TheFuel&EngineSystem

Suck,squeeze,bang,blow

Notasexualmaneuver,butratherthecommondescriptionforhowaninternalcombustionengine
works.Thebasicwayallinternalcombustionenginesworkistotakeamixtureoffuelandair,
compressit,igniteiteitherwithasparkplugorbyselfigntion(inthecaseofadieselengine),allow
theexplosionofcombustinggassestoforcethepistonbackdownandthenexpeltheexhaustgas.The
verticalmovementofthepistonisconvertedintorotarymotioninthecrankviaconnectingrods.The
crankthengoesouttothegearboxviaaflywheelandclutch,andthegearboxsendstherotarymotion
tothewheels,drivingthevehicleforwards.
Thediagramtotheleftisforreferenceforthetechnicaljargonthatwillpopoutontherestofthis
page.Itshowsaninline4enginewithdualoverheadcams.

NikolausOtto
Ifyouwanttobepedantic,thesucksqueezebangblowcycleofa4strokeengineshouldbecalled
theOttoCycle,afteritsinventorNikolausOtto.Thedevelopmentoftheinternalcombustionengineis
quiteinteresting,andratherthanaddevenmorecluttertothispage,enquiringmindscanreadabout
thehistoryoftheinternalcombustionenginehere.Therestofuswillcarryon....

Enginelayouts

Herearesomeillustrationsofthemostcommontypesofcylinderlayoutyou'llfindinenginestoday.
Singlesaretypicallyusedinmotorbikes,snowblowers,chainsawsetc.Vtwinsarealsofoundin
motorbikes.ThetripleisalmostuniquetoTriumphmotorbikeswheretheycallittheSpeedTriple,or
the675.Inlinefoursarethemainstayofcarengines,aswellasbeingfoundinsomemotorbikestoo
suchastheBMWK1200S.InlinefivesusedtobeusedalotinAudisbuthavefoundanewhomein
currentVolvos.TheV5issomethingyou'llfindinsomeVWs.TheV6hasthebenefitsofbeing

smootherthananinlinefourbutwithoutthefueleconomyissuesofaV8.Boxerenginesarefoundin
BMWmotorbikes(twins)andPorschesandSubarus(foursandsixes).Youhadnoidea,didyou?

Thedifferencebetween4strokeand2strokeengines

First,somebasicconcepts.Wellonebasicconceptreallythemostcommontypesofinternal
combustionengineandhowtheywork.It'sworthreadingthisbitfirstotherwisethewholesectionon
octanelaterinthepagewillseemabitodd.Almosteverycarsoldtodayhasa4strokeengine.Sodoa
lotofmotorbikes,lawnmowers,snowblowersandothermechanicalequipment.Buttherearestillalot
of2strokeenginesaboutinsmallermotorbikes,smallerlawnmowers,leafblowers,snowblowersand
such.
Thedifferencebetweenthetwoenginetypesisthenumberoftimesthepistonmovesupanddownin
thecylinderforasinglecombustioncycle.Acombustioncycleistheentireprocessofsuckingfuel
andairintothepiston,ignitingitandexpellingtheexhaust.

How2strokeengineswork
A2strokeengineisdifferentfroma4strokeengineintwobasicways.First,thecombustioncycleis
completedwithinasinglepistonstrokeasopposetotwopistonstrokes,andsecond,thelubricatingoil
fortheengineismixedinwiththepetrolorfuel.Insomecases,suchaslawnmowers,youare
expectedtopremixtheoilandpetrolyourselfinacontainer,thenpouritintothefueltank.Inother
cases,suchassmallmotorbikes,thebikehasasecondaryoiltankthatyoufillwith2strokeoiland
thentheenginehasasmallpumpwhichmixestheoilandpetroltogetherforyou.
Thesimplicityofa2strokeengineliesinthereedvalveandthedesignofthepistonitself.The
pictureontherightshowsa4strokepiston(left)anda2strokepiston(right).The2strokepistonis
generallytallerthanthe4strokeversion,andithastwoslotscutintoonesideofit.Theseslots,
combinedwiththereedvalve,arewhatmakea2strokeengineworkthewayitdoes.Thefollowing
animationshowsa2strokecombustioncycle.Asthepiston(red)reachesthetopofitsstroke,the
sparkplugignitesthefuelairoilmixture.Thepistonbeginstoretreat.Asitdoes,theslotscutintothe
pistonontherightbegintoalignwiththebypassportinthecylinderwall(thegreenoblongonthe
right).Therecedingpistonpressurisesthecrankcasewhichforcesthereedorflappervalve(purplein
thisanimation)toclose,andatthesametimeforcesthefuelairoilmixturealreadyinthecrankcase
outthroughthepistonslotsandintothebypassport.Thiseffectivelyroutesthemixtureupthesideof
thecylinderandsquirtsitintothecombustionchamberabovethepiston,forcingtheexhaustgasto
expelthroughthegreenexhaustportontheleft.Oncethepistonbeginstoadvanceagain,itgenerates
avacuuminthecrankcase.Thereedorflappervalveissuckedopenandafreshchargeoffuelairoil
mixissuckedintothecrankcase.Whenthepistonreachesthetopofitstravel,thesparkplugignites
themixtureandthecyclebeginsagain.

Forthesamecylindercapacity,2strokeenginesaretypicallymorepowerfulthan4strokeversions.
Thedownsideisthepollutantsintheexhaustbecauseoilismixedwiththepetrol,every2stroke
engineexpelsburnedoilwiththeexhaust.2strokeoilsaretypicallydesignedtoburncleanerthan
their4strokecounterparts,butnevertheless,the2strokeenginecanbeasmokybeast.If,likeme,you
grewupsomewhereinEuropewherescooterswerealltherageforteenagers,thenthemeresmellof2
strokeexhaustcanbringbackfondmemories.Theotherdisadvantageof2strokeenginesisthatthey
arenoisycomparedto4strokeengines.Typicallythenoiseisdescribedas"buzzy".

How4strokeengineswork
4strokeenginesaretypicallymuchlargercapacitythan2strokeones,andhavealotmorecomplexity
tothem.Ratherthanrelyingonthesimplemechanicalconceptofreedvalves,4strokeengines
typicallyhavevalvesatthetopofthecombustionchamber.Thesimplesttypehasoneintakeandone
exhaustvalve.Morecomplexengineshavetwoofoneandoneoftheother,ortwoofeach.Sowhen
yousee"16v"onthebadgeonthebackofacar,itmeansit'sa4cylinderenginewith4valvesper
cylindertwointakeandtwoexhaustthus16valves,or"16v".Thevalvesareopenedandclosedby
arotatingcamshaftatthetopoftheengine.Thecamshaftisdrivenbyeithergearsdirectlyfromthe
crank,ormorecommonlybyatimingbelt.
Thefollowinganimationshowsa4strokecombustioncycle.Asthepiston(red)retreatsonthefirst
stroke,theintakevalve(leftgreenvalve)isopenedandthefuelairmixtureissuckedintothe
combustionchamber.Thevalveclosesasthepistonbottomsout.Asthepistonbeginstoadvance,it
compressesthefuelairmix.Asitreachesthetopofitsstroke,thesparkplugignitesthefuelairmix
anditburns.Theexpandinggassesforcethepistonbackdownonitssecondstroke.Atthebottomof
thisstroke,theexhaustvalve(rightgreenvalve)opens,andasthepistonadvancesforasecondtime,
itforcesthespentgassesoutoftheexhaustport.Asthepistonbeginstoretreatagain,thecyclestarts
over,suckingafreshchargeoffuelairmixintothecombustionchamber.
Becauseofthenatureof4strokeengines,youwon'toftenfindasinglecylinder4strokeengine.They
doexistinsomeoffroadmotorbikesbuttheyhavesuchathumpthumpthumpmotiontothemthat
theyrequiresomelargebalancingshaftsorcounterweightsonthecranktotrytomaketheride
smoother.Theyalsotakealittlelongertostartfromcoldbecauseyouneedtocrankthesinglepiston
atleasttwicebeforeacombustioncyclecanstart.Anymorethanonepistonandtheenginegetsalot
smoother,startsbetter,andisnowherenearasthumpy.That'soneoftheadvantagesofV6andV8
engines.Apartfromtheincreasedcapacity,morecylinderstypicallymeansasmootherengine
becauseitwillbemoreinbalance.
Geektrivia:MercedesBenzneededtoincreasetheperformanceoftheirdieselpassengercarsbackin
the70'sastheirmarketshareintheUSwasincreasing.AsprofessionalswithbigV8luxurycars
weretradingtheminfor2.4ldiesels,thedemandforperformancehadtobeaddressed.Mercedesdid
notwanttoretooltheir114/115serieschassisandtherewasn'tenoughroomintheenginebayfora
sixcylinderdiesel.Therewas,however,roomforastraight5.Benzengineersjusthunganother
cylinderonthebackofthe4cylblockandpresto!Thefivecylinderenginewasborn.Thisengine
acquiredalotofstatusamongthehighlinecarowners.WhenAudiintroducedtheC2seriescars(the
5000inAmerica,the100inEurope)in1976,theyoffereda5cylinderpetrolenginetoo.Itwas
basicallya1.8litre4cylinderenginewithanextracylinder.Thattookitupto2.0litresbutthefifth
pistonmadesuchanenormousdifferencetothesmoothnessoftheenginethatitwasoftenmistaken
foraV6orV8.Whyonly5cylindersinsteadofgoingforaV6?Partlyforthesamerationaleas
Mercedes(anditwasareallytightfit)butprimarilybecauseBenzhadmadethestraight5
configurationfashionable.Astraight5wasalsomorefuelefficientthanaV6.It'salsoworthpointing
outthatnowadays,bothAudiandVWhaveV5engineswiththreecylindersinonebankandtwoin
theother.Samesmoothness,bettergasmileage.

4strokeDieselEngines

Mechanically,4strokedieselenginesworkidenticallytofourstrokepetrolenginesintermsofpiston
movementandcrankrotation.(Tobehistoricallyaccurate,petrolenginesaremechanicallysimilarto
dieselenginesdieselenginescamefirst)It'sinthecombustioncyclewherethedifferencescome
through.First,duringtheintakecycle,theengineonlysucksairintothecombustionchamberthrough
theintakevalvenotafuel/airmix.Second,thereisnosparkplug.Dieselenginesworkonself
ignition,ordetonationtheonethingyoudon'twantinapetrolengine(seethesectiononOctane
later).Atthetopofthecompressionstroke,theairishighlycompressed(over500psi),andveryhot
(around700C1292F).Thefuelisinjecteddirectlyintothatenvironmentandbecauseoftheheat
andpressure,itspontaneouslycombusts(thissystemisknownasdirectinjection).Thisgivesthe
characteristicknockingsoundthatdieselenginesmake,andisalsowhypreignitingpetrolenginesare
sometimesreferedtoas'dieseling'.
Petrolenginestypicallyruncompressionrationsaround10:1,withlowerendenginesdownaslowas
8:1andsportierenginesupnear12:1.Dieselenginesontheotherhandtypicallyrunaround14:1
compressionratioandcangoupashighas25:1.Combinedwiththehigherenergycontentofdiesel
fuel(around147,000BTUpergallonversus125,000BTUforagallonofpetrol),thismeansthatthe
typicaldieselengineisalsoalotmoreefficientthanyourcommonorgardenpetrolengine,hencethe
muchhighergasmileageratings.
Becauseofthedesignofthedieselengine,theinjectoristhemostcriticalpartandhasbeensubjected
toliterallyhundredsofvariationsinbothdesignandposition.Ithastobeabletowithstandmassive
pressuresandtemperatures,yetstilldeliverthefuelinafinemist.Oneothercomponentthatsome
dieselengineshaveisaglowplug.Fromcold,somelowertechenginescan'tretardtheignition
enough,orgettheairtemperaturehighenoughonstartupforthespontaneouscombustiontohappen.
Inthoseengines,theglowplugisliterallyahotwireinthetopofthecylinderdesignedtoincreasethe
temperatureofthecompressedairtothepointwherethefuelwillcombust.Theseenginestypically
haveapictographonthedashboardthatlookslikealightbulb.Whenstartingtheenginecold,you
needtowaitforthatlighttogooutbasicallyyou'rewaitingfortheglowplugstogetupto
temperature.Inreallyolddieseldesigns,thiscouldbeaslongas10seconds.Nowadaysit'snearly
instantaneous,orinthecaseofadvancedECMsystems,notneededatall.

2strokeDieselEngines
Wouldyoubelievethereissuchathingasa2strokedieselengine?Thetwostrokecycledescribed
aboveturnsouttobehighlybeneficialforthedieselmodel,themajordifferencebeingtheinclusion
ofexhaustvalvesatthetopofthecylinder.Theburncycleworkssimilarlytoo.Atthetopofthe
pistontravel,theairishotandcompressed,justlikeina4strokediesel.Andlikethe4stroke,the
injectorspraysfuelinatthatpointanditselfcombusts.Asthegassesexpand,thepistonisforced
downwardsandtowardsthebottomofitsstroke,theexhaustvalvesonthetopofthecylinderopen.
Becausethegasisstillexpandingatthispoint,thecombustionchamberemptiesitselfthroughthe
openvalves.Attheverybottomofthepowerstroke,thepistonuncoverstheairintakeandpressurised
airfillsthecombustionchamberforcingthelastremnantsoftheexhaustgasout.Asthepistonbegins
itscompressionstroke,theexhaustvalvescloseandtheairiscompressedandvoilaatwostroke
dieselengine.Theotherdifferencebetweena4strokeand2strokedieselengineisthatthe2stroke
varietymusthaveaturbochargerorsuperchargeryou'llnoticeImentionedtheairintakefillsthe
cylinderwithpressurisedair.Thatdoesn'thappenbymagic.
Aswith2strokepetrolengines,everydownwardpistonstrokeisapowerstroke,meaningthe2stroke
enginehasthepotentialtoproducttwiceasmuchpowerasits4strokesibling.Typicallyyou'llfind2
strokedieselsinmaritimeengines(likethoseonfreighters,tankersandcruiseships)anddiesel
electrictrainswheremorepowerisneededforthesamesizeofengine.

"Clean"diesels?Toyota'sDCatandDPNR
Oldschooldieselenginesusedtosoundliketractorswhenyoustartedthemonacoldmorning,and

theyusedtospewparticulatesoutoftheexhausttothepointwherethebackofthecarwentblack.
Newergenerationdieselsstartmuchlessnoisilybutforthemostpartstillhavesomeissueswith
particulatesintheexhaust.ToyotaclaimtohavesolvedthiswiththeirDCatandDPNRsystem.D
CatstandsforDieselCleanAdvancedTechnologyandDPNRstandsforDieselParticulateNOx
Reduction.Theoperatingprincipleisfairlysound.DCatisanadvancedcomputercontrolledsystem
forcleaningdieselexhaustgasseswhichreliesontheDPNRcatalyser.Thisisacombinationof
particlefiltersandnormalgasreductioncatalysingmetalsthatremoveparticulates,sulphurdioxide
(SO2)andnitrogendioxide(NO2)fromtheexhaustgasses.Asensormeasurescantellwhenthese
filtersarenearlyfullatwhichpointafifthdieselinjectorspraysalittlefueldirectlyintotheexhaust
system.Combinedwiththeexhaustgasrecirculationsystem,thisresultsinallthecollectedpollutants
beingburnedoff,cleaningthefilterintheprocess.DPNRrequiresultralowsulfurdiesel(ULSD)to
workproperly.
ShortlyafterthissystemwaslaunchedontheD4Dengined2.0litreToyotaAvensis,thecomplaints
startedtocomein.Notably,DutchcarmagazineAutoWeek(issue42/2006)exposedtheproblem
whentheirDPNRequippedAvensisstarteddrivingaroundwithahugecloudofwhitesmokepouring
outoftheexhaust.Theyweren'ttheonlyonestohavethisproblem.Hundredsofcomplaintswere
filedinGermanyandotherEuropeancountriesforthesamething.TheproblemwasthattheD
Cat/DPNRsystemneedsto'regenerate'asdescribedabove.Theparticulateandgasfiltersarecleaned
viaacombustionmechanismintheexhaust,butthisonlyhappensatspeedsbelow160km/h(99mph),
andtakesabout20minuteseachtime.InGermanyespecially,wheretheystillhavesectionsof
unlimitedspeedautobahns,peoplehadbeendrivingwelloverthatspeedformilesonend,then
stoppingandturningthecaroff,onlytorepeatthecycletwiceadayduringtheircommute.Whenthis
happens,theDPNRsystemnevergetstimetoregeneratenormallyandtheparticlefiltersbecome
cloggedandtheDPNRsystemforcesacleancycletohappen.Thisforcedcombustionresultsinwhite
smokeastherearetoomanypollutantstryingtobeburnedoffatthesametime.Andnotjustalittle
whitesmoke.IntheAutoWeektest,theythoughttheirAvensiswasonfireitwastrailingsomuch
smoke.ToyotapromisedtosortthisproblemoutwithanimprovedversionofDCatfittedtothe
higherspec2.2litreengine.
Asof2011therewasn'tmuchtalkaboutthisanymorealthoughthereisstillreferencetotheproblem
inaToyotaTSB(WhiteSmokeFromExhaust,DNPROnly)

Interferencevs.noninterferenceengines

It'sworthmentioningthetwosubtypesof4strokeengineatthispoint.Becausethevalvesalways
openinwards,intothecombustionchamber,theytakeupsomespaceatthetopofthechamber.Inan
interferenceengine,thepositionofthepistonatthetopofitsstrokewilloccupythesamephysical
spacethattheopenvalvesdowhilstthepistonisatthebottomofitsstroke.It'simportanttoknowif
yourengineisaninterferenceenginebecauseifthetimingbeltbreaks,atleastonesetofvalveswill
stopintheopenpositionandthemomentumoftheenginewillramthepistoninthatcylinderupinto
thevalvesrequiringaveryexpensiveenginerepairorreplacement.Inanoninterferenceengine,the
valvesdonotoccupyanyspacethatthepistoncouldmoveinto,soifyourtimingbeltsnapsononeof
theseengines,in99%ofcasesyouwon'tsufferanyvalvedamagebecausethepistoncannot
physicallytouchtheopenvalves.Thatisthetechnicalexplanationofwhyitsimportanttogetyour
timingbeltchangedatthemanufacturerspecifiedmileage.
Thepicturehereshowsthedifferencebetweenthetwotypes.Ontheleft,circledinrediswherethe
openvalveinterfereswiththepositionofthepistonatthetopofitstravel.Ontheright,anon
interferenceengineshowsthereisstillagapatthesamepoint(exaggeratedformypicture).

TopDeadCentre(TDC)andignitiontiming
Whenapistoninanenginereachesthetopofitstravel,thatpointisknownasTopDeadCentreor
TDC.ThisisimportanttoknowbecauseIdon'tthinkanyengineactuallyfiresthesparkplugwiththe
pistonsatTDC.Moreoftenthannot,theyfireslightlybeforeTDC.Sohowdoesyourignitionsystem
work,andwhatisignitiontimingallabout?
Wellgeneratingthesparkistheeasypart.Theelectricalsysteminyourcarsuppliesvoltagetoyour
coilandignitionunit.Theenginewillhaveatriggerforeachcylinder,beitamechanicaltrigger
(points),electronicmoduleorcranktrigger.Whateveritis,atthatpoint,theengineeffectivelysendsa
signaltothecoiltodischargeintothehighvoltagesystem.Thatchargetravelsintothedistributorcap
andisroutedtotherelevantsparkplugwhereitisturnedintoaspark.Thekeytothis,though,isthe
timingofthesparkinrelationtothepositionofthepistoninthecylinder.Henceignitiontiming.
Havingthesparkignitethefuelairmixturetoosoonisbasicallythesameasdetonationandisbadfor
allthemechanicalcomponentsofyourengine.Havingthesparkcomealongtoolatewillcauseitto
trytoignitethefuelairmixtureafterthepistonhasalreadystartedtorecededownthecylinder,which
isinefficientandlosespower.
Timingthesparknowadaysisusuallydonewiththeenginemanagementsystem.Itmeasuresairflow,
ambienttemperature,takesinputfromknocksensorsandliterallydozensofsensorsalloverthe
engine.Itthenhasanignitiontimingmapbuiltintoitsmemoryanditcrossreferencestheinputfrom
allthesensorstodeterminetheprecisetimethatitshouldfirethesparkplug,basedontheignition
timingmap.At3000rpm,ina4cylinderengine,itdoesthisabout100timesasecond.Inolder
systems,thesparktimingwasdoneusingsimplemechanicalsystemswhichhadnowherenearthe
abilitytocompensatefortheallthevariablesinvolvedinarunningcombustionengine.
Typicallyasanenginerevsquicker,theignitiontimingneedstoadvancebecausethesparkneedsto
gettothecylindermorequickly.Why?Wellthefuelairmixtakesafiniteamountoftimetocombust.
Itwon'tburnanyquickerorslowerforanygivenenginespeed.Soforhigherspeeds,themixture
needstobeignitedearlierinthecycletoensurethatitbeginstoburnattheoptimumtimingpoint.In
modernsystems,thisisalltakenaccountofintheignitiontimingmap.Onoldermechanicalsystem,
theyusedmechanicalorvacuumadvancesystems,sothatthedifferenceintheamountofvacuum
generatedintheintakemanifold,determinedtheadvance/retardamountofthetiming.

Checkingignitiontiming

Despitethespeedthatanengineturns,itispossibleformeremortalslikeyouandmetobeableto
checktheignitiontimingoranengineusing(andyou'dhaveneverguessedthis)anignitiontiming
light.Timinglightsaretypicallystrobelights.Theyworkbybeingconnectedtothebatterydirectly
andthenhavinganinductioncoilclampedaroundoneofthesparkplugleadsnormallythefirstor
lastcylinderintheenginedependingonthemanufacturer.Whentheenginefiresthesparkplugfor

thatcylinder,theinductiveloopdetectsthecurrentinthewireandflashesthestrobeinthetiming
lightonce.Soiftheengineistickingoverat1100rpm,thestrobewillflash550timesaminute(4
strokeengine,remember?).Fantastic.Soyou'renowholdingaportableravelightingrigbuthowdoes
thishelpyouseethetimingofanengine?Wellit'ssimple.Youmusthaveseenstrobelightsworking
somewherearave,astageshowthey'reusedtoeffectivelyfreezethepositionofsomethingintime
andspacebyilluminatingitonlyatacertainpointandforafractionofasecond.Shootingastrobeat
someonewalkinginadarkroomwillresultinyouseeingthemwalkasiftheywereaflipbook
animationonareeloffilm.Thiseffectiswhat'susedtovisualisethetimingofyourengine.
Somewhereonthefrontoftheenginetherewillbeanotchnearoneofthetimingbeltpulleysand
stampedintothemetalnexttoitwillbetimingmarksindegrees.Onthepulleyitselftherewillbea
bump,recessorwhitepaintedblob.Whenyoupointthetiminglightdowntowardsthetimingbelt
pulley,rememberitfiresonceforeachfiringofthecylinders?Eachtimeitfires,thewhiteblobonthe
pulleyshouldbeatthesamepositioninitsrotationthestrobefiresonceforeachignitionsparkat
whichpointthemarkshouldbeinthesameplace,andtheeffecttoyouisthatthewholepulley,
timingmarkandall,arenowstandingstillinthestrobelight.Themarkonthepulleywilllineupwith
oneofthedegreemarksstampedontheengine,soforexampleifthewhitedotalwaysalignswiththe
10mark,itmeansyourengineisfiringat10degreesbeforeTDC.Whenyourevtheengine,the
timingwillchangesothemarkwillmovecloserorfurtherawayfromtheTDCmarkdependingon
howfasttheengineisspinning.
Notethatinsomeengines,thetwomarksaresimplypaintedorstamped,andtherearenodegree
markings.Inthiscase,themarksalignwhenthefirstpistonisexactlyatTDC.

Checkthetimingmarksfirst
Afterallthat,it'sworthpointingoutthatcranktimingmarkscanbewayoffsoit'sworthconfirming
thatyourTDCmarkerisactuallyTDCbeforeprattingaboutwiththetiming.It'snotasbadnowasit
usedtobe,butinthebadolddays,RoverV8'swereparticularlybadforthis,withsomebeingas
muchas12off!SohowyoudoconfirmyourTDCreallyisTDC?Smallcameras,agoodsetof
feelergauges,somecashandsomeonewhoknowswhatthey'redoing.

Timingmarksoncambeltpulleys
Thesametimingmarksexiststampedintothemetalnear,andonthepulleyontheendthecam.
Essentiallythesemarksareusedtolineupthecamtothecorrectpositionwhenyou'rechangingthe
timingbelt.YouhavetomakesuretheengineisrotatedtoTDCandthatthecamsareproperly
alignedtoo.Ifyoudon't,thecamswillspinpermanentlyoutofsynchwiththeenginecrankandthe
enginewillrunbadly,ifatall.