Truss

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Forotheruses,seeTruss(disambiguation).
Inengineering,atrussisastructurethat"consistsoftwoforcemembersonly,wherethemembersare
organizedsothattheassemblageasawholebehavesasasingleobject".[1]A"twoforcemember"isa
structuralcomponentwhereforceisappliedtoonlytwopoints.Althoughthisrigorousdefinitionallowsthe
memberstohaveanyshapeconnectedinanystableconfiguration,trussestypicallycomprisefiveormore
triangularunitsconstructedwithstraightmemberswhoseendsareconnectedatjointsreferredtoasnodes.
Inthistypicalcontext,externalforcesandreactionstothoseforcesareconsideredtoactonlyatthenodes
andresultinforcesinthememberswhichareeithertensileorcompressive.Forstraightmembers,moments
(torques)areexplicitlyexcludedbecause,andonlybecause,allthejointsinatrussaretreatedasrevolutes,
asisnecessaryforthelinkstobetwoforcemembers.
Aplanartrussisonewhereallthemembersandnodesliewithinatwodimensionalplane,whileaspace
trusshasmembersandnodesextendingintothreedimensions.Thetopbeamsinatrussarecalledtop
chordsandaretypicallyincompression,thebottombeamsarecalledbottomchordsandaretypicallyin
tension,theinteriorbeamsarecalledwebs,andtheareasinsidethewebsarecalledpanels.[2]

Contents
1Etymologyoftruss
2Characteristicsoftrusses
2.1Simpletruss
2.2Planartruss
2.3Spaceframetruss
3Trusstypes
3.1Pratttruss
3.2Bowstringtruss
3.3Kingposttruss
3.4Lenticulartruss
3.5Town'slatticetruss
3.6Vierendeeltruss
4Staticsoftrusses
5Analysisoftrusses
5.1Forcesinmembers
5.2Designofmembers
5.3Designofjoints
6Applications
6.1Postframestructures
7Gallery
8Seealso
9References

Trussbridgeforasingletrackrailway,convertedto
pedestrianuseandpipelinesupport

AnEgyptianshipwitharopetruss,theoldestknownuseof
trusses.Trussesdidnotcomeintocommonuseuntilthe
Romanera.

Etymologyoftruss
TrussisderivedfromtheOldFrenchwordtrousse,aroundc.1200,whichmeans"collectionofthings
boundtogether."[3][4]Thetermtrusshasoftenbeenusedtodescribeanyassemblyofmemberssuchasa
cruckframe[5][6]orcoupleofrafters[7][8]butoftenmeanstheengineeringsenseof"Atrussisasingleplane
frameworkofindividualstructuralmemberconnectedattheirendsofformsaseriesoftriangle(sic)tospan
alargedistance."[9]

Characteristicsoftrusses
Atrussconsistsoftypically(butnotnecessarily)straightmembersconnectedatjoints,traditionallytermed
panelpoints.Trussesaretypically(butnotnecessarily[10])composedoftrianglesbecauseofthestructural
stabilityofthatshapeanddesign.Atriangleisthesimplestgeometricfigurethatwillnotchangeshape
whenthelengthsofthesidesarefixed.[11]Incomparison,boththeanglesandthelengthsofafoursided
figuremustbefixedforittoretainitsshape.Thejointatwhichatrussisdesignedtobesupportedis
commonlyreferredtoastheMunterPoint.

Simpletruss
Thesimplestformofatrussisonesingletriangle.Thistypeoftrussis
seeninaframedroofconsistingofraftersandaceilingjoist,[12]andin
othermechanicalstructuressuchasbicyclesandaircraft.Becauseof
thestabilityofthisshapeandthemethodsofanalysisusedtocalculate
theforceswithinit,atrusscomposedentirelyoftrianglesisknownasa
simpletruss.[13]However,asimpletrussisoftendefinedmore
restrictivelybydemandingthatitcanbeconstructedthrough
successiveadditionofpairsofmembers,eachconnectedtotwo
existingjointsandtoeachothertoformanewjoint,andthisdefinition
doesnotrequireasimpletrusstocompriseonlytriangles.[10]The
traditionaldiamondshapebicycleframe,whichutilizestwoconjoined
triangles,isanexampleofasimpletruss.[14]

Planarrooftrusses

Planartruss
Aplanartrussliesinasingleplane.[13]Planartrussesaretypicallyusedinparalleltoformroofsand
bridges.
Thedepthofatruss,ortheheightbetweentheupperandlowerchords,iswhatmakesitanefficient
structuralform.Asolidgirderorbeamofequalstrengthwouldhavesubstantialweightandmaterialcostas
comparedtoatruss.Foragivenspan,adeepertrusswillrequirelessmaterialinthechordsandgreater
materialintheverticalsanddiagonals.Anoptimumdepthofthetrusswillmaximizetheefficiency.[15]

Spaceframetruss

Aspaceframetrussisathreedimensionalframeworkofmembers
pinnedattheirends.Atetrahedronshapeisthesimplestspacetruss,
consistingofsixmemberswhichmeetatfourjoints.[13]Large
planarstructuresmaybecomposedfromtetrahedronswithcommon
edgesandtheyarealsoemployedinthebasestructuresoflarge
freestandingpowerlinepylons

Simpletetrahedron

Diagramofaplanarspace
framesuchasusedforaroof

Therooftrussesofthebasilicadi
SantaCroce(Florence)

Apylon,athree
dimensionallytrussed
structure

Trusstypes
Formoretrusstypes,seeListoftrusstypesorTrussBridge.
Therearetwobasictypesoftruss:
Thepitchedtruss,orcommontruss,ischaracterizedbyitstriangularshape.Itismostoftenusedfor
roofconstruction.Somecommontrussesarenamedaccordingtotheirwebconfiguration.Thechord
sizeandwebconfigurationaredeterminedbyspan,loadandspacing.
Theparallelchordtruss,orflattruss,getsitsnamefromitsparalleltopandbottomchords.Itisoften
usedforfloorconstruction.

Acombinationofthetwoisatruncatedtruss,usedinhiproofconstruction.Ametalplateconnectedwood
trussisarooforfloortrusswhosewoodmembersareconnectedwithmetalconnectorplates.

Pratttruss
ThePratttrusswaspatentedin1844bytwoBostonrailwayengineers,[16]CalebPrattand
hissonThomasWillisPratt.[17]Thedesignusesverticalmembersforcompressionandhorizontalmembers
torespondtotension.Whatisremarkableaboutthisstyleisthatitremainedpopularevenaswoodgave
waytoiron,andevenstillasirongavewaytosteel.[18]The
continuedpopularityofthePratttrussisprobablyduetothefact
thattheconfigurationofthemembersmeansthatlongerdiagonal
membersareonlyintensionforgravityloadeffects.Thisallows
thesememberstobeusedmoreefficiently,asslendernesseffects
relatedtobucklingundercompressionloads(whichare
compoundedbythelengthofthemember)willtypicallynotcontrol
thedesign.Therefore,forgivenplanartrusswithafixeddepth,the
Prattconfigurationisusuallythemostefficientunderstatic,vertical
loading.
TheSouthernPacificRailroadbridgeinTempe,Arizonaisa393
meter(1,291foot)longtrussbridgebuiltin1912.[19]Thestructure
iscomposedofninePratttrussspansofvaryinglengths.Thebridge
isstillinusetoday.
TheWrightFlyerusedaPratttrussinitswingconstruction,asthe
minimizationofcompressionmemberlengthsallowedforlower
aerodynamicdrag.[20]

AlargetimberHowetrussina
commercialbuilding

Bowstringtruss
Namedfortheirshape,bowstringtrusseswerefirstusedforarchedtrussbridges,oftenconfusedwithtied
archbridges.
ThousandsofbowstringtrusseswereusedduringWorldWarIIforholdingupthecurvedroofsofaircraft
hangarsandothermilitarybuildings.Manyvariationsexistinthearrangementsofthemembersconnecting
thenodesoftheupperarcwiththoseofthelower,straightsequenceofmembers,fromnearlyisosceles
trianglestoavariantofthePratttruss.

Kingposttruss
Mainarticle:Kingpost
Oneofthesimplesttrussstylestoimplement,thekingpostconsistsoftwoangled
supportsleaningintoacommonverticalsupport.

Thequeenposttruss,sometimesqueenpostorqueenspost,issimilartoakingposttruss
inthattheoutersupportsareangledtowardsthecentreofthestructure.Theprimarydifferenceisthe
horizontalextensionatthecentrewhichreliesonbeamactiontoprovidemechanicalstability.Thistruss
styleisonlysuitableforrelativelyshortspans.[21]

Lenticulartruss
Lenticulartrusses,patentedin1878byWilliamDouglas(although
theGaunlessBridgeof1823wasthefirstofthetype),havethetop
andbottomchordsofthetrussarched,formingalensshape.A
lenticularponytrussbridgeisabridgedesignthatinvolvesa
lenticulartrussextendingaboveandbelowtheroadbed.

Town'slatticetruss
Mainarticle:Latticetrussbridge
AmericanarchitectIthielTowndesignedTown's
LatticeTrussasanalternativetoheavytimber
bridges.Hisdesign,patentedin1820and1835,
useseasytohandleplanksarrangeddiagonallywithshortspacesin
betweenthem.

TheWatervilleBridgeinSwatara
StateParkinPennsylvaniaisa
lenticulartruss

Vierendeeltruss
Seealso:ArthurVierendeelandVierendeelbridge
TheVierendeeltrussisastructurewherethemembersarenot
triangulatedbutformrectangularopenings,andisaframewith
fixedjointsthatarecapableoftransferringandresistingbending
moments.Assuch,itdoesnotfitthestrictdefinitionofatruss
(sinceitcontainsnontwoforcemembers)regulartrussescomprise
membersthatarecommonlyassumedtohavepinnedjoints,withthe
implicationthatnomomentsexistatthejointedends.Thisstyleof
structurewasnamedaftertheBelgianengineerArthur
Vierendeel,[22]whodevelopedthedesignin1896.Itsuseforbridges
israreduetohighercostscomparedtoatriangulatedtruss.

AVierendeelbridgenotethelackof
diagonalelementsintheprimary
structure

Theutilityofthistypeofstructureinbuildingsisthatalarge
amountoftheexteriorenveloperemainsunobstructedandcanbeusedforfenestrationanddooropenings.
Thisispreferabletoabracedframesystem,whichwouldleavesomeareasobstructedbythediagonal
braces.

Staticsoftrusses

Atrussthatisassumedtocomprisemembersthatareconnectedbymeansofpinjoints,andwhichis
supportedatbothendsbymeansofhingedjointsorrollers,isdescribedasbeingstaticallydeterminate.
Newton'sLawsapplytothestructureasawhole,aswellastoeachnodeorjoint.Inorderforanynodethat
maybesubjecttoanexternalloadorforcetoremainstaticinspace,thefollowingconditionsmusthold:the
sumsofall(horizontalandvertical)forces,aswellasallmomentsactingaboutthenodeequalzero.
Analysisoftheseconditionsateachnodeyieldsthemagnitudeofthecompressionortensionforces.
Trussesthataresupportedatmorethantwopositionsaresaidtobestaticallyindeterminate,andthe
applicationofNewton'sLawsaloneisnotsufficienttodeterminethememberforces.
Inorderforatrusswithpinconnectedmemberstobestable,itdoesnotneedtobeentirelycomposedof
triangles.[10]Inmathematicalterms,wehavethefollowingnecessaryconditionforstabilityofasimple
truss:

wheremisthetotalnumberoftrussmembers,jisthetotalnumberofjointsandristhenumberofreactions
(equalto3generally)ina2dimensionalstructure.
When
,thetrussissaidtobestaticallydeterminate,becausethe(m+3)internalmember
forcesandsupportreactionscanthenbecompletelydeterminedby2jequilibriumequations,onceweknow
theexternalloadsandthegeometryofthetruss.Givenacertainnumberofjoints,thisistheminimum
numberofmembers,inthesensethatifanymemberistakenout(orfails),thenthetrussasawholefails.
Whiletherelation(a)isnecessary,itisnotsufficientforstability,whichalsodependsonthetruss
geometry,supportconditionsandtheloadcarryingcapacityofthemembers.
Somestructuresarebuiltwithmorethanthisminimumnumberoftrussmembers.Thosestructuresmay
surviveevenwhensomeofthemembersfail.Theirmemberforcesdependontherelativestiffnessofthe
members,inadditiontotheequilibriumconditiondescribed.

Analysisoftrusses
Becausetheforcesineachofitstwomaingirdersareessentiallyplanar,atrussisusuallymodelledasa
twodimensionalplaneframe.Iftherearesignificantoutofplaneforces,thestructuremustbemodelledas
athreedimensionalspace.
Theanalysisoftrussesoftenassumesthatloadsareappliedtojointsonlyandnotatintermediatepoints
alongthemembers.Theweightofthemembersisofteninsignificantcomparedtotheappliedloadsandso
isoftenomitted.Ifrequired,halfoftheweightofeachmembermaybeappliedtoitstwoendjoints.
Providedthemembersarelongandslender,themomentstransmittedthroughthejointsarenegligibleand
theycanbetreatedas"hinges"or'pinjoints'.Everymemberofthetrussistheninpurecompressionorpure
tensionshear,bendingmoment,andothermorecomplexstressesareallpracticallyzero.Thismakes
trusseseasiertoanalyze.Thisalsomakestrussesphysicallystrongerthanotherwaysofarrangingmaterial
becausenearlyeverymaterialcanholdamuchlargerloadintensionandcompressionthaninshear,
bending,torsion,orotherkindsofforce.
Structuralanalysisoftrussesofanytypecanreadilybecarriedoutusingamatrixmethodsuchasthedirect
stiffnessmethod,theflexibilitymethodorthefiniteelementmethod.

Forcesinmembers
Ontherightisasimple,staticallydeterminateflattrusswith9jointsand(2x9)3=15members.
Externalloadsareconcentratedintheouterjoints.Sincethisisasymmetricaltrusswithsymmetrical
verticalloads,itiscleartoseethatthereactionsatAandBareequal,verticalandhalfthetotalload.
Theinternalforcesinthemembersofthetrusscanbecalculatedinavarietyofwaysincludingthe
graphicalmethods:
Cremonadiagram
Culmanndiagram
theanalyticalRittermethod(methodofsections).

Designofmembers
Atrusscanbethoughtofasabeamwherethewebconsistsofaseriesofseparatemembersinsteadofa
continuousplate.Inthetruss,thelowerhorizontalmember(the
bottomchord)andtheupperhorizontalmember(thetopchord)
carrytensionandcompression,fulfillingthesamefunctionasthe
flangesofanIbeam.Whichchordcarriestensionandwhichcarries
compressiondependsontheoveralldirectionofbending.Inthe
trusspicturedaboveright,thebottomchordisintension,andthe
topchordincompression.
Thediagonalandverticalmembersformthetrussweb,andcarry
theshearforce.Individually,theyarealsointensionand
compression,theexactarrangementofforcesisdependingonthe
typeoftrussandagainonthedirectionofbending.Inthetruss
shownaboveright,theverticalmembersareintension,andthe
diagonalsareincompression.
Inadditiontocarryingthestaticforces,themembersserve
additionalfunctionsofstabilizingeachother,preventingbuckling.
Inthepicturetotheright,thetopchordispreventedfrombuckling
bythepresenceofbracingandbythestiffnessofthewebmembers.
Cremonadiagramforaplanetruss

Theinclusionoftheelementsshownislargelyanengineering
decisionbaseduponeconomics,beingabalancebetweenthecosts
ofrawmaterials,offsitefabrication,componenttransportation,onsiteerection,theavailabilityof
machineryandthecostoflabor.Inothercasestheappearanceofthestructuremaytakeongreater
importanceandsoinfluencethedesigndecisionsbeyondmeremattersofeconomics.Modernmaterials
suchasprestressedconcreteandfabricationmethods,suchasautomatedwelding,havesignificantly
influencedthedesignofmodernbridges.

Oncetheforceoneachmemberisknown,thenextstepistodeterminethecrosssectionoftheindividual
trussmembers.FormembersundertensionthecrosssectionalareaAcanbefoundusingA=F/y,
whereFistheforceinthemember,isasafetyfactor(typically1.5butdependingonbuildingcodes)and

yistheyieldtensilestrengthofthesteelused.
Themembersundercompressionalsohavetobedesignedtobesafeagainstbuckling.
Theweightofatrussmemberdependsdirectlyonitscrosssectionthatweightpartiallydetermineshow
strongtheothermembersofthetrussneedtobe.Givingonememberalargercrosssectionthanona
previousiterationrequiresgivingothermembersalargercrosssectionaswell,toholdthegreaterweightof
thefirstmemberoneneedstogothroughanotheriterationtofindexactlyhowmuchgreatertheother
membersneedtobe.Sometimesthedesignergoesthroughseveraliterationsofthedesignprocessto
convergeonthe"right"crosssectionforeachmember.Ontheotherhand,reducingthesizeofonemember
fromthepreviousiterationmerelymakestheothermembershavealarger(andmoreexpensive)safety
factorthanistechnicallynecessary,butdoesn'trequireanother
iterationtofindabuildabletruss.
Theeffectoftheweightoftheindividualtrussmembersinalarge
truss,suchasabridge,isusuallyinsignificantcomparedtotheforce
oftheexternalloads.

Designofjoints
Afterdeterminingtheminimumcrosssectionofthemembers,the
laststepinthedesignofatrusswouldbedetailingofthebolted
joints,e.g.,involvingshearoftheboltconnectionsusedinthe
joints,seealsoshearstress.Basedontheneedsoftheproject,truss
internalconnections(joints)canbedesignedasrigid,semirigid,or
hinged.Rigidconnectionscanallowtransferofbendingmoments
leadingtodevelopmentofsecondarybendingmomentsinthe
members.

Applications
Postframestructures

Abuildingunderconstructionin
Shanghai.Thetrusssectionsstabilize
thebuildingandwillhouse
mechanicalfloors.

Componentconnectionsarecriticaltothestructuralintegrityofaframingsystem.Inbuildingswithlarge,
clearspanwoodtrusses,themostcriticalconnectionsarethosebetweenthetrussanditssupports.In
additiontogravityinducedforces(a.k.a.bearingloads),theseconnectionsmustresistshearforcesacting
perpendiculartotheplaneofthetrussandupliftforcesduetowind.Dependinguponoverallbuilding
design,theconnectionsmayalsoberequiredtotransferbendingmoment.
Woodpostsenablethefabricationofstrong,direct,yetinexpensiveconnectionsbetweenlargetrussesand
walls.Exactdetailsforposttotrussconnectionsvaryfromdesignertodesigner,andmaybeinfluencedby
posttype.Solidsawntimberandglulampostsaregenerallynotchedtoformatrussbearingsurface.The
trussisrestedonthenotchesandboltedintoplace.Aspecialplate/bracketmaybeaddedtoincrease
connectionloadtransfercapabilities.Withmechanicallylaminatedposts,thetrussmayrestonashortened
outerplyoronashortenedinnerply.Thelaterscenarioplacestheboltsindoubleshearandisavery
effectiveconnection.

Gallery

Doublechordedheavy
timbertrusswith
80footclearspan.

TheHongKongBank
ofChinaTower
()hasan
externallyvisibletruss
structure.

TheHSBCMain
Building,HongKong
hasanexternally
visibletrussstructure.

TheAucklandHarbour LittleBelt:atruss
BridgefromWatchman bridgeinDenmark
Island,westofit.

Asectionthrougha
Queenpostrooftruss,
seeTimberrooftruss

Supportstructureunder
theAucklandHarbour
Bridge.

Prefabricatedsteel
bowstringrooftrusses
builtin1942forwar
departmentproperties
inNorthernAustralia.

Rooftrussinaside
buildingofCluny
Abbey,France.

Aspacetrusscarrying
afloorinThe
WoodlandsMall.

Electricitypylon

Seealso
Andreinitessellations,theonly28waystofill3Dspacewithtrussesthathaveidenticaljoints
everywhere

Browntruss
Geodesicdome,atrussintheshapeofasphere
Structuralmechanics
Serruriertruss,atrussformusedfortelescopes
Stress:
Compressivestress
Tensilestress
Structuralsteel
Tensegritytruss,atrusswherenocompressionmembertouchesanyothercompressionmember
Trussrod,aguitarpart

References
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York:McGrawHillCompaniesInc.pp.364407.ISBN0073380296.
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9780470648858
3. Reif,F.,etymonline.com(http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=truss)(1965).
4. OxfordEnglishDictionary
5. Noble,AllenGeorge.Traditionalbuildingsaglobalsurveyofstructuralformsandculturalfunctions.London:
I.B.Tauris,2007.115.ISBN1845113055
6. Davies,Nikolas,andErkkiJokiniemi.Dictionaryofarchitectureandbuildingconstruction.Amsterdam:
Elsevier/ArchitecturalPress,2008.394.ISBN0750685026
7. Davies,Nikolas,andErkkiJokiniemi.Architect'sillustratedpocketdictionary.Oxford:ArchitecturalPress,2011.
121.ISBN0080965377
8. Crabb,George.UniversalTechnologicalDictionaryOrFamiliarExplanationoftheTermsusedinAllArtsand
Sciences...",Volume1London:1823.Couples.
9. Shekhar,R.K.Chandra.Academicdictionaryofcivilengineering.Delhi:IshaBooks,2005.431.ISBN
8182051908
10. Beer,FerdJohnston,Russ(2013).VectorMechanicsforEngineers:Statics(10thed.).NewYork,NY:
McGrawHill.pp.285313.ISBN0077402286.
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(http://books.google.com/books?id=b6oJAAAAIAAJ).NewYork:J.Wiley&Sons.p.12.Retrieved
20080815.
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id=GJdBAAAAIAAJ)(2nded.).NewYork:TheIndustrialPublicationCompany.p.9.Retrieved20080816.
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PublishingCo.,Inc.pp.199224.ISBN0023543108.
14. Wingerter,R.,andLebossiere,P.,ME354,MechanicsofMaterialsLaboratory:Structures,Universityof
Washington(February2004),p.1
15. Merriman,Mansfield(1912)[192].AmericanCivilEngineers'PocketBook(http://books.google.com/books?
id=AUVIAAAAIAAJ).NewYork:J.Wiley&Sons.p.785.Retrieved20080816."TheEconomicDepthofa
Trussisthatwhichmakesthematerialinabridgeaminimum."
16. BethangaBridge(http://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au/07_subnav_01_2.cfm?itemid=5056556)attheNSWHeritage
Office(http://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au)retrieved2008Feb06
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TennesseeDepartmentofTransportation(http://www.tdot.state.tn.us)retrieved2008Feb06
18. ThePrattTruss
(http://www.sha.state.md.us/keepingcurrent/maintainRoadsBridges/bridges/OPPE/historicBridges/VPratt.pdf)
courtesyoftheMarylandDepartmentofTransportation(http://www.sha.state.md.us)retrieved2008Feb6
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TempeHistoricalMuseum(http://www.tempe.gov/museum/)retrieved2008Feb06

20. http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/personalpage/james/ichs/Vol%202%2012211232%20Gasparini.pdf
21. CoveredBridge'sTrussTypes(http://www.dot.state.oh.us/se/coveredbridges/truss_types.htm)
22. Vierendeelbruggen(http://users.telenet.be/karel.roose/vierendeel/vierendeel.html)

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