) (r s
FIG. 311.
(32)
will in general
Fig. 311,
be
and the
386
the curves will cross the axis of ordinates at a distance below the
by
origin given
.
(rs
+ %r
a ).
of the
by putting yd =
parabola
0, in
which
case
where
m=
q
s
The two
=
=
(an s
cnf
(r
(ra
-^
|)
r,) (r,
+ %r )
if
(r
r^2
-j-
> 4ms,
in
in
In any case,
o
it
r,) (ra -f
fr a )
2
~|
-^J
above the
origin.
corresponding
machine
is
and
suppose that 7
short-circuited
this
387
then
reduces to
y
'
- E
(r8
(34)
and n will have the form of Fig. 313. Since in practice 7 will
always be greater than zero, it is important to investigate this
case further, and in particular to determine the condition that
i
be seen that
FIG. 313.
FIG. 312.
FIGS. 312
and 313.
curve y'n, Fig. 311, the current through the machine will be negative for positive values of speed, which would mean that the
machine would run as a motor and not as a generator.
Proceeding, then, to the analysis of equation (31),
seen that
dy,
dn
^1
dy,
'
If
is
Z'ri2
= -[ScnsJ Z'n -
ra yZ'n
=
Gen,
easily
r aJ Z'}
it is
it is
388
which means that one of these points lies to the right of the
There is a point
origin and the other to the left of the origin.
of inflection in the curve
where -~%
0,
that
is,
when n =
which, on substituting
.
-x +
.'
becomes
+ !2cV\ x
- -(
+ cn yll^^J^
+r
Z'
6\2Z'
L
7 VIZ'
is
(36)
en)
This equation
.:..-,,;
of the
--}
cnj
1
J
~^ 108c n 8 3
3
=0
(37)
form
X3
%X
-f-
rj
which
will
have three
real roots
if
is
greater than
j-.
and
(38)
t
cn s yl
Z'
6\2Z'
'
108c 3 n s 3
cn s /J
To reduce the values of and 77 to simpler and more manageable form, it is necessary to evaluate the characteristic constants
that enter into their expressions. Thus, from (23)
flux per pole
where k
Bg^/rl
1.65^5
\fsrl
1.6&5
389
1.25.
It
follows
The magnitude
CiZ
'
'
of the constant
is
cf>
by brush
b is given
If
is
and
47T
where S
^
o^
1>
the
is
_Z_
10 2S
number
is e s
where
c .,
or 7
the average
r is the
apparent
ls c
-
Z trle
'
4ir
s.c.
10 2S 45
of
commutator segments.
But
is
e,. e .
--
c.
c>
by yn,
25
as a general rule.
es
(39)
given by
1C 8
"
In practice,
hence
=
n
2400
W V
10 8
and 7
be found that
in (38), it will
and
of
17
become
dr /S\* /I
10 10 E
Etdr
(\* /
ir,*Z'BT*l* \Z) \
12
<n
38.4/c
10 10
rs 8 2 r
1.09 kZ\
)
(41)
/S\"
I
27
1
The
factor
short-circuits
elements in
series.
390
and reducing,
it
follows that
10.85
rs 2 5B g ap
k'
1.09/cZ\
The
is
(42)
\8
all
means that the characteristic curve of Fig. 313 will always cut the
axis of n in two points lying to the right of the origin and in one
point to the left of the origin; the latter point has no practical
significance, since it relates to the condition of running back-
^>
~T,
equation (37)
is
the irreducible
sin
where
le
V27
1
trig-
(60-
sin (60
sin
by
(43)
391
of Fig.
= -^Qcn s
x\/f
3
sin
ye
3
r,.
(60
and
17
- HO)
from
(44)
sin 8
It
rs
't!-'*i
a5B g p
i
no^y\
/^\
and
of Fig. 311 shall
of the generator requires that the points
be separated as widely as possible; and it is also important that
point
advantage of a low
and therefore
equation (45) shows
pick-up -speed.
6, shall be small.
Inspection of
that the conditions to be satisfied to meet this requirement are
also sin
as follows:
1. Make the resistance r as large as possible, that is, make
the brush b of hard carbon with the smallest practicable dimenThe desirability of this design is involved in the discussions.
2.
-)
3.
\n s
small
field
resist-
(a
2).
392
It is interesting to
curve
y' n of Fig.
line L.
constant value
(-^
&Z
and that
is
given by
yZ'(2cn.n*
r.n),
mum
degree in n.
If, therefore, equation (30) is simplified by dropping terms containing 7, the approximate expression for i be-
comes
ran 2
r__ ~
=
CUs
--
R7>
+ pZ
_L_
/.
CUs
V-g-
qn
0, it is
+
_1_
R7> /}
pz
found that
/.
m ( CU
\-g
is
with
ra,
and
ra
in
ra
maximum
(47) are
negligible.
It
somewhat
conclusion
is
393
= 2n(n. - W)cZ>
it is
cn,r
INDEX
refer to pages)
(Numbers
167
98
Armature, characteristic
circuits,
Abampere,
Abcoulomb,
definition
of.... 11,
definition of
coils
12
227
72
Acyclic generator
Air ducts, armature
63
120
ampere-turns
119, 120
142
chamfering required by
flux density
65
-gap, area
distribution
145, 147, 152, 155
121
fringing correction
325
44
52
44
46, 50
All-day efficiency
Alternating-current machines..
e.m.f. rectification
Alternator
generated e.m.f
Altitude, effect
Ambient temperature
Ampere, definition of
Ampere-conductors
Ampere-turns
air-gap
armature core
armature, per pole
cross-magnetizing
demagnetizing
field, per pole
and shoes
teeth
yoke
Armature
amp-turns per pole
300
96
62
128
excitation
63, 89
disk....;
drum
88
62
e.m.f. generated in
56
145
field, shape of
283
flux
340
heating
133
magnetizing action of
reaction
133, 137, 205, 286
361, 366
regulation by
resistance
57, 305
\
88
ring
eddy currents
on temperature
rise
interpole
pole cores
of
17
12
Abvolt, definition of
Acceleration of trains
number
329
328
15
146
25
119, 120
128
142
Axis, of
commutation
137, 241
133
134
359
geometrical neutral
neutral
B
Back ampere-turns
138, 141
e.m.f
138, 141
Balancer
138, 141
142
300
191,
199
358
128
124
129
44
142
discharge rate
end
cells
train
equipment
voltage range
Bearing friction
395
350, 351
350
360
349, 351
314
INDEX
396
Bijur system, booster control..
357
Biot-Savart, law of
10
Rosenberg machine..
Bipolar machines
59
cross-magnetizing
turns
138
demagnetizing amp-turns. 138
347
Booster
354
auxiliary control
357
Bijur system of control..
constant current
350
differential
353
Entz control system
355
Hubbard control system.
354
motor capacity for shunt
350
348
negative
non-reversible
350
reversible
353
.
347
348
348
series
shunt
track return
Bridge control
Brushes'.
66,
231
292
current density
67, 249, 254,
293
240, 247
holders
315
66
lead
137
pressure
67
93
264
friction loss
sets required
'wide, effect of
294
width
Building up of generators
326
Capacity of machines
122
commutation
Characteristics
armature
compound generator
motor
.
204
168
209
generator
motor
shunt generator
motor
Chord windings
demagnetizing
173
208
101, 262, 293
effect of. ...
267
161
168
181
211
.166
143
Coefficient of coupling
37
dispersion or leakage. .117, 129
mutual-induction
273
335
self-induction, 33, 268, 295, 300
105
Coil, armature
36,
output
dummy
102
mutual inductance of
273
100
numbering of
order of commutation. 259
.
heating of
field intensity
on
axis of
295,300
79
343
.
drop of potential at
load
series
373
162
motor
field
contact resistance
criterion for
.369,
tor
amp-
16
20
290
Commutating devices
e.m.f 242, 244, 246, 249, 276, 293
field
142, 280, 295, 297
poles, 71, 279, 297, 298, 300, 301
Commutation
135, 237
256, 264
adjacent coils
axis of
137, 241
criterion
246, 267
286
improvement of
linear
238, 243, 248
over238, 243, 246, 262
237, 263
period of
240
resistance
selective, in wave windings, 263
sinusoidal
238, 248
259
successive phases
under-....
239, 243, 256
240
voltage
without auxiliary devices.. 292
262
Commutator blackening
19,
construction
60, 71
INDEX
Commutator diameter
61
315
'heating
61, 329, 334, 345
62
peripheral velocity
97
pitch
segments, current density 250
number of
96
voltage betweeen
61, 295
287
Compensating devices
Compensation of armature reaction
286
77
Compound excitation
397
Cross-field,
generator characteristics.
..
motor
characteristics
Compounding
effect
of
181
188
211
generators in parallel
inter-
Conductors, number of
.138, 141
211
11,
17
45
density in brushes
67, 249, 254,
293
at
44
direct
direction of force
due
to.
12
eddy or Foucault
force due to
heating due to
62
10
15
induced
15
practical unit of.
short-circuit
238, 282, 382
arma96
350
ture
171
regulation
Contact resistance of brushes 240, 247
Contactors
Continuous current
rating of motors
Control of boosters
bridge
series-parallel
Cooling curves
Core, armature
233
45
326, 332
354
231
227
217
229
336
62
128
123
ampere-turns for
corrected length
heating of
339
losses, 304, 306, 314, 315, 345
65, 296
pole
128, 300
ampere-turns for
3
Coulomb, law of
Counter e.m.f
199, 214
37
Coupling, coefficient of
246, 267
Criterion, sparking
368
Cross-field
magnetizing action of
corrected
component
of
cross-mag-
148
netization
289
1, 25
Deri winding
Diamagnetic substances
Difference
of
elec-
potential,
12
trical
380
compo.
148
7
353
211
215
44
44
350
63, 89
.117, 129
magnetic
Differential booster
compound motor
motors, starting of
Direct current
machine
Discharge rate of battery
Disk armature
Drum
188
235
motors
107
102
Duration of short-circuit
237, 263
43
Dynamo
58
construction of
59
bipolar and multipolar ....
windings
Dummy
.89,
coils
137, 378,
nent..
301
poles
demagnetizing
magnetizing ampere-
turns
friction loss
INDEX
398
Dynamo,
73
68
field excitation
Dynainotor
Elements, number of
End
96
350
cells
connections, form of
E
currents, armature core
pole faces
62
66
351
loss, armature conductors
core
309, 311
313
pole faces
teeth
312
Efficiency
304, 317
325
all-day
commercial or true
317
of conversion
317
electrical
318
maximum
321, 324
mechanical
318
321
variation with load
Electric Power Club
334
Eddy
Electric
system
of
train
374
lighting
Electrical potential
9, 12
regulation of voltage, train
lighting
Electricity, quantity of
361
Electrolysis
348
8
11
Electromagnetic induction
Faraday's law of
13
38
8
46, 50
of
Electromotive force
of alternator
lines
and surfaces
Excitation
of
214
9
48
12
34
"...
11
141
1
magnetic
pulsations
of
reaction
280
short-circuit
115, 282
regulation, train lighting
currents
upon
362, 364
pulsations of
unit of
12, 15
rheostats
90
16
17
at pole tips
reversal of
winding
intensity
due to circular coil
52
33
52, 55
of
of
142
ampere-turns per pole
145
armature, shape of
coil heating
343
commutating, 142, 280, 295, 297
control of speed
219
cross368
displacement of windings, 98
44
dynamo
37
energy of magnetic
excitation
73, 149
297
fringing
343
heating of coils
rectification of alternating
of self-induction
'
13
348
solenoid
199,
8,
Feeders, negative
Field, air-gap distribution
straight wire
counter
see
Field Excitation.
dynamos
commutating
Element
105
343
leakage flux
268, 271
Energy stored in magnetic field, 37
Entz system of booster control, 355
187
Equalizer
107
Equipotential connections
heating
commutating
142,
step of windings
295
81
100
INDEX
Field windings
75, 76, 79, 343
12
Fleming's left-hand rule
9, 32
right-hand rule.
4
Flux
24
65
65
297
density
air-gap
pole cores
teeth
399
70
Generator, turbo-
Wagner automobile
light-
366, 376
ing
21
Gilbert, definition
Gould system of train lighting.. 362
Gravitational potential
II
distribution, air-gap
145, 147, 152, 155, 283
leakage
end-connection
268, 271
Heating of armature
328, 340
commutator, 328, 329, 333, 345
curves
336
due to current..
15
of end-connections
343
of field coils
343
of railway motors
332
326
Heat run
33
Henry, definition
72
Homopolar generator
328
Hottest-spot temperatures
268
slot
268, 270
tooth-tip
20
5
from magnet pole
Force, magnetic, due to current. 10
direction of, due to current. 12
linkages
Foucault
see
currents
Eddy
Currents
Fractional pitch windings
101, 262, 293
demagnetizing
143
Friction loss
314, 320
Fringing of flux
121, 123
179
Froelich's equation
3
48
43
Gauss, definition
Generated
Generator
e.in.f
acyclic,
72
polar
76,
83,
171
185
combined output
compound, characteristics. 181
division of load
Lundell
parallel operation
polarity
Rosenberg
separately excited
series
shunt
stability of operation
three-wire
188
297
186
83
366, 374
162
75, 168
173
170
191
of,
16
Hubbard
system
of
booster
control
Hysteresis
loss.
e.m.f.
354
116
306
331
8
12, 48
Imbedded-detectors
Induced current
8,
Inductance of armature
homopolar or uni-
117, 129
coils
see Self-induction
8
24
Induction, electromagnetic
lines of
magnetization by
Insulation, classes of
temperature limits
328
328, 332
3
Intensity, field
axis of coil
16
17
solenoid
of magnetization
Interpole machines
motors
Interpoles
Iron loss..
71,
.
'.
39
71
220
279, 297, 300
304
INDEX
400
Iron
eddy currents,
loss,
306,308,312,313
306, 308
314
hysteresis
total..
Loss line
Lundell generator.
15
Joule, definition of
165
297
26
27
field
145
4
uniform
Kirchhoff's laws, 30, 108, 244, 263
flux
force, lines
and tubes
of
due to current
Lap winding,
263
Laplace, law of
Lead of brushes
10
137
117
coefficient of..
117, 129
flux, end-connections. .268, 271
13
130
268
268, 270
slots
tooth-tip
Left-hand
rule,
Fleming's
Lenz'slaw
14,
12
32
of coils
reluctance
intensity of
Magnetizing action of armature
Magnetomotive force
Maximum
Load
20
of flux
166
325
304
characteristic
curve
Losses
flux
pole, unit
from
efficiency
definition of
Maxwell,
Mechanical characteristics,
motors
equivalent of heat
313
counter e.m.f
total
314, 345
direction of rotation
division of load..
miscellaneous
305
306
305
314, 320
315
stray power
317,
field
mechanical
summary
of
318
317
43, 199
308, 312
commutator
5
322, 324
350
capacity, shunt booster
compound, characteristics. 211
pole face
teeth
copper, armature
2
39
133
21
2
199
16
losses
304, 314, 315, 320
361
regulation of voltage
Miscellaneous losses, 304, 315, 316
Motor
6
20
26
by induction
number
19,
Magnetism, residual
75, 83
24
Magnetization curves
of dynamos.
.113, 115, 116
Magnet
force
117, 129
potential
359
Lighting of trains
Lincoln adjustable speed motor. 221
Linkages,
12
direction of
leakage
Leakage, magnetic
pole cores
shoes
10
enclosed, rating of
interpole
power
of
railway
heating of
reversing
199, 214
85
235
345
220
199
224
332
214
INDEX
Motor, Rosenberg
separately excited
series
shunt
speed regulation, shunt..
pulsation, interpole
starting of
differential
compound.
373
204
209
208
217
303
202
215
199
torque
68
Motor-generator
94
Multiplex windings
Multipolar machines
45, 59
cross- and
demagnetizing
effect
139
.
induction
.
X
348
348
134
Negative booster
feeder
Neutral axis
geometrical
Non-reversible booster
effect
133
350
on temperature
rise
Permeance
Pig-tail connectors
Pitch of windings
Polarity of generators
Pole arc, corrected length
121
361, 364
changer
commutating
ampere-turns
for.
construction of
65,
flux density in
131
leakage
.
construction
eddy current
Potential curve.
128
65
66, 313
130
296
.
loss
leakage flux
saturation
unit magnet
Poles, choice of number of
2,
9,
discovery of
Ohmic
gravitational
magnetic
of motors
6, 19,
20
199
commutating
magnitude of
field.
280
55
303
10
304
armature
305
commutator
306
field
305
335
Output coefficient
334
equation
Overcommutation, 238, 243, 246, 262
losses
.159
operation of generators.
windings
Paramagnetic substances
Period of commutation
12
energy
e.m.f.,
26
59
154
electrical.
Pulsations,
Oersted, definition
300
128
296
65
Power
341
23
27
68
97
83
Permeability
273
34
36
coil
218
coefficient of
401
186
92, 100
1,
25
237, 263
Quantity of
electricity, unit..
11
R
229
224
225
cycle of operations
332
heating
226, 332
rating
332
stand-test
326
Rating
continuous and short-time 326
345
enclosed motors
Railway controllers
motors
INDEX
402
332
293
205
286
137
regulation of voltage by, 361, 366
of short-circuit currents, 1 15, 282
.226,
Rectification
of
alternating
52
e.m.f
Reentrancy, degree of
94, 103
Regulation, definition
161
by armature
171
curve
168
362, 364
field
362
217
360
362, 364
Regulator, lamp
195
26
Tirrill
Reluctance
armature winding
Resistance,
296
297
290
376
Sayers' winding
generator
Segments
of
commutator, num-
ber
96
average voltage between, 61, 295
current density
250
Selective commutation
263
Self-excitation
74
Self -inductance
33
of armature coils.. 268, 295, 300
32
Self-induction
coefficient of. .33, 268, 295, 300
e.m.f. of
33
Separate excitation
Separately excited generator.
motor
204
347
159
74
distribution
excitation
75, 168
353
81
83
203
Rheostatic control of speed. ... 217
9
Right-hand rule, Fleming's ....
Ring winding
89, 91, 241, 256
Rocker ring
66
Rosenberg generator
366, 374
machine as motor
373
Rotation of motors, direction
of
85
discharge
motor starting
S
Safety Car Heating
&
Lighting
364
186
221
209
320
184
in parallel
...
characteristics
core loss
shunt
windings
362, 364
field
73
162
generators, characteristics
305
brush contact
240, 247
commutation
240
field, effect on speed. ..... 178
measurement of temperature rise by
331
Rheostat,
Series booster
57,
Reversible booster
Series-parallel control
227
distribution
159
103
259
windings
Short-circuit of adjacent coils.
current curves
demagnetizing effect
duration of
reaction of
Shunt booster
of..
237,263
115, 282
348
76
excitation
76, 173
generators
187
in parallel
208
217
76
94
motors
speed regulation
windings
Simplex windings
Simpson's rule
Sinusoidal commutation..
238
382
.238,
128
248
INDEX
Slot,
268
97
64
120
leakage flux
pitch
shape of
Slotted armatures
Smooth core armatures
119
17
281
246, 267
Sparking constants
criterion..
motor
209
208
shunt motor
effect
on
of,
separately
excited generator
165
on series generator
on shunt generator
pulsations, interpole motors
regulation, shunt motor.
170
177
303
217
227
Speed-time curves
Stability of operation of generators
170
332
Stand-test, railway motors
Starting of motors
202, 215
rheostats
203
Stone train lighting generator. 361
.
Surfaces,
characteristic
328, 329
330, 331
328
hottest-spot
rise
specifications,
Power Club
334
339
time-constant-.
212, 214
Temperature correction
Thermometer, measurement
motor
403
359
221
359
318
of
Thompson-Ryan winding
330
287
Three-wire generators
191
resistance
by
Thury system
185, 235
Time constant, temperature rise, 339
195
Tirrill
regulator
Tooth-tip leakage flux
268, 270
199, 202
212, 214
Torque
compound motor
motor
shunt motor
Track return booster
series
Tractive
of
effort
207
211
208
348
electromag-
Train lighting
38
359
Tubes
3,5
nets
of force
70
Turbo-generators
Two-circuit windings
winding
-layer windings
see
Wave
104
see
Characteristics.
equipotential
24
Susceptibility
291
Undercommutation
239,
Uniform magnetic field
.
243, 256
Unipolar generator
U. S. Lighting & Heating Co.
system of train light-
366
ing
hysteresis loss in
leakage flux
shape of
Temperature, ambient
124
312
297
308
268, 270
64
328
Ventilating ducts
Volt, definition of
Voltage commutation
4
72
63,
344
15
240
INDEX
218
control of speed
349, 351
limits of batteries
reactance
regulation
161,
360
W
Wagner
automobile
366, 376
of speed
Wave
windings.
selective
15
Windage
258
263
314, 320
88
commutation
in
Winding, armature
chord or fractional pitch
89
52
89
drum
102
dummy
90
element
equipotential connections 107
98
field displacement
100
step
closed-coil
number
of circuits
263
94
98
conductors
9(:
open-coil
89
parallel
pitch of
92
97.
94, 103
resistance
ring
218
control
Watt, definition of
91, 257,
multiplex
reentrancy
lighting
generator
lap
57,
89,
series
series-parallel
305
91,241,256
92
108
94
simplex
104
two-layer
wave, 91, 101, 144, 258,
263, 264
field
75, 76, 79, 343
298
commutating poles
289
Deri
287
Thompson-Ryan
129
65
292
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
IE
LD
21-100m-l2,'46(A2012sl6)4l20
below^