Critical Fracture Stress and Fracture Strain

Models for the Prediction of Lower and

Upper Shelf Toughness in Nuclear Pressure
Vessel Steels
R. O. RITCHIE, W. L. SERVER, AND R. A. WULLAERT
C r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t r e s s and s t r e s s modified f r a c t u r e s t r a i n models a r e utilized to
d e s c r i b e the v a r i a t i o n of lower and upper shelf f r a c t u r e toughness with t e m p e r a t u r e and
s t r a i n rate for two alloy s t e e l s used in the m a n u f a c t u r e of n u c l e a r p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s ,
n a m e l y SA533B-1 (HSST P l a t e 02) and SA302B (Surveillance c o r r e l a t i o n heat). Both
s t e e l s have been well c h a r a c t e r i z e d with r e g a r d to static and d y n a m i c f r a c t u r e toughness
over a wide r a n g e of t e m p e r a t u r e s (- 190 to 200~
although valid JIc m e a s u r e m e n t s at
upper shelf t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e s t i l l somewhat s c a r c e . The p r e s e n t work u t i l i z e s s i m p l e
models for the r e l e v a n t f r a c t u r e m i c r o m e c h a n i s m s and local f a i l u r e c r i t e r i a to p r e d i c t
these v a r i a t i o n s in toughness f r o m u n i a x i a l t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s . P r o c e d u r e s a r e d i s c u s s e d
for modelling the influence of n e u t r o n fluence on toughness in i r r a d i a t e d steel, and p r e dictions a r e d e r i v e d for the effect of i n c r e a s i n g fluence on the v a r i a t i o n of lower shelf
f r a c t u r e toughness with t e m p e r a t u r e in SA533B-1.

DURING

the operation of m o d e r n n u c l e a r r e a c t o r
plants, s t r i n g e n t p r e s s u r e - t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t a t i o n s for
h e a t - u p and cooldown of the r e a c t o r coolant s y s t e m
a r e i m p o s e d to provide adequate safety m a r g i n s a g a i n s t
the p o s s i b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of the f e r r i t i c p r e s s u r e v e s s e l
m a t e r i a l s . B e c a u s e of this c o n c e r n over p o s s i b l e s u b c r i t i c a l or c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s in the r e a c t o r v e s s e l , a
l a r g e r e s e a r c h effort over the last decade has b e e n
d i r e c t e d at fully c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the toughness of n u c l e a r
p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s t e e l s as a function of alloy c o m p o s i tion, r e s i d u a l e l e m e n t content, r e a c t o r operating t e m p e r a t u r e , and s t r a i n - r a t e in both u n i r r a d i a t e d and
neutron irradiated material. 1
N u c l e a r p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s t e e l s , such as SA533B-1,
undergo a c l a s s i c a l f r a c t u r e mode t r a n s i t i o n f r o m low
e n e r g y b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e s at low t e m p e r a t u r e s (lower
shelf) to high e n e r g y ductile f r a c t u r e s at higher t e m p e r a t u r e s (upper shelf), as shown by the C h a r p y Vnotch i m p a c t toughness data in F i g . 1.2 T h i s figure
also i n d i c a t e s the m a r k e d d e g r a d a t i o n in toughness
t h r o u g h a shift of the i m p a c t c u r v e to higher t e m p e r a t u r e s f r o m n e u t r o n i r r a d i a t i o n . F r a c t o g r a p h i c obs e r v a t i o n s 3 in such low s t r e n g t h s t e e l s have shown that,
m i c r o s c o p i c a l l y , low t e m p e r a t u r e (lower shelf) f r a c t u r e s o c c u r by a t r a n s g r a n u l a r cleavage m e c h a n i s m
along low e n e r g y cleavage p l a n e s , w h e r e a s at the
upper shelf, f r a c t u r e o c c u r s by a m e c h a n i s m of m i c r o void c o a l e s c e n c e involving the initiation, growth and
c o a l e s c e n c e of s m a l l voids f o r m e d at i n c l u s i o n s , and
second phase p a r t i c l e s . R e c e n t l y a t t e m p t s have b e e n
made to r e l a t e these m i c r o s c o p i c f a i l u r e modes to the
local m e c h a n i c a l c r i t e r i a g o v e r n i n g f r a c t u r e , with the
objective of d e s c r i b i n g m a c r o s c o p i c f r a c t u r e toughness
b e h a v i o r . F a i l u r e at the lower shelf has b e e n modeled
R. O. RITCHIE is Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering,Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
MA 02139. W. L. SERVER and R. A. WULLAERTare Vice President and President, respectively, Fracture Control Corporation,
Goleta, CA 93017.
Manuscript submitted March 5, 1979.
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA

as s l i p - i n i t i a t e d cleavage f r a c t u r e u s i n g the c r i t i c a l
s t r e s s c r i t e r i o n proposed by Ritchie, Knott, and Rice
(RKR). 4 F a i l u r e at the upper shelf has been modeled
as m i c r o v o i d c o a l e s c e n c e using a s t r e s s modified
s t r a i n c r i t e r i o n o r i g i n a l l y p r o p o s e d by M c C l i n t o c k 5
and adapted by M a c K e n z i e and coworkers.6 S u c c e s s ful a p p l i c a t i o n of such models r e q u i r e s a d e t e r m i n a t i o n
of c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t r e s s and s t r a i n v a l u e s f r o m
notched bend and t e n s i l e t e s t s and a knowledge of p r e cise a n a l y s e s for the e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c s t r e s s and s t r a i n
d i s t r i b u t i o n s ahead of s h a r p c r a c k s , t o g e t h e r with an
e v a l u a t i o n of the m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t s i z e scales governing fracture.
The p r e s e n t s t u d i e s were i n s t i g a t e d to d e t e r m i n e the
f e a s i b i l i t y of applying such s i m p l e models to p r e d i c t
the v a r i a t i o n of both lower and upper shelf static and
d y n a m i c f r a c t u r e toughness with t e m p e r a t u r e and
s t r a i n - r a t e for two f e r r i t i c alloy s t e e l s utilized in the
c o n s t r u c t i o n of n u c l e a r p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s , n a m e l y
SA533B-1 and SA302B. The work c o n s t i t u t e s an ext e n s i o n of s t u d i e s by P a r k s 7 who showed the a p p l i c a b i l ity of the RKR model to d e s c r i b e lower shelf static
t o u g h n e s s in SA533B-1. F u r t h e r , p r o c e d u r e s a r e
developed for d e t e r m i n i n g the influence of i n c r e a s i n g
n e u t r o n fluence on toughness in i r r a d i a t e d s t e e l , and
p r e d i c t i o n s a r e d e r i v e d for lower shelf f r a c t u r e toughn e s s in i r r a d i a t e d SA533B-1.

FRACTURE MODELS
C r i t i c a l S t r e s s Model
for Lower Shelf T o u g h n e s s
E a r l y s t u d i e s of s l i p - i n i t i a t e d low t e m p e r a t u r e
cleavage f r a c t u r e for Mode I loading in mild s t e e l
indicated that cleavage c r a c k s propagate in an u n s t a b l e
m a n n e r when the m a x i m u m p r i n c i p a l (tensile) s t r e s s
(~yy) ahead of a s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t o r exceeds a c r i t i c a l
value (crT), which is r e l a t i v e l y independent of both t e m p e r a t u r e and s t r a i n - r a t e , s'9 T h i s c r i t i c a l s t r e s s c r i t e r i o n for cleavage f r a c t u r e p r e d i c t s f a i l u r e to be

ISSN 0360-2133179/1011-1557500.75/0
9 1979AMERICANSOCIETYFOR METALSAND
THE METALLURGICALSOCIETYOF AIME

VOLUME10A, OCTOBER 1979-1557

By a p p l y i n g the RKR c r i t e r i o n that K = KIc when qyy

e x c e e d s ~ o v e r a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e x = l*
d i r e c t l y ahead of the c r a c k tip, an e x p r e s s i o n for the
f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s is obtained,

TEMPERATURE (~
~00
300

-200

200

400

600
I

SA533B WELD

200

UNIRRADIATED

(~)

IRRADIATED AT 2B8~

160

1 . 3 X 1019 n/crn2 1> 1 MeV)

~o
80

100

o- c~N-t)l~a

[31

where,
0

:s(N)

-150

150

300

TEMPERATURE (~

dependent on the d e g r e e of w o r k h a r d e n i n g and y i e l d

s t r e n g t h in a c h i e v i n g high l o c a l t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s . With
the advent of p r e c i s e e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c s t r e s s d i s t r i b u tions ahead of s h a r p c r a c k s , n a m e l y the a s y m p t o t i c
HRR c r a c k t i p s i n g u l a r i t y of Hutchinson, 1~ and R i c e and
R o s e n g r e n , n s u b s e q u e n t finite e l e m e n t solutions,t% ~3
and the n e a r - t i p s t r e s s and s t r a i n a l t e r a t i o n s due to
finite g e o m e t r y c h a n g e s involved in p r o g r e s s i v e c r a c k
tip blunting, ~4'~5 it b e c a m e p o s s i b I e to r e l a t e s u c h l o c a l
f a i l u r e c r i t e r i a to m a c r o s c o p i c f r a c t u r e b e h a v i o r , a s
d e s c r i b e d by f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s KIc. The RKR m o d e l 4
p r o p o s e s a l o c a l c r i t e r i o n for u n s t a b l e s l i p - i n i t i a t e d
c l e a v a g e a h e a d of sharp cracks which r e q u i r e s the
l o c a l t e n s i l e s t r e s s (~ryy) to e x c e e d a c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e
s t r e s s (o-~) o v e r a m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i z e - s c a l e (l*). A c c o r d i n g l y , the low t e m p e r a t u r e f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s can be r e l a t e d to the m a t e r i a l ' s
y i e l d and f r a c t u r e s t r e s s e s . RKR d e r i v e d q u a n t i t a t i v e
p r e d i c t i o n s of the v a r i a t i o n with t e m p e r a t u r e of the
c l e a v a g e f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s in m i l d s t e e l u s i n g a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e of the o r d e r of two f e r r i t i c
g r a i n d i a m e t e r s . 8 O t h e r w o r k e r s have s i n c e d e m o n s t r a t e d the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h i s m o d e l to f a i l u r e in low
a l l o y s t e e l s , 7 h i g h e r c a r b o n s t e e l s , ~6 and m i l d s t e e l
o v e r a r a n g e of g r a i n s i z e s , ~7,.8 and t i t a n i u m a l l o y s . ~9
The m o d e l can be f o r m u l a t e d a n a l y t i c a l l y 18 by cons i d e r i n g the HRR s m a l l s c a l e y i e l d i n g solution f o r the
plane s t r a i n t e n s i o n s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n a r o u n d a
s t a t i o n a r y c r a c k tip in a n o n l i n e a r e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l ) ~
Using the R a m b e r g - O s g o o d c o n s t i t u t i v e law, in which
the p l a s t i c s t r a i n (~-P) a s a function of e q u i v a l e n t s t r e s s
(~) is g i v e n by gP = eo(-6/o-o) N, the n o r m a l s t r e s s at
d i s t a n c e x directly a h e a d of the c r a c k tip (o-~) i s :

{j~I/(N+I)

[ ,oS J
1558-VOLUME

10A, OCTOBER 1979

[aa]

*It should be noted that Eq. [3] is presetated as one representation of the
analytical form of the RKR model, since it is based solely on the HRR asymptotic crack tip singularity, and correspondingly does not reflect the refinements
in the stress distribution derived from more recent finite element solutions, t%13
or the near-tip alterations due to crack tip blunting./4,is Application of the
model is thus best achieved by reference to these specific solutions.

E x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e
s t r e s s (a~) v a l u e s is a c h i e v e d by f r a c t u r i n g V - n o t c h e d
bend b a r s at low temperatures.4'9'17,2~'22 T r a d i t i o n a l l y
the v a l u e of o-~ has been c a l c u l a t e d f r o m s l i p - l i n e
field t h e o r y to d e t e r m i n e the m a x i m u m l o c a l t e n s i l e
s t r e s s tayy
" max,) at the notch r o o t at f a i l u r e . W h e r e f r a c t u r e loads a r e w e l l below g e n e r a l y i e l d , H i l l ' s e x p o n e n t i a l s p i r a l s l i p - l i n e s o l u t i o n has b e e n used, 21,22
n a m e ly:
max = 2hi1 + ln(1
o-yy

+ r~y/p)]

[4]

w h e r e k is the s h e a r y i e l d s t r e s s , p is the notch r o o t

r a d i u s , and r~ is the c r i t i c a l p l a s t i c zone s i z e d i m e n s i o n . 23 A l t e r n a t i v e l y , by d e t e r m i n i n g the t e m p e r a t u r e
at which f r a c t u r e is c o i n c i d e n t with g e n e r a l y i e l d for
d i f f e r e n t notch flank a n g l e s (0), the G r e e n and Hundy
s o l u t i o n 24 has b e e n e m p l o y e d w h e r e :

ayymaX = 2k[1 + 7r/2 - 0/2], for 0 >_ 6.4 d e g .

[5]

M o r e r e c e n t l y , h o w e v e r , G r i f f i t h s , Owen, and c o w o r k e r s 2s,26 have d e r i v e d a c c u r a t e finite e l e m e n t s o l u tions for the e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s in

V - n o t c h e d f o u r - p o i n t bend s p e c i m e n s for h a r d e n i n g
m a t e r i a l s , and the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of @ is now b e s t
a c h i e v e d using such a n a l y s e s . 17
T h u s , use of the RKR m o d e l s for p r e d i c t i n g the t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n of l o w e r s h e l f f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s
i n v o l v e s d e t e r m i n i n g ~r~, t o g e t h e r with the v a r i a t i o n of

[1]

w h e r e a o is the flow s t r e s s , J the J contour i n t e g r a l 2~

to which the c r a c k is loaded, eo the y i e l d s t r a i n , N the
R a m b e r g - O s g o o d h a r d e n i n g exponent, I a n u m e r i c a l
c o n s t a n t w e a k l y dependent on N, and f(N) the value,
d i r e c t l y ahead of the c r a c k , of the n o r m a l i z e d a n g u l a r
d i s t r i b u t i o n of o-yy. By e x p r e s s i n g Eq. [1] in t e r m s of
the l i n e a r e l a s t i c s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y K and taking a o a s
the i n i t i a l t e n s i l e y i e l d s t r e s s , this b e c o m e s :

"-

]'<N+"

is the a m p l i t u d e of the s t r e s s s i n g u l a r i t y . T y p i c a l
v a l u e s of I, f(N), and/3 a s a function of h a r d e n i n g e x ponent a r e l i s t e d in T a b l e I.*

Fig. 1 - V a r i a t i o n o f C h a r p y V - n o t c h i m p a c t t o u g h n e s s w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e f o r u n i r r a d i a t e d ( u ) a n d i r r a d i a t e d (i) S A 5 3 3 t 3 - 1 , t a k e n f r o m
a weld in t h e beltline region o f t h e p r e s s u r e vessel in t h e Maine
Yankee Nuclear Reactor: .

o'y?;ao = S(N) \ ~ 1

[(1 -

L(K/ y)q

''<"+'>

[2]

Table I. Numerical Values of I, f(N} and/7 for H RR Small Scale Yielding

Solution for Plane Strain Tension Stress Distribution Directly Ahead of the
Crack Tip (Eqs. [ I ] to [3] )

Hardening Exponent N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N

=3
=5
=9
= 13
= 25
= 49
= 99

f(N)

131

5.51
5.02
4.60
4.40
4.14
3.96
3.84

1.94
2.22
2.46
2.58
2.73
2.83
2.90

5.50
4.52
3.80
3.53
3.24
3.10
3.03

1Computed for u = 0.33 and eo = 0.0025, typical of a low strength steel

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONSA

I:" .

x~ v -

r e c t e d for the e s t i m a t e d c r a c k tip s t r a i n - r a t e s ) , and

employing a suitable characteristic distance repres e n t a t i v e of the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e and f r a c t u r e m i c r o m e c h a n i s m s revolved. F o r low t e m p e r a t u r e s l i p initiated cleavage fracture, this characteristic distance
has b e e n g e n e r a l l y found to be s o m e s m a l l m u l t i p l e of
the g r a i n s i z e 4,7,16-1s,22 and m o s t p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t s
the d i s t a n c e f r o m the c r a c k tip w h e r e the f i r s t g r a i n
b o u n d a r y c a r b i d e i n i t i a t e s c a t a s t r o p h i c failure.4
C r i t i c a l S t r a i n Model
f o r U p p e r Shelf T o u g h n e s s
M e t a l l o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s 3 of the m e c h a n i s m s of f r a c t u r e of n u c l e a r p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s t e e l , i.e., SA533B-1,
at t e m p e r a t u r e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the u p p e r shelf,
r e v e a l that d i m p l e d r u p t u r e i n i t i a t e s by void n u c l e a t i o n
and g r o w t h at l a r g e m a n g a n e s e sulfide and a l u m i n u m
oxide i n c l u s i o n s (5 to 10 ~ m in s i z e ) ahead of the
c r a c k t i p . The s u b s e q u e n t g r o w t h of s u c h v o i d s b e c o m e s l i m i t e d by a p l a s t i c s h e a r i n s t a b i l i t y b e t w e e n
n e i g h b o r i n g v o i d s and the m a i n c r a c k tip, the l i n k a g e
c o n s t i t u t i n g c r a c k g r o w t h . T h i s i n s t a b i l i t y is due to a
l o c a l i z a t i o n of s t r a i n b e t w e e n l a r g e v o i d s and o c c u r s
by a fine s c a l e c o a l e s c e n c e of m i c r o v o i d s ( " v o i d
s h e e t s " ) n u c l e a t e d at s u b m i c r o n ( ~ 2 / 2 ~ m ) i r o n c a r bide p a r t i c l e s .
One can r e a l i s t i c a l l y m o d e l s u c h d u c t i l e f r a c t u r e a s
being s t r a i n induced, in that m a c r o c r a c k g r o w t h v i a
linking of v o i d s o c c u r s when s o m e c r i t i c a l s t r a i n is
e x c e e d e d a h e a d of the c r a c k t i p . H o w e v e r , a s
M c C l i n t o c k 5 f i r s t pointed out, void g r o w t h d u r i n g
d u c t i l e f r a c t u r e i s a l s o a s t r o n g function of s t r e s s
s t a t e , i.e., the r a t i o of m e a n to e q u i v a l e n t flow s t r e s s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , in an a n a l o g o u s s i t u a t i o n to c l e a v a g e
f r a c t u r e , 4 it i s not s u f f i c i e n t for the f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n
f o r d u c t i l e f r a c t u r e to s i m p l y involve a c r i t i c a l s t r a i n
to be r e a c h e d at a s i n g l e point a h e a d of the c r a c k tip,
but r a t h e r for this s t r a i n to be e v e r y w h e r e e x c e e d e d
o v e r a m i n i m u m amount of m a t e r i a l which is c h a r a c ~,~P

15-2 D I A

3A - 1 0 N C T H R E A D

Ac"c o r d r a g 1y . ~M.~ac~Ken z i e "~nd c'*oworker s ~ " h a v e ' ; r o p o s e d

a criterion for ductile failure where a critical fracture
s t r a i n (~-~) is l o c a l l y e x c e e d e d o v e r s o m e m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e (l~) ahead
of the c r a c k tip, but which f u r t h e r r e c o g n i z e s that t h i s
c r i t i c a l s t r a i n is a s t r o n g function of s t r e s s s t a t e
which i t s e l f v a r i e s with d i s t a n c e a h e a d of the c r a c k tip.
The a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s s t r e s s m o d i f i e d s t r a i n m o d e l
for the p r e d i c t i o n of u p p e r s h e l f f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s inv o l v e s e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the f r a c t u r e
s t r a i n (~f) o r d u c t i l i t y a s a function of s t r e s s s t a t e ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h knowledge of the e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c s t r a i n
d i s t r i b u t i o n a h e a d of a s h a r p c r a c k . V a l u e s of ~)~ c a n
be obtained using c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y notched round
t e n s i o n s p e c i m e n s l o a d e d u n i a x i a l l y ( F i g . 2), w h e r e
d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s of s t r e s s a r e a c h i e v e d b y v a r y i n g the
notch a c u i t y . 6,~7 Using the s t a n d a r d d e f i n i t i o n s of
e q u i v a l e n t s t r e s s (~), m e a n o r h y d r o s t a t i c s t r e s s (am)
and e q u i v a l e n t p l a s t i c s t r a i n (ep = fd:~p), the B r i d g e man a n a l y s i s for the n e c k e d t e n s i l e s p e c i m e n 29 g i v e s a
c o n s t a n t s t r a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n at the m i n i m u m c r o s s s e c t i o n of:
[6]

~p : f d~p = 2 1 n ao ,
a min

f o r a s t r e s s s t a t e a t the c e n t e r of the s p e c i m e n of:

~/~

a rain

= 1/3 + in (2 + ~ - p

),

[7]

w h e r e p is the notch r o o t r a d i u s and a o and ami n a r e

the o r i g i n a l and m i n i m u m r a d i i of the n o t c h e d c r o s s s e c t i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y ( F i g . 2). By loading a s e r i e s of
s u c h s p e c i m e n s with v a r y i n g p u n d e r notch opening
d i s p l a c e m e n t c o n t r o l , v a l u e s of -~p at f a i l u r e i n i t i a t i o n
(el) a r e obtained a s a function of ~ m / ~ . The d i s t r i b u tion of s t r a i n (~p) and s t r e s s s t a t e (am/5) ahead of a
c r a c k tip for s m a l l s c a l e y i e l d i n g a r e then taken
f r o m the blunting s o l u t i o n s of R i c e and J o h n s o n 14 o r
McMeeking ~5 as a function of distance ahead of the
crack (x) normalized with respect to crack tip opening
displacement 5 (Fig. 3). Fracture toughness values
are now predicted by determining the value of 5 for
which the equivalent plastic strain (~p) exceeds, over
the characteristic distance (l*), the value of critical
f r a c t u r e s t r a i n ( ( ; ) r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the c r a c k t i p
s t r e s s s t a t e at that p o s i t i o n . Thus, ff the s m a l l s c a l e
y i e l d i n g s t r a i n d i s t r i b u t - o n ~4,1~ is w r i t t e n in the f o r m ; s~

% : c , ;5

[8]

w h e r e cl is a c o n s t a n t d e t e r m i n e d f r o m F i g . 3, then at
i n i t i a t i o n of d u c t i l e f r a c t u r e , ~ = ~* at d i s t a n c e x
P
7
= l * when 5 = 5c. Klc v a l u e s m a y be r e l a t e d to the
c r i t i c a l c r a c k tip opening d i s p l a c e m e n t s (5c) using the
s m a l l s c a l e y i e l d i n g f o r m u l a t i o n : 30

6~ = o.~ K
~
Eay

Fig. 2-Circumferential notched round tensile specimen, ao, initial

radius of notched cross section = 3.8 ram, p, notch root radius, tested
at values of 1.27, 1.91, 2.54, 3.81, and 6.35 ram. All dimensions in
m m .

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

[9]

w h e r e E is the e l a s t i c modulus and cry the y i e l d

s t r e n g t h . By c o m b i n i n g E q s . [8] and [9], the c r i t i c a l
s t r a i n m o d e l can be e x p r e s s e d in the f o r m : 31
Kic = c o n s t a n t v ~ . l~" ~y "E

[101

Since the f a i l u r e event for d u c t i l e f r a c t u r e g e n e r a l l y

VOLUME 10A, OCTOBER 1979-1559

~p

i n v o l v e s c o a l e s c e n c e by s h e a r l o c a l i z a t i o n b e t w e e n a
n u m b e r of v o i d s n u c l e a t e d a t t h e l a r g e s t p a r t i c l e s ,
v a l u e s of l* f o r s u c h f r a c t u r e a r e g e n e r a l l y f o u n d
t o b e s o m e s m a l l m u l t i p l e of t h e i n t e r p a r t i c l e s p a c ing.5~6~ 16~27~31

12.0

'rm/(r

5
INITIAL ~
SHARP r a ~

BLUNTED CRACK

rrm/tr

M A T E R I A L S AND E X P E R I M E N T A L
PROCEDURES
~1.0

]
0.5

1.0

1.5

Materials and Microstructure

T h e m a t e r i a l s e x a m i n e d w e r e t w o low s t r e n g t h a l l o y
s t e e l s u t i l i z e d in n u c l e a r p r e s s u r e v e s s e l c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
n a m e l y t h e c u r r e n t l y u s e d m a t e r i a l SA533 G r a d e B
C l a s s 1 (HSST P l a t e 02) a n d t h e f o r m e r l y u s e d m a t e r i a l SA302B ( S u r v e i l l a n c e c o r r e l a t i o n h e a t ) . T h e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d s t a n d a r d m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s e

]o5

2.0

25

x ,/5

Fig. 3-Distribution of plastic strain (~p) and stress state (o m/0) near
crack tip, from Rice and Johnson small scale yielding solution. L4

Table I I. Composition in Weight Percent of Nuclear Pressure Vessel Steels

Chemistryin WeightPercent
Material

Heat Code

SA533B-1 (HSST
lbA
Plate 02)
SA302B (Surveillancecor- 4bA
relation heat)

Mn

Si

Ni

Cr

Mo

Cu

0.23

1.55

0.009

0.014

0.20

0.67

0.04

0.53

0.003

0.16

0.23

1.47

0.013

0.024

0.26

0.17

0.05

0.52

0.004

0.20

20 ~m

20 ~m

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4 Optical microstructures of (a) SA533B-1 (HSST plate 02) and (b) SA302B (Surveillance correlation heat) showing predominately tempered
bainitic structure.

Table III. Mechanical Properties of Nuclear Pressure Vessel Steels (T--L Orientation)

Tensile Propertiesat 24~

NDTT

Charpy V-Notch
Energy, UpperShelf

Material

Heat Code

Yield Stress,MPa

UTS, MPa

Elongation*,
Pet

SA533B-1
SA302B

lbA
4bA

481
465

642
625

25.4
25.2

-29
-18

137
60

*For 50.8 mm gagelength.

1560-VOLUME 10A, OCTOBER 1979

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

s t e e l s a r e shown in T a b l e s II and III, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Both m a t e r i a l s w e r e r e c e i v e d in the heat t r e a t e d
condition which c o n s i s t e d of:
SA533B-1 - N o r m a l i z e d 4 h at 914~ a i r cooled,
a u s t e n i t i z e d 4 h at 900~ a g i t a t e d w a t e r
quenched,
T e m p e r e d 4 h at 664~ w a t e r quenched,
S t r e s s r e l i e v e d 40 h at 612~ f u r n a c e
cooled.
SA302B
- A u s t e n i t i z e d 4 h at 900~ w a t e r
quenched,
S t r e s s r e l i e v e d 6 h at 650~ a i r c o o l e d .
A s with m a n y low a l l o y s t e e l s quenched o r n o r m a l i z e d in t h i c k s e c t i o n p l a t e , the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e of both
s t e e l s ( F i g . 4) is p r i m a r i l y a c i c u l a r t e m p e r e d u p p e r
b a i n i t e with a s m a l l v o l u m e f r a c t i o n of p r o e u t e c t o i d
f e r r i t e . * P r i o r a u s t e n i t e g r a i n s i z e s (d) w e r e m e a -

oxide i n c l u s i o n s (5 to 10 tzm in s i z e ) with e q u i a x e d s u b m i c r o n c e m e n t i t e p r e c i p i t a t e s (1/2 tzm in s i z e ) in

bands along b a i n i t i c l a t h s . No i n f o r m a t i o n could be
found on the fine s c a l e m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s of
SA302B, e x c e p t that d e d u c e d f r o m f r a c t u r e m o r p h o l o g y .
Mechanical Properties
Both s t e e l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y SA533B-1, have b e e n the
s u b j e c t of e x t e n s i v e m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t y c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n by the United S t a t e s A t o m i c E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n
Heavy S e c t i o n S t e e l T e c h n o l o g y (HSST) P r o g r a m 1 and
the E l e c t r i c P o w e r R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e (EPRI) P r o g r a m s . 33 In p a r t i c u l a r , a l a r g e v o l u m e of d a t a now
e x i s t s f o r the v a r i a t i o n of s t r e n g t h and t o u g h n e s s with
t e m p e r a t u r e and s t r a i n - r a t e in u n i r r a d i a t e d and
i r r a d i a t e d m a t e r i a l a s a function of p l a t e p o s i t i o n ,
o r i e n t a t i o n and h e a t - t o - h e a t v a r i a t i o n s . The p r e s e n t
study was f o c u s e d on HSST P l a t e 02 of SA533B-1
(EPRI d e s i g n a t e d heat lbA) and the S u r v e i l l a n c e
C o r r e l a t i o n Heat of SA302B (EPRI d e s i g n a t e d heat
4bA) in the T - L o r i e n t a t i o n at p l a t e p o s i t i o n s b e t w e e n
q u a r t e r and c e n t e r t h i c k n e s s .
Fracture toughness data were obtained primarily
f r o m the E P R I D a t a Bank on n u c l e a r p r e s s u r e v e s s e l
s t e e l s . 33 ASTM v a l i d s t a t i c f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s , K i c ,
d a t a for the T - L o r i e n t a t i o n in u n i r r a d i a t e d SA533B-1
w e r e obtained f r o m slow bend p r e c r a c k e d C h a r p y and
1 in. (25.4 mm) t h i c k c o m p a c t ( t e r m e d l - T ) t e s t p i e c e s
o v e r the t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e o f - 196 to 0~
The r a t e
of loading f o r s u c h d a t a was c o n s i s t e n t with an i n c r e a s e in s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y / ~ of ~3 MN 9m -3/z 9 s -1, r e p r e s e n t i n g an a p p r o x i m a t e c r a c k t i p s t r a i n - r a t e of
10-2s -1. In addition, u p p e r s h e l f v a l u e s at t e m p e r a t u r e s
b e t w e e n 0 and 200~ w e r e c o m p u t e d f r o m v a l i d e l a s t i c p l a s t i c J l c t e s t s on 1-T c o m p a c t s using the m u l t i s p e c i m e n R - c u r v e p r o c e d u r e for defining c r a c k i n i t i a tion, 34 w h e r e :

*It is not possible from optical microscopy to make a cle~ar distinction, but
certain studies on HSST Plate O1 of SA533B-1 claim that the blocky ferritic
areas are actually granular bainite since they contain evidence of carbide precipitation. 32

s u r e d at 25 tzm for SA533B-1 and 33 tzm for SA302B.

Although e x t e n s i v e l y i n v e s t i g a t e d with r e s p e c t to
m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , t h e r e i s a s u r p r i s i n g l a c k of
i n f o r m a t i o n in the l i t e r a t u r e with r e g a r d to the fine
s c a l e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s of t h e s e s t e e l s . P a r t i c l e m o r phology and d i s t r i b u t i o n , h o w e v e r , has b e e n s t u d i e d by
Van Stone 3 in a s i m i l a r p l a t e of SA533B-1, i n d i c a t i n g
a r o u n d 0.12 v o l pct of m a n g a n e s e sulfide and a l u m i n u m

" "
Table IV. Measured V alues of Crotmal
Cleavage Fracture Stress
for Nuclear Pressure Vessel Steels.

(of)*

Critical Cleavage Fracture Stress (o;)

Material

Static, MPa

DynamicImpact, MPa

SA533B-1
SA302B

1830
1650

2000
1900

K i c ~- K j c

= ~ / g i c E / ( 1 - v2)

[11]

T In (108~L I03~
2

200t~160
~

4
I

6
]

8
I

10
I

12
I

14
I

16
I

-- 1200

-- 1000

120

%,

--

800

-.
~J 1~ .~"'-~l~

80

Fig. 5 - Y i e l d stress data for unirradiated SA533B-1 normalized

~~- by the rate-temperature param~ 600
eter T ln(lO8/~). Data f r o m
Refs. 38 to 41.
i

(ENGLISH UNITS)
(7v(T,~) = 4.55 103 [T In (108/~)1-0"431

"~'1~=~

J~

-/

x ;-;.~ .......
"++m )6...... =
m ~

/
........

,~

.,1,...r

- .....~--....t ..... ~e-~-~ "

"

-I

-~ 400

4O

+ EPRI ROUND ROBIN TENSILE DATA

E~ STEICHEN AND WILLIAMS TENSILE DATA
X CHARPY V-NOTCH DATA

200

0
6

10

12

14

16

18

,i

20

22

24

26

28

30

T In (108/~), 103~

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONSA

VOLUME 10A, OCTOBER 1 9 7 9 - 1 5 6 1

63.5

12.

,,3

w84
ii~::

,~2

o 2s.Ao,,,s

38.1
Fig. 6 - S c h e m a t i c diagram of V - n o t c h e d f o u r - p o i n t b e n d s p e c i m e n for
m e a s u r e m e n t o f o; 9 All l e n g t h d i m e n s i o n s are in units of m m .

where Kjc is the value of KIc c o m p u t e d f r o m dlc, E i s

the e l a s t i c modulus, and u is P o i s s o n ' s ratio 9 Addit i o n a l lower shelf KIc data were a c q u i r e d f r o m the
r e p o r t s of the HSST p r o g r a m s on P l a t e 02 in the L - T
o r i e n t a t i o n , obtained f r o m v a l i d t e s t s using 1 in.
(25.4 mm) to 11 in. (280 ram) thick (1T-11T) c o m p a c t
t e s t p i e c e s . ~-38 D y n a m i c f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s (Kid) was
a l s o e x a m i n e d at lower shelf t e m p e r a t u r e s between
- 1 4 0 and 0~ for two s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y r a t e s / ~ of 103
to 104 and 10~ MN" m -3/2 9s -~. Kid data f o r / f = 103 to
10 a M N . m -3/2 9s -~, r e p r e s e n t i n g an a p p r o x i m a t e c r a c k
tip s t r a i n - r a t e ~ of 5 s -x, were taken f r o m the E P R I
Data Bank 33 for 1-T to 4 - T d y n a m i c c o m p a c t t e s t s in
the T - L o r i e n t a t i o n . Kid data f o r / ~ = 10s MN 9m -3/2
9s -~ (~ -~ 3 102 s -~) were taken f r o m the s a m e s o u r c e 3s
for i n s t r u m e n t e d p r e c r a c k e d Charpy impact and d y n a m i c 1-T b a n d t e s t s on the T - L o r i e n t a t i o n 9 A d d i t i o n a l
v a l i d Kid data a t / f = 10~ MN 9m -3/2 9s -~ were obtained
1.4

ROOM TEMPERATURE

Z~ SA533B-1
C) SA302B

1.2

1.0

E x p e r i m e n t a l D e t e r m i n a t i o n of C r i t i c a l F r a c t u r e
S t r e s s and S t r a i n (cry, ~])
C r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t r e s s (a~) v a l u e s for lower shelf
slip i n i t i a t e d cleavage in both u n i r r a d i a t e d SA533B-1
and SA302B were d e t e r m i n e d f r o m slow bend and
i m p a c t f o u r - p o i n t bend t e s t s on 45 deg V - n o t c h e d b a r s
(Fig. 6) b r o k e n at t e m p e r a t u r e s o f - 7 3 , - 129, and
-193~
where f a i l u r e o c c u r r e d c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y by
u n s t a b l e c l e a v a g e well before g e n e r a l y i e l d i n g . Slow
b e n d t e s t s were p e r f o r m e d at an effective c r a c k tip
s t r a i n - r a t e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 -4 s -1, and i m p a c t t e s t s
were p e r f o r m e d at ~ -~ 50 s -1. The n o m i n a l bending
s t r e s s at the onset of c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e was m e a s u r e d in each t e s t , and using the G r i f f i t h and Owen 25
finite e l e m e n t s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n for this p a r t i c u l a r
g e o m e t r y of t e s t piece, the c r i t i c a l v a l u e s of the
, max
m a x i m u m p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s at the c r a c k tip tayy
= ~ ) were computed (Table IV).*
*Values of yield stress used in the computation were corrected for the particular crack tip strain-rates, as described above,

0.8
E
b

X
0.6

0.4

0.2

0:

f r o m the HSST P r o g r a m ~ for 1-T c o m p a c t t e s t s in the

L-T orientation.
T o u g h n e s s data on u n i r r a d i a t e d SA302B were
s c a r c e . Valid s t a t i c f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s KIc (~ ~- 10 -~
s -1) v a l u e s b e t w e e n - 1 3 0 and 200~ on the T - L o r i e n t a tion were obtained f r o m slow bend p r e c r a c k e d C h a r p y
and 1-T compact tests.33 Valid d y n a m i c f r a c t u r e toughn e s s Kid (~ ~ 3 10 -2 s -1) at lower shelf t e m p e r a t u r e s
( - 1 5 0 to 0~ for the T - L o r i e n t a t i o n were obtained
f r o m i n s t r u m e n t e d p r e c r a c k e d Charpy i m p a c t and
d y n a m i c 1 - T bend tests.sa
T e n s i l e yield s t r e n g t h data for both s t e e l s in the
u n i r r a d i a t e d condition were taken f r o m the E P R I Data
Bank, ~ and R e f s . 38 to 41. A d d i t i o n a l high s t r a i n - r a t e
data were d e r i v e d f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s of the g e n e r a l
yield load on V - n o t c h and p r e c r a c k e d Charpy i m p a c t
tests.41 Yield s t r e s s (ay) data as a function of t e m p e r a t u r e and s t r a i n - r a t e were compiled, u s i n g the s t r a i n r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p of Bennett and S i n c l a i r , 42
in t e r m s of T ln(A/~), w h e r e T is the a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e , d the s t r a i n - r a t e , and A a c o n s t a n t equal to
10 ~ s -~ (Fig. 5). F o r p r e d i c t i o n of f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s
v a l u e s f r o m such u n i a x i a l data, yield s t r e s s v a l u e s
were c o r r e c t e d for a p p r o x i m a t e c r a c k tip s t r a i n - r a t e s ;
that is ~ - 10 -2 s -~ for static t e s t s , ~ - 5 s -~ for d y n a mic c o m p a c t t e s t s , and ~ - 3 102 s -~ for d y n a m i c
(impact) t e s t s .

1
0.2

I
0.4

I
0,6

I
0.8

I
1.0

~f
Fig. 7 - F a i l u r e i n i t i a t i o n curves for c h a n g m g stress state at r o o m
t e m p e r a t u r e (24~
1 5 6 2 - V O L U M E 10A, OCTOBER 1979

t
1.2

F r a c t u r e s t r a i n (~f) v a l u e s as a function of s t r e s s
state (am~-6) for upper shelf ductile f r a c t u r e in both
s t e e l s were d e t e r m i n e d f r o m c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y notched
t e n s i l e t e s t s at 24, 71, and 177~
Unnotched and
notched t e s t p i e c e s (Fig 9 2) with root r a d i i p of 1.27,
1.91, 2.54, 3.81, and 6.35 m m were loaded u n d e r
l o n g i t u d i n a l d i s p l a c e m e n t c o n t r o l , m o n i t o r e d with a n
a x i a l s t r a i n t r a n s d u c e r mounted a c r o s s the notch 9 I n
addition, a d i a m e t r a l s t r a i n t r a n s d u c e r was mounted
in the notch to c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r changes in the
m i n i m u m d i a m e t e r of the notched c r o s s - s e c t i o n 9
F a i l u r e i n i t i a t i o n was defined as the point when the
a v e r a g e axial s t r e s s (applied load divided by i n s t a n t a n e o u s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a ) dropped s h a r p l y p r i o r
to final f a i l u r e . The f r a c t u r e s t r a i n (~f) was c o m puted a s the e q u i v a l e n t p l a s t i c s t r a i n (~p) at this
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

point using Eq. [6]. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t r e s s s t a t e

a m / ~ at the c e n t e r of the n e c k w h e r e f a i l u r e i n i t i a t e d
was d e t e r m i n e d using E~. [7]. P l o t s of f r a c t u r e s t r a i n
(-~f) vs s t r e s s s t a t e ((rm/~) for both m a t e r i a l s at r o o m
t e m p e r a t u r e , 71~ and 177~ a r e shown in F i g s . 7 to 9,
and c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e the m a r k e d r e d u c t i o n in d u c t i l i t y
a s the h y d r o s t a t i c s t r e s s s t a t e is i n c r e a s e d . F u r t h e r ,
it can be s e e n that w h e r e a s both s t e e l s show s i m i l a r
d u c t i l i t y v a l u e s in u n i a x i a l t e n s i o n (am/~ = 1/3), at
highly t r i a x i a l s t r e s s s t a t e s (i.e., r
= 1.2) SA302B
shows a s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l e r f r a c t u r e s t r a i n .
The c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t r a i n (~7), u s e d to p r e d i c t
f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s and r e p r e s e n t i n g m a t e r i a l d u c t i l i t y
a h e a d of a c r a c k tip, was t a k e n a s the value of ~f
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the p a r t i c u l a r s t r e s s s t a t e at the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e f r o m the c r a c k t i p (from
F i g . 3). F o r the c a s e s studied, t h i s c o r r e s p o n d e d to
the f r a c t u r e s t r a i n at v a l u e s of ~m/-6 in e x c e s s of 1.2

P R E D I C T I O N OF UNIRRADIATED TOUGHNESS
Lower Shelf T o u g h n e s s
The t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of s t a t i c f r a c t u r e
t o u g h n e s s (Klc) at the l o w e r s h e l f for u n i r r a d i a t e d
SA533B-1 s t e e l , b e t w e e n - 2 0 0 and 0~ is i l l u s t r a t e d
in F i g . 12, t o g e t h e r with c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s , d e t e r m i n e d
f r o m the RKR c r i t i c a l c l e a v a g e s t r e s s m o d e l 4 f o r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e s of 2, 3, and 4 p r i o r a u s t e n i t e
1.4

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

/% SA533B-1

1.2

(D SA302B

1.0

E s t i m a t i o n of C h a r a c t e r i s t i c D i s t a n c e s (l*)
P r e c i s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the c r i t i c a l m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l
s i z e s c a l e for e i t h e r c l e a v a g e o r d u c t i l e f r a c t u r e d e m a n d s at l e a s t that the c o m p l e t e m i c r o m e c h a n i s m s of
f a i l u r e a r e fully u n d e r s t o o d . Since the l o c a l m e c h a n i s m s of c r i t i c a l f a i l u r e e v e n t s in t h e s e s t e e l s a r e not
known, it would be i m p o s s i b l e f r o m f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s to
d e t e r m i n e t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e s . In t h e i r
d e r i v a t i o n of the c r i t i c a l s t r e s s m o d e l f o r c l e a v a g e
f r a c t u r e , RKR 4 found b e s t a g r e e m e n t with e x p e r i m e n t a l
d a t a with a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e of two f e r r i t e g r a i n
d i a m e t e r s (l* = 2d = 120 gm) in m i l d s t e e l , but t h e r e
is no r e a l f u n d a m e n t a l p h y s i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e for t h i s .
In fact, a s P a r k s 7 s t a t e s , " t h e d i m e n s i o n m u s t be
r e g a r d e d a s e s s e n t i a l l y an e m p i r i c a l l y obtained q u a n tity, though p r e s u m a b l y of r e l e v a n c e to m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l
a s p e c t s of f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n . "
H o w e v e r , e x a m i n a t i o n of l o w e r s h e l f c l e a v a g e f r a c t u r e s in SA533B-1 and SA302B (Fig. 10) r e v e a l s that
c l e a v a g e f a c e t s a r e of the o r d e r of the p r i o r a u s t e n i t e
g r a i n s i z e r a t h e r than, s a y , the b a i n i t e p a c k e t s i z e .
F u r t h e r , it is not u n r e a s o n a b l e to p r e s u m e that the
c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e event is e i t h e r the c r a c k i n g of a g r a i n
b o u n d a r y c a r b i d e o r the p r o p a g a t i o n of the m a t r i x
c r a c k t h r o u g h the next g r a i n b o u n d a r y , i.e., o c c u r r i n g
o v e r the f i r s t few p r i o r a u s t e n i t e g r a i n s f r o m the
c r a c k tip. A c c o r d i n g l y for l o w e r s h e l f t o u g h n e s s p r e dictions characteristic distances were chosen between
2 d and 4 d with d , the p r i o r a u s t e n i t e g r a i n s i z e , m e a s u r e d a s 25 and 33 ~ m for SA533B-1 and SA302B,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , c o n s i s t e n t with p r e v i o u s e s t i m a t e s by
P a r k s .7
At u p p e r s h e l f t e m p e r a t u r e s , the i n i t i a t i o n event for
d u c t i l e f r a c t u r e , w h e r e the d i s p l a c e m e n t s p r o d u c e d by
i n t e r n a l necking b e t w e e n p a r t i c l e s a r e c r i t i c a l , would
not be p o s s i b l e o v e r d i s t a n c e s s m a l l e r than p a r t i c l e
s p a c i n g . Since in the p r e s e n t s t e e l s it is the linkage by
s h e a r l o c a l i z a t i o n b e t w e e n l a r g e v o i d s , n u c l e a t e d at
i n c l u s i o n s , which d e s c r i b e s the i n i t i a t i o n of a c t u a l
d u c t i l e c r a c k growth, 3 a l o w e r bound e s t i m a t e of the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e m u s t be the i n c l u s i o n s p a c i n g .
E x a m i n a t i o n of u p p e r s h e l f f r a c t u r e s in both s t e e l s
(Fig. 11) shows that the s p a c i n g b e t w e e n m a j o r v o i d s
on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s is r o u g h l y 50 /~m in SA533B-1
( c o n s i s t e n t with p r e v i o u s i n c l u s i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n
s t u d i e s 3) and 100 to 150 p m in SA302B.

J
160~ (71~

0.8

~
e
0.6

0.4

- -

0.2

I
0.2

I
0.4

I
0.6

I
0.8

I
1.0

I
1.2

gf
Fig. 8 - F a i l u r e initiation curves for changing stress state at 71 ~

1.4

350~ (177~

1.2

1.0

0.8

Z~ SA533B~l
C) SA302B

'4E
0.6

0.4
!
0.2

~o

I
0.2

I
0.4

I
0.6

I
0.8

I
1.0

1.2

~f
Fig. 9 - D u c t i l e failure initiation curves for changing stress state at
177~

VOLUME 10A, OCTOBER 1 9 7 9 - 1 5 6 3

20 #m

L20

(a)

(b)

Fig. 10-Transgranular cleavage fractures at lower shelf for (a) SASB3B-1 tested at - 7 8 ~

I
(a)

#mJ

50 #m

and (b) SA302B tested at - 6 8 ~

I
(b)

Fig. 1 1-Ductile fracture by mJcrovoid coalescence at upper shelf for (a) SA533B-I and (b) SA302B tested at 71~

g r a i n d i a m e t e r s . P r e d i c t i o n s a r e based on the t e m p e r a t u r e dependence of yield strength shown in F i g . 5

calculated for approximate c r a c k tip s t r a i n - r a t e s of
10-2 s -1, a e r i i t e a l cleavage s t r e s s [~ of 1830 MPa
(Table IV) a s s u m e d independent of t e m p e r a t u r e , a work
hardening exponent n of 0.1 (N = 10)* r e p r e s e n t i n g an
*The hardening exponent n is defined here in terms of the usual constitutive
law o/% = (ep/eo) n. This corresponds to a hardening exponent of N = 1/n in
terms of the Ramberg-Osgood law used in the HRR solution (Eqs. [ t] to [3] ).

a v e r a g e value for this s t e e l over [he t e m p e r a t u r e range

- 2 0 0 to 0~ and plane s t r a i n c r a c k tip s t r e s s a n a l y s e s
due to Rice and T r a c y 12'13 (finite element power law
hardening solution) and Rice and Johnson ~4 (approximate n e a r - t i p solution due to blunting for an initial
1 5 6 4 - V O L U M E 10A, OCTOBER 1979

yield s t r a i n of 0.0025). S i m i l a r p r e d i c t i o n s for the t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n of lower shelf dynamic f r a c t u r e

t o u g h n e s s (Kid) of u n i r r a d i a t e d SA533B-1 a r e shown in
F i g s . 13 and 14 for a p p r o x i m a t e c r a c k tip s t r a i n - r a t e s
of 5 and 3 102 s -1, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Results for lower
shelf static and impact f r a c t u r e toughness in SA302B
a r e shown in F i g s . 15 and 16.
It is apparent from F i g s . 12 to 16 that the RKR c r i t i c a l cleavage s t r e s s model 4 p r o v i d e s a v e r y good
d e s c r i p t i o n of lower shelf toughness behavior in these
s t e e l s for t e m p e r a t u r e s up to NDTT, although e x p e r i mental data for SA302B a r e e x t r e m e l y s p a r s e . Above
the NDT t e m p e r a t u r e , however, RKR p r e d i c t i o n s tend
to level off, due to the s m a l l e r t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

TEMPERATURE, ~
-300

-200

-100

SA533B-1 -- HSST PLATE 02 - l b A

120

UNIRRADIATED
STATIC TOUGHNESS

,E

o
o

~ 1 10-2 s -1

100 1
r

= 1830 MPa (265 ksi)

Fig. 12-Comparison of critical

stress model (RKR) predictions
with lower shelf static fracture
toughness values for unirradiated

--

s
o PRECRACKED CHARPY (T-L)

u,J
z
"1-

9 I-T C O M P A C T (T-L)

60 _

100

= 25 ,u.m (1.0 10-6 in)

80

120

9 I ' T TO 11-T CT & WOL (L-T)

--R'"PRED,CT,ONS

9 ,,,,,,"'"~ -

80

9 ~ ' ~ o * --3
~
~J
J

o 9
/ l

=4d~ ,'~

v
w

Z
-r

60

. .

SA533B-1.
,,r

-._

40

40

;_

u.

20

20

NDTT

0
-200

-150

-100

-50

TEMPERATURE~

TEMPERATURE, ~F
-300

-200

-100

SA5338-1 - HSST PLATE 02 - l b A

120

UNIRRADIATED
120

DYNAMIC TOUGHNESS
~5

100 s-I

o
100

o ' f * = 1900 MPa (275 ksi)

100

r = 25 ,u.m (1.0 10-6 in)

80

Fig. 13-Comparison of critical

stress model (RKR) predictions
with lower shelf dynamic compact
fracture toughness values for
unirradiated SA533B-1.

1-T COMPACT

2-T COMPACT

3-T COMPACT

o
i
o

O 4-T COMPACT

60

8O

5o

w
z

RKR PREDICTIONS

4o ~

4o

20

20
NDTT

A
0
-200

t
-150

-100

-50

TEMPERATURE, ~

of yield strength, and m a r k e d l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e the data.

A s pointed out p r e v i o u s l y , ~ this is not to be unexpected
s i n c e at t e m p e r a t u r e s above NDTT but below the upper
shelf, failure in t h e s e s t e e l s can no longer be c o n s i d e r e d as unstable c l e a v a g e , and i n v o l v e s a t r a n s i t i o n a l
behavior of i n c r e a s i n g amounts of ductile tearing b e tween " s t a b l e " c l e a v a g e m i c r o c r a c k s . Such failure is
c l e a r l y not amenable to a n a l y s i s using a purely c r i t i c a l
s t r e s s m o d e l for failure.
Thus, l o w e r shelf static and d y n a m i c fracture toughn e s s v a l u e s in both SA533B-1 and SA302B are c o n s i s tent with the attainment of a c r i t i c a l c l e a v a g e fracture
s t r e s s o v e r a distance of 2 to 4 prior austenite grain
METALLURGICAL

TRANSACTIONS

d i a m e t e r s ahead of the c r a c k tip, at t e s t t e m p e r a t u r e s

below NDTT.
Upper Shelf T o u g h n e s s
Unlike the c r i t i c a l s t r e s s m o d e l d e s c r i b e d above
w h e r e the m e a s u r e d c r i t i c a l fracture s t r e s s ((~7) is
a s s u m e d to be e f f e c t i v e l y independent of t e m p e r a t u r e ,
use of the c r i t i c a l s t r a i n m o d e l to p r e d i c t upper shelf
toughness r e q u i r e s d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the c r i t i c a l f r a c ture strain ( ~ ] ) at e a c h t e m p e r a t u r e in_,question. Due
to availability of s p e c i m e n s , v a l u e s of Ef w e r e only
d e t e r m i n e d at three upper shelf t e m p e r a t u r e s (24, 71,
and 177~
at a single s t r a i n - r a t e (g ~- 10 -2 s-l).
VOLUME

10A,

OCTOBER

1979-1565

TEMFERATURE,~F
-300

-200

-100

I -

0
I

120

SA533B-1 --HSST PLATE 02 - lbA~

UNIRRADIATED

120

OYNAMtC TOUGHNESS

100

~3
102s-1
o-f* = 2000 MPa (290 ksi)

100

= 25 ~m (1.0 10-6)

80

o PRECRACKED CHARPY (T-L)

80

1-T BEND (T-L)

-r

P,

o'=3~

RKR PREDICTIONS
60

60

a
o

k-

==

Fig. 14-Comparison of critical

stress model (RKR) predictions
with lower shelf dynamic (impact) fracture toughness values
for unirradiated SA5 3 3 B- 1.

Zo*=4d

9 1-T COMPACT (L-T)

40

o,.....~------~

'

40

==

20

2O
NDTT
1

0
-200

-150

-100
TEMPERATURE,~

-50

TEMPERATURE,~
-300 -

. -200

_ _

-100

-. 0

120
SA302B - SURVEILLANCE CORRELATION HEAT - 4bA
120

UNIRRADIATED
STATIC TOUGHNESS

100

e ~ 1 10-Zc I
o-f" = 1650 MPa (239 ksi)

;'o" = 4 d ~

= 33/~m (1.3 10-6 in)

80

o PRECRACKED CHARPY (T-L)~

SO

--

Fig. 15-Comparison of critical

stress model (RKR)predictions
with lower shelf static fracture
toughness values for unirradiated
SA302B.

~o* = 2

60

RKR PREDICTIONS

2
==

80

9 1-T COMPACT (T-L)

-rr.D

~*- = 3

~o

4,0

v-

20

20
NDTT

-200

-150

-300

-5~

.l

TEMPERATURE, OC

F u r t h e r m o r e , valid Iracture toughness data, computed

from initiation JIc values, in this temperature range
are somewhat r a r e . However, using the fracture strain
as a function of s t r e s s state data (Figs. 7 to 9) and the
Rice and Johnson near-tip strain distribution 1~ (Fig. 3),
predictions of the upper shelf static fracture toughness
between room temperature and 200~ for both steels
were made using the critical fracture strain model.
Results for unirradiated SA533B-1, and SA302B are
illustrated in Figs. 17 and 18, respectively. F o r
SA533B-1, the experimental data are best described
by the attainment of a critical fracture strain ( ~ ) over
a characteristic distance (l~) of 300 to 350 ~m ahead
of the crack tip (Fig. 17) whereas in SA302B, l~ is of
the order of I00 to 150 ~m. The significantly lower
upper shelf toughness of SA302B is thus consistent
1566-VOLUME 10A, OCTOBER 1979

with a lower plane strain ductility and a smaller

characteristic distance.
Several points are worthy of note from these critical
strain fracture toughness predictions for the upper
shelf. First, it is apparent that over this temperature
range, critical fracture strains (-~f) at highly triaxial
s t r e s s states ( % n ~ > 1.2), representative of the neartip region, only marginally d e c r e a s e with increasing
temperature (Figs. 7 to 9). F u r t h e r m o r e , since the
yield strength (~y) shows only a sBght temperature
dependence (e.g., Fig. 5), the critical strain model
predicts an essentially constant f r a c t u r e toughness at
the upper shelf (see Eq. [10]), consistent with most
experimental data. 3v,~3-~s
Second, the critical m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l size scales
(l*) for ductile fracture in SA302B and SA533B-1 are
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

TEMPERATURE,~
-300
I

-100
I

-200

SA302B - SURVEILLANCE CORRELATION HEAT - 4bA

UNIRRADIATED

120

DYNAMIC TOUGHNESS
~3X
100

100

102s -1

o-f* = 1900 MPa (275 ksi)

d = 33/~m (1.3 10-6 in)

80

o PRECRACKED CHARPY (T-L)

.0
80

Fig. 1 6 - C o m p a r i s o n of critical
stress model (RKR) predictions
with lower shelf dynamic
(impact) fracture toughness
values for unirradiated SA302B.

120

=__

9 1-T BEND (T-L)

RKR PREDICTIONS

z
3:
(3

so
60

i.-

2
40

o
20

20
NDTT
I
-1B0

0
-200

I
-100

-50

TEMPERATURE,~

TEMPERATURE (~
-300
240

-200

-100

200

100

SA533B-1 (HSST 02} - l b A

UNIRRAOIATED

~
B

"""

; o * = 350,urn
200
7,o* = 300/~ m

STATIC TOUGHNESS
~ 1 X 10 -2 s-1

200

300

d = 25/xm
160
DATA

160
v

Fig. 17-Variation of static fracture toughness (Kit) with ternz

~__
perature for unirradiated SA533B-1, ~ 12o
showing comparison of experimental data with critical stress
and critical strain model
a:~ 80
predictions.

9 PRE-CRACKED CHARPY (T~L)

o 1-T COMPACT (T-L)
1-T TO 11-T CT & WOL

~g

(L-T)

120

PREDICTIONS
o

C R I T I C A L STRESS MODEL
~

C R I T I C A L STRAIN MODEL

"

~ o
,.
: o* = 100~m = 4d
: ~ * = 75p-m = 3d

,~
::::

50/~m

= 2t

w
z
(3

4O

40
I NDTT
I
-150

I
-100

I
-50

I
0

[
50

I
100

I
150

TEMPEI~ATURE (~

of the o r d e r of 1 and 6 to 7 t i m e s the p l a n a r i n t e r i n c l u s i o n spacing, r e s p e c t i v e l y . On the a s s u m p t i o n

that the c r i t i c a l event for the i n i t i a t i o n of ductile f r a c t u r e is the c o a l e s c e n c e of m a j o r voids, f o r m e d at i n c l u s i o n s , to the m a i n c r a c k tip, this i n f e r s that it is the
c o a l e s c e n c e of a single m a j o r void to the c r a c k tip
which is c r i t i c a l for f r a c t u r e in SA302B, w h e r e a s in
SA533B-1 the c o a l e s c e n c e of s e v e r a l m a j o r voids
within the p l a s t i c zone is r e q u i r e d . The l a t t e r fact is
e n t i r e l y c o n s i s t e n t with the I r a c t o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s on
SA533B-1, 3 which showed that the c r a c k growth m e c h a n i s m was not s i m p l y the n u c l e a t i o n of one void which
c o a l e s c e d with the m a i n c r a c k , but r a t h e r the n u c l e a tion and linkage of s e v e r a l i s o l a t e d voids within the
p l a s t i c zone. S i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s have b e e n r e p o r t e d
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

for ductile f r a c t u r e in other low s t r e n g t h steels.31

T h u s , for ductile f r a c t u r e , the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e
m u s t be r e g a r d e d as not m e r e l y r e f l e c t i n g the spacing
b e t w e e n p a r t i c l e s which n u c l e a t e m a j o r voids, but
a l s o the c r i t i c a l n u m b e r of voids which c o a l e s c e with
the m a i n c r a c k at the i n i t i a t i o n of c r a c k growth.
Hence, application of the c r i t i c a l s t r a i n model for
upper shelf ductile f r a c t u r e i n d i c a t e s that s t a t i c f r a c t u r e toughness v a l u e s for c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n in SA302B
a r e c o n s i s t e n t with the a t t a i n m e n t of a c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t r a i n (i.e., the ductility at a highly t r i a x i a l s t r e s s state) over a d i s t a n c e of roughly one i n c l u s i o n s p a c i n g
f r o m the c r a c k tip. In SA533B-1, however, c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n is c o n s i s t e n t with the a t t a i n m e n t of a c r i t i c a l
f r a c t u r e s t r a i n over s e v e r a l i n c l u s i o n s p a c i n g s , i n f e r VOLUME IOA, OCTOBER 1 9 7 9 - I 5 6 7

TEMPERATURE (~
-300

-200

-100

100

200

300

'1

240
SA302B - SURVEI LLANCE CORRELATION HEAT - 4bA
~-

2110

X I0-2s -I

~ 1

,'E

= 33/~m

z
_~

200

UNIRRADIATED
STATIC TOUGHNESS

160 _

t60

DATA
9 PRE-CRACKED CHARPY (T-L)
o 1-T COMPACT (T-L)

~o*

PREDICTIONS
i

120

.....

CRITICAL STRESS MODEL

~

CRITICAL STRAIN MODEL

= 150~m
120

.....

"="'
Zo* = 4 d o

Fig. 1 8 - V a r i a t i o n of static fracture toughness (Kz~)with tem-

~o* = 100p.m

~"

~~ = 3 d

80

80

perature for unirradiated SA302B,

showingcomparison of experimental data with critical stress
and critical strain model
predictions.

,<
40
NDTT

-200

-150

-100

-50

_l

50

100

t
150

TEMPERATURE (~

r i n g that the c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e event involves the

c o a l e s c e n c e of m o r e than one m a j o r void to the c r a c k
tip.
INFLUENCE OF NEUTRON IRRADIATION
N e u t r o n i r r a d i a t i o n e m b r i t t l e m e n t of n u c l e a r p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s t e e l s is g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n
i n c r e a s e in the Charpy V - n o t c h t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e (DBTT) and a drop in the Charpy V - n o t c h upper
shelf e n e r g y (Fig. 1), c o r r e s p o n d i n g , in f r a c t u r e
m e c h a n i c s t e r m s , to a d e c r e a s e in the f r a c t u r e toughn e s s Kic. A n e v e n t u a l a i m of the p r e s e n t s t u d i e s was
to use the c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e models d e s c r i b e d to p r e dict this d e c r e a s e in toughness in SA533B-1 and
SA302B as a function of n e u t r o n fluence. Due to the
lack of a v a i l a b l e data, this has proved p o s s i b l e only
for lower shelf Klc m e a s u r e m e n t s in i r r a d i a t e d
SA533B- I .
The work of P a r k s ~ f i r s t showed the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of

TEMPERATURE.~

. . . . . .
--1
140

IO0

-100
I

100

2100

3011

LOWER SHELF STA~'IC 'TOUGHN E,~,S

lZ0

~ f " = 1B30 M e t (ZS5 kr

= 25 ~,m

z~

100

CODE

:~

t~,o

~ 12I~

; ~ 10-2 s-1

-~--

-.--6----

6O

J'

80

12-13
77-Z~
I~D~CATES INVALID Kic

A
j

60

y~/..4-/

.
9

2O

TEMPERATURE ~

Fig. 19-Critical stress model (RKR) predictions of radiation effects

on lower shelf fracture toughness compared with experimental data

on neutron irradiated SA533B-1.

1568

*This represents a wider range of neutron fluences than was first analyzed by
Parks.7

~o-Si,~, % - = 3 d

FLUENCE 10 TM[./cm2), E > 1 MeV

AT 2S5-~7:C
UNIRRADIATED

so

400
I

SA533B-1 - H.~T PLATE 02

the RKR c r i t i c a l cleavage s t r e s s model 4 for the p r e d i c t i o n of i r r a d i a t e d toughness at the lower shelf.
N e u t r o n i r r a d i a t i o n is a s s u m e d to i n c r e a s e the yield
s t r e n g t h ~-38 and r e d u c e the work h a r d e n i n g exponent, ~
while l e a v i n g the c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t r e s s for cleavage
( 4 ) unchanged. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e is also
c o n s i d e r e d u n a l t e r e d by i r r a d i a t i o n , s i n c e g r a i n s i z e
and p a r t i c l e s p a c i n g s will r e m a i n the s a m e . T h u s by
m e r e l y u t i l i z i n g the effects of i r r a d i a t i o n on yield and
flow p r o p e r t i e s , the t e m p e r a t u r e dependence of lower
shelf f r a c t u r e toughness as a function of n e u t r o n
fluence can be q u a n t i t a t i v e l y evaluated using the RKR
model, c a l i b r a t e d on u n i r r a d i a t e d m a t e r i a l .
Valid low t e m p e r a t u r e static f r a c t u r e toughness data
for u n i r r a d i a t e d and i r r a d i a t e d SA533B-1 is shown in
F i g . 19. I r r a d i a t e d data a r e shown for n e u t r o n f l u e n c e s
of 1.2 to 1.3, 36 2.2 to 4.2, 36,37,44 and 7.7 to 8.3 1019
n//cm2, 3s,39 E > 1 MeV, at i r r a d i a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s b e t w e e n 265 and 297~
U t i l i z i n g the RKR c r i t e r i o n for
cleavage f r a c t u r e in that the c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t r e s s ,
m e a s u r e d in u n i r r a d i a t e d s t e e l (~7 = 1830 MPa), is
a t t a i n e d over a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e of 3 g r a i n
d i a m e t e r s ( l , = 3d), p r e d i c t i o n s for the t e m p e r a t u r e
dependence of Kic for these fluences* w e r e made, u s i n g

VOLUME 10A, OCTOBER 1979

i r r a d i a t e d yield s t r e s s data, ~e-3B'~~

c o r r e c t e d for a
c r a c k tip s t r a i n r a t e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 -2 s -1, and a w o r k
h a r d e n i n g exponent of n = 0 (N = ~ ) . T h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s
a r e shown by the c u r v e s in F i g . 19. It is c l e a r that the
c r i t i c a l s t r e s s model c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t s the shift in
t o u g h n e s s c u r v e to higher t e m p e r a t u r e s with i n c r e a s ing r a d i a t i o n , and c l o s e l y r e p r o d u c e s the a v a i l a b l e
e x p e r i m e n t a l data.
S i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e s to p r e d i c t the influence of n e u t r o n
i r r a d i a t i o n on upper shelf toughness using the c r i t i c a l
s t r a i n model a r e p l a u s i b l e in t h e o r y , but a r e l i m i t e d
at p r e s e n t by the a b s e n c e of data for the v a r i a t i o n of
f r a c t u r e d u c t i l i t y with s t r e s s state in i r r a d i a t e d s t e e l .
A l s o , r e l i a b l e i n i t i a t i o n JIc f r a c t u r e toughness data at
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

upper shelf temperatures are still unavailable. Moreo v e r , s o m e c o n c e r n might be r a i s e d o v e r the p r o c e d u r e of using a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e f o r i r r a d i a t e d
s t e e l d e t e r m i n e d f r o m u n i r r a d i a t e d d a t a (cf. c r i t i c a l
s t r e s s m o d e l ) . Since it a p p e a r s that the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
d i s t a n c e f o r d u c t i l e f r a c t u r e m a y be a function both of
the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e (i.e., the i n t e r - i n c l u s i o n s p a c i n g )
and of the a v e r a g e n u m b e r of v o i d s which c o a l e s c e with
the c r a c k tip at c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n , it is by no m e a n s
c e r t a i n that the s a m e n u m b e r of v o i d s w i l l be involved
at f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n in i r r a d i a t e d s t e e l . T h i s is s i m p l y
b e c a u s e the r e d u c e d s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g c a p a c i t y of
i r r a d i a t e d m a t e r i a l will r e s u l t in e a r l i e r c o a l e s c e n c e
by p l a s t i c s h e a r l o c a l i z a t i o n of m a j o r v o i d s . T h u s ,
the f e a s i b i l i t y of using the c r i t i c a l s t r a i n m o d e l f o r
p r e d i c t i n g upper shelf i r r a d i a t e d f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s
cannot be t e s t e d at p r e s e n t , and m u s t a w a i t r e l i a b l e
i n f o r m a t i o n f o r the c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t r a i n s and i n i t i a t i o n JIc v a l u e s f o r i r r a d i a t e d s t e e l .

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The p r e s e n t w o r k has e x a m i n e d the a p p l i c a t i o n of
s i m p l e f r a c t u r e m o d e l s to p r e d i c t the t e m p e r a t u r e
v a r i a t i o n of plane s t r a i n f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s in uni r r a d i a t e d and i r r a d i a t e d n u c l e a r p r e s s u r e v e s s e l
s t e e l s . T h e s e m o d e l s a t t e m p t to c o m b i n e a c c u r a t e
continuum m e c h a n i c s s o l u t i o n s for the s t r e s s and
s t r a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n s a h e a d of c r a c k t i p s with n e c e s s a r i l y
s i m p l i f i e d i d e a l i z a t i o n s of the m i c r o s c o p i c f r a c t u r e
m e c h a n i s m s involved. F o r l o w e r s h e l f c l e a v a g e f r a c t u r e at low t e m p e r a t u r e s below NDTT, f r a c t u r e toughn e s s v a l u e s , u n d e r both q u a s i - s t a t i c and d y n a m i c l o a d ing in SA533B-1 and SA302B s t e e l s , a r e c o n s i s t e n t with
the a t t a i n m e n t of a c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t r e s s o v e r a d i s t a n c e of 2 to 4 p r i o r a n s t e n i t e g r a i n d i a m e t e r s a h e a d of
the c r a c k tip, a c c o r d i n g to the RKR c r i t i c a l s t r e s s
m o d e l for s l i p - i n i t i a t e d c l e a v a g e . F u r t h e r , the influence
of n e u t r o n i r r a d i a t i o n on f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s at t h e s e
t e m p e r a t u r e s can be c l o s e l y p r e d i c t e d b y this model,
a s s u m i n g that the c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t r e s s and m i c r o structurally significant characteristic distance are
unchanged, and that the d e c r e a s e in t o u g h n e s s with
i n c r e a s i n g fluence r e s u l t s f r o m the effect of i r r a d i a tion on y i e l d and flow p r o p e r t i e s .
S i m i l a r l y , for u p p e r s h e l f d u c t i l e f r a c t u r e at t e m p e r a t u r e s b e t w e e n a m b i e n t and 200~ e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c
initiation fracture toughness values under quasi-static
loading in u n i r r a d i a t e d SA533B-1 and SA302B a r e
c o n s i s t e n t with the a t t a i n m e n t of a c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e
s t r a i n ( d e t e r m i n e d for highly t r i a x i a l s t r e s s s t a t e s )
o v e r a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t a n c e r e l a t e d to the m a j o r
i n c l u s i o n s p a c i n g , a c c o r d i n g to the c r i t i c a l s t r e s s
m o d i f i e d s t r a i n m o d e l f o r m i c r o v o i d c o a l e s c e n c e . The
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i m e n s i o n in the l a t t e r c a s e a p p e a r s to
depend both on the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e (i.e., p a r t i c l e s p a c ing) and the n u m b e r of m a j o r v o i d s which c o a l e s c e with
the m a i n c r a c k t i p at f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n .
W h i l s t it i s felt that a priori p r e d i c t i o n s of m a c r o s c o p i c f r a c t u r e b e h a v i o r (i.e., f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s
v a l u e s ) using s u c h m o d e l s for l o c a l f a i l u r e c r i t e r i a a r e
not at p r e s e n t f e a s i b l e b e c a u s e of u n c e r t a i n t i e s in the
magnitude of the m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i m e n sion, the d e s c r i p t i o n of f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s in t e r m s of
t h e s e m o d e l s d o e s p r o v i d e i n s i g h t into the m i c r o m e c h a n i c s and m e c h a n i s m s of f a i l u r e , and f u r t h e r m o r e
M E T A L L U R G I C A L TRANSACTIONS A

p r o v i d e s a v i t a l connection b e t w e e n continuum p l a s t i c i t y
and m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l m e c h a n i s m s of f r a c t u r e .
ACKNOWLEDGMENT S
The work was performed under
R P 8 8 6 - I f r o m the E l e c t r i c P o w e r
P a l o Alto, C a l i f o r n i a . T h a n k s a r e
B a s s a n i for his c r i t i c a l r e v i e w of

C o n t r a c t No.
Research Institute,
due to D r . John
the m a n u s c r i p t .

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METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A