10th Asia Pacific Conference on the Built Environment

Green Energy for Environment

Copyright 2009 by ASHRAE Region XIII

ASSESSMENT OF INDOOR AIR QUALITY OF

SELECTED SHOPPING MALLS IN METRO MANILA

K.I.M delos Reyes, D.D. Giron, G.S. Marquez, J.P.S.C. Ponce, M.C. Belino, and J.M. Anastacio*
*

School of Mechanical Engineering, Mapua Institute of Technology, Muralla St., Intramuros, Manila:
jmanastacio@mapua.edu.ph

Abstract

1. Introduction

The Philippines has three of the worlds ten

largest shopping malls. Malling has definitely become
a way of life for Filipinos. According to a Nielsen
Media Research, around 80 percent of the Philippines
population go to shopping places and around 36 million
people visit shopping plazas once or twice a month.
Good indoor air quality, therefore, is very essential to
the shoppers. In order to characterize the indoor air
quality in shopping malls, two shopping malls in Metro
Manila were selected for this study.
The indoor air pollutants assessed were chemical
contaminants, biological contaminants, and particulate
matter (PM10). The concentration of the chemical
contaminants was determined using colorimetric gas
detection tubes and a direct-reading device.
Sedimentation test using a biostage impactor was used
to measure the concentration of biological contaminants.
Sampling for particulate matter was done by means of
gravimetric method.
The average bacterial count in both malls did not
exceed the 1000 CFU/m3 limit set by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH). The elevated indoor carbon dioxide levels in
the afternoon could be attributed to high occupancy.
However, the highest carbon dioxide level detected is
still deemed acceptable based on the Philippine
Occupational Safety and Health Center Standards. No
traces of other chemical contaminants were found
except for benzene and carbon monoxide which were
detected in the parking area of one shopping mall. The
concentration of particulate matter at a sampling point in
both malls exceeded the acceptable limits set by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA).

Exposure to pollutants commonly found in nonindustrial indoor air has, in the past decades, become a
major cause of international health concern. Several
studies were performed extensively to determine the
concentration of different contaminants in public places
such as libraries, restaurants, classrooms, hospitals and
shopping malls. The results from some of these studies
indicate the presence of contaminants at a concentration
well above those recommended by guidelines specified
by organizations such as the American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE), Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) and the American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
The field of indoor air quality is relatively new in
the Philippines. Although air quality investigations have
been done in classrooms, offices and some transport
microenvironments, none has been done on a
commercial indoor space every Filipino loves going to
shopping mall.
A shopping mall is a collection of independent
retail stores, services, and parking areas constructed and
maintained by a management firm as a unit. Shopping
centers may also contain restaurants, banks, theatres,
professional offices, service stations, and other
establishments.
In the past years, it can be observed that there
seems to be a mushrooming of shopping malls in the
country. According to a report of Marnette Federis from
Reuters, malling consumes shoppers in the
Philippines;
In the Philippines, malling has become a verb,
the act of going to a shopping mall and whiling
away the hours.Although over 40 percent of
the country's 90 million people live on $2 or less
per day, malls here are crowded at all times, and
especially packed at weekends. Around 80
percent of the Philippines' population go to

Keywords: indoor air quality, shopping malls, chemical

and biological contaminants, particulate matter

shopping centers and around 36 million people

visit shopping plazas once or twice a month,
according to Nielsen Media Research. The airconditioned malls are a boon in this steamy
tropical nation. But shopping plazas here have
also become a place to pay bills, to meet and
watch people, eat or see a film. Catholic masses
are even held in the corridors of some malls.
Shopping is only an option at Manilas malls.
Since most malls in Metro Manila are situated
along the main thoroughfares and in heavy traffic
environments, there is a possibility of infiltration of the
outdoor contaminants into the indoor environment of the
shopping mall. As fresh air supplied to the malls comes
from outdoors, the indoor air quality of the malls will be
closely associated with the outdoor air that is often
contaminated by automobile exhausts. This is
aggravated by the fact that the quality of ambient air in
Metro Manila is classified as one of the poorest in the
world.
Aside from the infiltration of outdoor pollutants
into indoor space, there are several potential sources of
contaminants inside the shopping mall. To cater to the
different needs of the public, shopping malls provide a
wide range of facilities and services. Examples are
supermarkets, ice skating rinks, food courts, cinemas, in
addition to the different stalls / boutiques. However,
activities such as cooking, use of certain cleaning
agents, use of gasoline- or propane-powered ice
resurfacers (in ice skating rinks), and cigarette smoking
within these facilities may contribute to the air pollution
indoors.

2.

Review of Related Literature

A review of related studies on indoor air quality

problems in shopping malls yields the following;
Lee, et al. (2000) determined the indoor air quality
at nine shopping malls in Hong Kong. The indoor air
pollutants included carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon
monoxide
(CO),
total
hydrocarbon
(THC),
formaldehyde (HCHO), respirable particulate matter
(PM10) and total bacteria count. It was found out that
more than 40% of the shopping malls had 1-h average
CO2 levels above the 1000 ppm of the ASHRAE
standard on both weekdays and weekends. Also, they
had average weekday PM10 concentration that exceeded
the Hong Kong Indoor Air Quality Objective
(HKIAQO). The highest indoor PM10 level at a mall was
380 g/m3. Of the malls surveyed, 30% had indoor
airborne bacterial levels above 1000 cfu/m3 set by the
HKIAQO. The elevated indoor CO2 and bacteria levels
could result from high occupancy combined with
insufficient elevation.

Guo, et al (2002) investigated the levels of

benzene, toluene, ethylbenze and xylenes (BTEX) in
offices, homes, schools, shopping malls and restaurants
in Hong Kong. For BTEX in indoor environments
except for schools, some of the pollutants were
dominated by outdoor sources while others mainly
originated from indoor sources. In schools, however, the
BTEX predominantly originated from outdoor sources.
The indoor concentrations of BTEX are the highest in
shopping malls. The benzene, toluene and ethylbenzene
concentrations in restaurants are the second highest, but
the concentration of the xylenes in offices are higher
than at restaurants. Also, it was found that BTEX was
related to outdoor sources such as traffic exhaust and
indoor activities such as cooking style, type of gas stove
used and smoking.
Zhu, et al (2008) determined the levels of carbonyl
compounds in shopping centers, supermarkets, furniture
store, inter-city bus stations, railway stations and
cinemas in Hangzhou, China. The carbonyl
concentrations showed great differences among public
places. The furniture store presented the highest
carbonyl concentrations, followed by shopping centers,
supermarkets, cinemas, while the carbonyl levels in
indoor air of the railway stations and inter-city bus
stations were lower. The restaurant and bedclothes areas
exhibited the highest levels of total carbonyls in
shopping centers. The total concentration of carbonyls
in the cooked food area were the highest in
supermarkets. The high carbonyl concentrations in
indoor air and the high indoor/outdoor ratios suggested
the presence of indoor sources of carbonyls.
Lee, et al (2002) compared the indoor air quality in
homes, offices, schools, shopping malls and restaurants.
Average CO2 levels and total bacteria counts in airconditioned clsssrooms, shopping malls and restaurants
were comparatively highest than those measured in
occupied offices and homes. Elevated CO2 levels
exceeding 1000 ppm and total bacteria counts resulted
from high occupancy combined with inadequate
ventilation. Average PM10 levels were usually higher
indoors than outdoors in homes, shopping malls, and
restaurants. The highest indoor PM10 levels were
observed at investigated restaurants due to the presence
of cigarette smoking a nd extensive use of gas stoves for
cooking. The restaurants and shopping malls
investigated had higher formaldehyde levels than other
indoor environments when building material, smoking
and internal renovation work were present. Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) in both indoor and outdoor
environments mainly resulted from vehicle exhaust
emissions.
Wang, et al (2005) investigated the concentration
of volatile organic compounds in a multi-storey
shopping mall in Guangzhou, South China. In this study,
it was found that the concentrations of toxic VOCs such
as benzene and chlorinated species in the shopping mall
are relatively high when compared with those reported

in indoor environment in previous studies. In particular,

the highest concentrations of aromatic and chlorinated
species were found in a fast-food court with cooking
stoves and frequent cleaning, and a department store
selling leather products. In addition, a very high
indoor/outdoor ratio was found for dichlorobenzene,
suggesting a substantial amount of this compound was
emitted in the shopping mall.
Zhu, et al (2007) conducted a PAHs (polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons) pollution survey in air of public
places in Hangzhou, China. The most serious PAHs
pollution was observed in indoor air of shopping centers
and the slightest was in train stations. The molecular
weight of chrysene (MW 228) appeared to be the
dividing line for the PAHs with a larger or smaller
distribution in the vapor or particulate phase.
Concentrations of 15 PAHs on PM2.5 accounted for
71.3% of total particulate PAHs, and followed by PM2.510 fraction (17.6%) and >PM10 fraction (11.1%). In
shopping centers and supermarkets, emission of 2-4
rings PAHs occurred from indoor sources, whereas 5-6
rings PAHs predominantly originated from transport of
outdoor air. In temples, PAHs in indoor air mainly
originated from incense burning. Health risks associated
with the inhalation of PAHs were assessed, and
naphthalene made the greatest contribution (62.4%) to
the total health risks.

A direct reading device was used for determining

the concentration of carbon dioxide. For other chemical
contaminants, colorimetric gas detection tubes were
used.
Sedimentation test using a biostage impactor was
used to measure the concentration of biological
contaminants. Tryptic soy agar was the medium used.
Sampling for particulate matter was done by means of
gravimetric method.

5.

Results and Analysis

Air samplings were performed in the two malls

designated as Mall A and Mall B. The tables below
(Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4) show the summary of the
concentration of chemical contaminants in both malls
during the two-day sampling.

Table 1. Summary of Data for Mall A, Day 1

(Chemical Contaminants)
Mall A
Day 1
Chemical
Contaminants
Considered

Part of the day samples were taken

Sampling pt. 1
2pm

CO2

585

814

1117

CO

SO2

3. Objectives of the Study

The study investigated the air quality inside two
selected shopping malls in Metro Manila and aimed to
accomplish the following:
Measure the concentration of chemical
contaminants such as volatile organic compounds
(benzene, C6H6 and toluene, C7H8), carbon
dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
Determine the concentration of particulate matter
and biological contaminants.

Sampling pt. 2

10am

6pm

2pm

6pm

562

1587

1452

Concentration in ppm

NO2

C6H6

C7H8

Table 2. Summary of Data for Mall A, Day 2

(Chemical Contaminants)
Mall A

4. Methodology
Tests were performed in two sampling points in
each mall. For Mall A, Sampling Point 1 is located near
a mall entrance connected to a public transportation
terminal, and Sampling Point 2 is located near food
establishments. On the other hand, Sampling Point 1 for
Mall B is near the supermarket, and Sampling Point 2 is
in the parking area. The samples were collected three
times a day (10 am, 2 pm and 6 pm) during a weekend
in the months of May ( for Mall A ) and July 2008 ( for
Mall B ).
The measurement of the concentration of air
contaminants was accomplished using the following
methods:

10am

Day 2
Chemical
Contaminants
Considered

Part of the day samples were taken

Sampling pt. 1
10am

2pm

Sampling pt. 2

6pm

10am

2pm

6pm

Concentration in ppm
CO2

583

960

1099

573

941

1135

CO

SO2

NO2

C6H6

C7H8

Table 3. Summary of Data for Mall B, Day 1

(Chemical Contaminants)

Table 5. Concentration of Biological Contaminants

Mall A
CFU/m

Mall B

Day 1
Chemical
Contaminants
Considered

DAY 1

Part of the day samples were taken

Sampling pt. 1
10am

2pm

Sampling pt. 2
6pm

10am

2pm

Sampling pt. 1

Sampling pt. 2

10:00 AM

902

512

2:00 PM

668

879

6:00 PM

372

2310

Sampling pt. 1

Sampling pt. 2

10:00 AM

871

418

2:00 PM

2172

406

6:00 PM

1162

719

6pm

Concentration in ppm
CO2

665

1301

1242

880

1234

1333

CO

SO2

NO2

C6H6

10

20

C7H8

DAY 2

Table 4. Summary of Data for Mall B, Day 2

(Chemical Contaminants)
Table 6. Concentration of Biological Contaminants
Mall B

Mall B
Day 1
Chemical
Contaminants
Considered

CFU/m

Part of the day samples were taken

Sampling pt. 1
10am

2pm

Sampling pt. 2
6pm

10am

2pm

DAY 1

Sampling pt. 1

Sampling pt. 2

10:00 AM

678

545

2:00 PM

1190

673

6:00 PM

1346

927

Sampling pt. 1

Sampling pt. 2

6pm

Concentration in ppm
CO2

881

1117

1212

823

971

1234

CO

30

20

SO2

NO2

C6H6

25

20

DAY 2

C7H8

10:00 AM

683

526

2:00 PM

944

596

6:00 PM

450

502

From the data presented above, it can be noticed

that except for carbon dioxide, no other chemical
contaminants (such as carbon monoxide, benzene,
nitrogen dioxide, etc) were detected in the selected
sampling points in Mall A.
In Mall B, however, benzene and carbon monoxide
were detected in the parking area. These chemical
contaminants may have come from gasoline vapors as
well as from products of combustion.
For both malls, the elevated carbon dioxide levels
exceeding the 1 000 ppm recommended guideline
provided by ASHRAE, can be attributed to high
occupancy. However, these slightly high concentrations,
observed especially in the afternoon, are still within the
recommended limit provided by the Philippine
Occupational Safety and Health Standards.

Tables 5 and 6 show the concentration of

biological contaminants, expressed in cfu (colony
forming units) per cubic meter. It can be said that the
results varied with time, as well as with the number of
people present in the sampling areas. Generally, the
average bacterial count in both malls was within the
1000 cfu/m3 limit set by the American Conference for
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).

standard given by the American Conference for

Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
High particulate matter concentrations at a
sampling site in the two malls may be attributed to
cooking and frequent cleaning (in the food court), and
products of combustion (in the parking area). The levels
of particulate matter in these two points exceeded the
150 g/m3 limit set by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA).

7.

Figure 1. Concentration of Particulate Matter

Figure 1 shows the concentration of particulate

matter, expressed in micrograms per cubic meter
(g/m3). The smallest concentrations of particulate
matter for the two malls are 61 g/m3 for Mall A during
Day 1, and 43 g/m3 for Mall B during Day 2. It can be
seen in the graph above that high levels of particulate
matter were detected in the two malls, both at Sampling
Point 2 during Day 2 ( 217 g/m3 for Mall B and 200
g/m3 for Mall A ). This was expected since Sampling
Point 2 for Mall A was near the food court, and for Mall
B, the parking area. Activities in the food court
(cooking, frequent cleaning) may have greatly
contributed to the amount of particulate matter. In the
same way, the products of combustion from vehicles in
the parking area were the cause of high amounts of
particulate matter. The high particulate matter levels in
both malls at Sampling Point 2 were above the 150
g/m3 limit set by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency.

6.

Conclusion

Except for carbon dioxide, there was no trace of

other chemical contaminants (CO, SO 2, NO2, C6H6,
C7H8) found in the sampling points inside Mall A.
Elevated indoor carbon dioxide levels in the afternoon
in both malls could be attributed to high occupancy.
However, the carbon dioxide concentrations in both
malls are deemed acceptable based on the Philippine
Occupational Safety and Health Standards.
Aside from carbon dioxide, benzene and carbon
monoxide were detected in the parking area of Mall B.
Their concentrations, except for benzene, are within the
Threshold Limit Value provided by the Occupational
Safety and Health Standards.
The bacterial count in both malls varied with time
as well as with the number of people in the sampling
area. Generally, the concentration of biological
contaminants in both malls was within the 1000 cfu/m3

Recommendation

For future studies, the following recommendations

are given:
The use of more sophisticated equipment in
assessing the concentration of the different
contaminants.
Inclusion of other chemical contaminants such
as total hydrocarbon and formaldehyde, which
might be present inside the malls.
Increasing the number of sampling points
inside the mall.
Conduct a survey among the mall-goers and
other
occupants
as
regards
the
illnesses/discomforts they feel inside the mall.

Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge everyone who
helped in the completion of this research. Special
mention is given to the School of Mechanical
Engineering and the Office for Research Promotion and
Coordination of the Mapua Institute of Technology for
their support.

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