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Unit operations
There are many physical operations that are common to a number
of the individual industries, and may be regarded as unit
operations
Some of these operations involve particulate solids
many of them are aimed at achieving a separation of the
components of a mixture
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Mechanical operations
Chemical Engineering unit operations :
Fluid flow processes: fluids transportation, filtration, and solids
fluidization
Heat transfer processes: evaporation, condensation, and heat
exchange
Mass transfer processes: gas absorption, distillation, extraction,
adsorption, and drying
Thermodynamic processes: gas liquefaction, and refrigeration
Mechanical processes: solids transportation, crushing and
pulverization, and screening and sieving
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Particulate Solids
Solids are difficult than Fluids !
complex geometrical arrangements
basic problem of defining completely the physical state of the
material
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Particulate Solids
Particle size affects properties such as the surface per unit volume
and the rate at which a particle will settle in a fluid
Particle shape ?
Industrial scale: Large quantities of particles are handled and it is
frequently necessary to define the system as a whole
Not the particle size
But the particle size distribution
Mean size
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Particulate Solids
To reduce the size of particles
To enlarge the size of particles or form them into
aggregates or sinters
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Size distribution
Screening
Settling: different rate of sedimentation of particles or drops as they move through gas or
liquid
Slurry Transport
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End-Sem
50
TA
20
??
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Background
Materials are rarely found in the size range required
Often necessary either to decrease or to increase the size
While decreasing in size
particle size will have to be progressively reduced in stages
Most appropriate type of machine at each stage depends
size of the feed and of the product
properties as compressive strength, brittleness and stickiness
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Background
Sometimes very fine powders are too difficult to handle
Hazardous dust clouds during transportation
Size enlargement processes include
granulation for the preparation of fertilisers
compaction using compressive forces to form the tablets
in pharmaceuticals
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Single particles
The sphere of the same surface area per unit volume as the particle.
The sphere of the same area as the particle when projected on to a plane
perpendicular to its direction of motion.
The sphere of the same projected area as the particle, as viewed from above, when
lying in its position of maximum stability such as on a microscope slide for example.
The sphere which will just pass through the same size of square aperture as the
particle, such as on a screen for example.
The sphere with the same settling velocity as the particle in a specified fluid.
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Sphericity
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transitory
mode
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Crushing + Attrition
Stress applied between two surfaces (either surface
particle or particleparticle) at low velocity, 0.0110 m/s
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Jaw Crusher
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Gyratory Crusher
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Crushing Rolls
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Impact + Attrition
Stress applied at a single solid surface (surfaceparticle
or particleparticle) at high velocity, 10200 m/s
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Hammer Mill
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Shear + Attrition
Stress applied by carrier mediumusually in wet grinding
to bring about disagglomeration
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Sand Mill
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Colloid Mill
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Ball Mill
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Ball mill
May be used wet or dry although wet grinding facilitates
the removal of the product.
The costs of installation and power are low.
May be used with an inert atmosphere and therefore can
be used for the grinding of explosive materials.
The grinding medium is cheap.
Suitable for materials of all degrees of hardness.
May be used for batch or continuous operation.
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Hammer Mill
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Question!
If a ball mill, 1.2 m in diameter, is operating at 0.80 Hz, suggest the
modification in operating condition to achieve its improved
efficiency.
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Size reduction is a very inefficient process and only between 0.1 and
2.0 per cent of the energy supplied to the machine appears as
increased surface energy in the solids
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Energy Requirements
for p = -2
Rittingers law
fc is thefor
crushing
strength
of the
the increase
material in surface
The energy required
size reduction
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Energy Requirements
for p = -1
Kicks law
The energy required for size reduction the reduction ratio
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Energy Requirements
Kicks law, more closely relates to the energy required to effect elastic
deformation before fracture occurs
Kicks law is more accurate than Rittingers law for coarse crushing
where the amount of surface produced is considerably less
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Energy Requirements
for p = -3/2
Bonds law
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Problem
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Hardness
The hardness of the material affects the power consumption and the wear on the machine.
With hard and abrasive materials it is necessary to use a low-speed machine and to protect
the bearings from the abrasive dusts that are produced.
Structure
Normal granular materials such as coal, ores and rocks can be effectively crushed employing
the normal forces of compression, impact, and so on. With fibrous materials a tearing action
is required
Moisture content
It is found that materials do not flow well if they contain between about 5 and 50 per cent
of moisture. In general, grinding can be carried out satisfactorily outside these limits.
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Friability
The friability of the material is its tendency to fracture during normal
handling. In general, a crystalline material will break along well-defined
planes and the power required for crushing will increase as the particle size
is reduced.
Stickiness
A sticky material will tend to clog the grinding equipment and it should
therefore be ground in a plant that can be cleaned easily.
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Explosive materials
must be ground wet or in the presence of an inert atmosphere.
Hazardous materials
Materials yielding dusts that are harmful to the health must be
ground under conditions where the dust is not allowed to escape.
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Grinders
(intermediate & fine)
Ultrafine grinders
Cutting machines
Jaw crushers
Hammer mills
Knife cutters
Gyratory crusher
Dicers
Crushing rolls
Attrition mills
Slitters
Agitated mills
Tumbling mills
(Ball mill, Rod mill,
pebble mill, Tube mill)
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Choke feeding
the machine is kept full of material
discharge of the product is blocked so that the material remains
in the crusher for a longer period
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Recap
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Why!
Quantitative indication of the mean size and of the spread of sizes
Results of a size analysis can most conveniently be represented by
means of a cumulative mass fraction curve
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Cumulative distribution
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Different distributions
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The median
Easily read from the cumulative distribution as the 50% size
The size which splits the distribution into two equal parts
Different means
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Different means
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Problem
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Solution
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Problem
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Solution
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Quiz!
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Recap
Frequency distribution curves
Cumulative curves
Cumulative distribution is the integral of the frequency
distribution
Distributions can be by number, surface, mass or volume
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Screen efficiency
F = feed, D = overflow, B = underflow
xF , xD , xB mass fraction of material A
(1-xF), (1-xD), (1-xB), mass fraction of material C
F=B+D
F xF = D xD + B xB
Screen efficiency
=
based on oversize
(1 )
;
(1 )
= =
=
based on undersize
(1 )
;
(1 )
overall effectiveness
( )( ) (1 )
( )2 1
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Assumptions
The suspension is sufficiently dilute for the particles to
settle as individuals (i.e. not hindered settling)
Motion of the particles in the liquid obeys Stokes law
(true for particles typically smaller than 50 mm)
Particles are assumed to accelerate rapidly to their
terminal free fall velocity UT so that the time for
acceleration is negligible
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Sedimentation
Particles are assumed to accelerate rapidly to their terminal free fall velocity
UT so that the time for acceleration is negligible
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Ergun Equation
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Permeametry
This is a method of size analysis based on fluid flow
through a packed bed
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Electrozone Sensing
The amplitude of the pulse can be related to the volume of the particle
passing the orifice
The lower size limit is dictated by the smallest practical orifice and the
upper limit is governed by the need to maintain particles in suspension
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SAMPLING
In practice, the size distribution of many tonnes of powder are often
assumed from an analysis performed on just a few grams or
milligrams of sample
The importance of that sample being representative of the bulk
powder cannot be overstated
The powder should be in motion when sampled
The whole of the moving stream should be taken for many short
time increments
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Assumptions
The suspension is sufficiently dilute for the particles to
settle as individuals (i.e. not hindered settling)
Motion of the particles in the liquid obeys Stokes law
(true for particles typically smaller than 50 mm)
Particles are assumed to accelerate rapidly to their
terminal free fall velocity UT so that the time for
acceleration is negligible
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Sedimentation
Particles are assumed to accelerate rapidly to their terminal free fall velocity
UT so that the time for acceleration is negligible
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Ergun Equation
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Permeametry
This is a method of size analysis based on fluid flow
through a packed bed
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Electrozone Sensing
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Electrozone Sensing
The amplitude of the pulse can be related to the volume of the particle
passing the orifice
The lower size limit is dictated by the smallest practical orifice and the
upper limit is governed by the need to maintain particles in suspension
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SAMPLING
In practice, the size distribution of many tonnes of powder are often
assumed from an analysis performed on just a few grams or
milligrams of sample
The importance of that sample being representative of the bulk
powder cannot be overstated
The powder should be in motion when sampled
The whole of the moving stream should be taken for many short
time increments
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Particle in a Fluid
To develop an understanding of the forces resisting the
motion of a single particle
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Stokes law
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Stokes law
Stokes law is found to hold for single particle Reynolds
number,
almost exactly for Rep 0.1
within 9% for Rep 0.3
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Drag Coefficient
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Archimedes number
produce a straight line of slope 2 if plotted on the
logarithmic coordinates (log CD versus log Rep) of the
standard drag curve. The intersection of this straight line with
the drag curve gives the value of Rep.
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For a given UT
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Non-Spherical Particles
Shape affects drag coefficient far more in the intermediate
and Newtons law regions than in the Stokes law region.
In the Stokes law region particles fall with their longest surface
nearly parallel to the direction of motion, whereas, in the
Newtons law region particles present their maximum area to the
oncoming fluid.
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A sphere of diameter 10 mm and density 7700 kg/m3 falls under gravity at terminal
conditions through a liquid of density 900 kg/m3 in a tube of diameter 12 mm. The
measured terminal velocity of the particle is 1.6 mm/s. Calculate the viscosity of the
fluid. Verify that Stokes law applies.
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Separation
Separation can be divided into 2 classes:
Diffusional operations: transfer of material between phases
Mechanical separation: based on physical differences, e.g. size,
shape, density
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Mechanical Separation
Separation of
solids from gases
liquid drops from gases
solids from solids
solids from liquids
Screening
Separating particles due to size ONLY
Single screen gives unsized fractions
Series of screens provides sized fractions
Commonly applied for large scale for the separation
Generally applicable for particles of a size as small as
about 50 m
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Screening
For very fine materials
difficulty of producing accurately woven fine gauze of sufficient
strength
screens become clogged
other methods of separation are usually more economical
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Screening
Commonly done in dry mode, occasionally in wet mode
With coarse solids the screen surface may be
continuously washed by means of a flowing stream of
water
to keep the particles apart
to remove the finer particles from the surface of larger particles
to keep the screen free of adhering materials
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Screening
Fine screens are normally operated wet, with the solids
fed continuously as a suspension
Concentrated suspensions have high effective viscosities
and frequently exhibit shear-thinning non-Newtonian
characteristics
By maintaining a high cross-flow velocity over the surface of the
screen, or by rapid vibration, the apparent viscosity of the
suspension may be reduced and the screening rate substantially
increased.
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Multiphase systems
Dissolved or
dispersed
phase
Continuous
medium
Solution
Colloid
Coarse dispersion
Gas
Gas
None
None
Liquid
Gas
None
Aerosol
Solid
Gas
None
Gas
Liquid
Foam
Liquid
Liquid
Emulsion
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Solid
Liquid
Solid
Solution: amalgam
Wet sponge
Solid
Solid
Solution: alloys
Gravel, granite
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Source: Wikipedia
Non-Newtonian fluid
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Non-Newtonian fluid
Time-dependent
viscosity
Rheopectic
Thixotropic
Timeindependent
viscosity
Shear thinning
(pseudoplastic)
Viscosity is constant
Generalized
Stress depends on normal and
Newtonian fluids shear strain rates and also the
pressure applied on it
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Custard, Water
Screening Equipment
In most cases, the particles drop through the openings
by gravity
Coarse particles drop through easily, but with fine
particles, screen must be agitated
Agitation can be done by
shaking
vibrating
mechanically or electrically
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Grizzlies
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Electromagnetic screen
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Mechanical screen
Mechanical screen
As very rapid accelerations and retardations are produced, the
power consumption and the wear on the bearings are high
Generally mounted in a multi-deck fashion with the coarsest
screen on top, either horizontally or inclined at angles up to
45
With the horizontal machine, the vibratory motion fulfils the
additional function of moving the particles across the screen
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Mechanical screen
The screen area which is required for a given operation
cannot be predicted without testing the material under
similar conditions on a small plant
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Trommel
A very large mechanically operated screen
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Electrostatic separator
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Cyclone separator
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