PDH

The PDH hierarchy
by JM Caballero
Trend Communications
The telecommunication networks
POTS
1
2, 3 ,4
Information (1)
only meaningful for the end user
Signals (2)
modification of a physical characteristic: electricity, light, magnetism...relative to time
Transmission media (3)

allow the movement of a signal from a source to a target
Nodes (4)
relay the signals maintaining their characteristics.
there are three basic types: regenerators, switches/routers and multiplexers
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Signals & Information
Information
Analog
Signals
Digital
Analog
Digital
Modulation
Digital Modulation
- AM/FM radio
- ADSL
- broadcast TV
- digital TV
Digitalization
Codification
- audio CD
- ISDN (data)
- ISDN (voice)
- Internet
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Transmission media
Transmission types
Twisted pair
- Conductors
Coaxial
Transmission obstruction
- Attenuation (loss of signal power)

proportional to the distance
the signal loses power
must have a good relation with noise
- Noise
- Dielectrics
Optical Fiber
thermic
intermodulation (sum total of frequencies)
noise point
Space
- Distorsion (modification of the signal format)

different propagation speeds
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Telecommunication in evolution
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The arrival of digital technology

analog
Central
analog
Central
analog
: 1900
digital
digital
Modem
Modem
analog
digital
Central
Central
analog
digital
digital
Central
Central
analog
digital
: 1960
: 1990
The telephone networks have moved to the digitalization. At the beginning on the local
exchanges, backbones. The last step is the local loop.
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The digitalization of signals
SAM PLIN G
t
t0
Q U AN TISATIO N
t0+T
011
010
001
000
100
101
110
111
EN C O D IN G
001
011
001
101
100
t
t0
t0+T
It is a process in order to transport analog information through a digital network

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Nyquist Sampling Theorem

in order to convert an analog signal to digital it is
necessary to use a sampling frequency (fs) at least two
times the highest frequency
fs 2BW (in Hertzs)
i.e.) a phone channel BWc = 4000 Hz in 8 bits each

sample it would be necessary:
fs = 2*4000=8000 Hz
T= 125s: this is the base period for all digital networks

codifying:
8000 samples/seg* 8bits/sample = 64.000 bits/seg
64kbit/s is the basic rate, or the unit rate, in digital telecommunications
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Capacity of a channel: the Shannon Law
The capacity of a noisy channel is :
C= Bw log2 (1 + P/N)
C: Capacity of a channel in bit/s
Bw: Bandwidth in Hz.
P: Signal power
N: Media noise
Show a maximum capacity for a noisy channel

for transmitting digital information
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Types of digital modulation

7V
3V
PA M
3V
t
t0+T
t0
-V
-3V
7V
5V
3V
V
-V
-3 V
-5 V
-7 V
(3)
(2)
(1)
(0)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
011
010
001
000
100
101
110
111
PD M
t
t0+T
t0
t0+3T t0+4T
t0
t0+T
t0+2T
t
1
PPM
t
t0
t0+T
001
011
001
101
100
PC M
t
t0
t7
t0 t1 t2
t3 t4 t5 t6
t8 t9
A N A LO G
PU LSE
M O D U LA TIO N
D elta
M odul.
t0+T
t4 t5 t6 t7
t0 t1 t2
t3
t8 t9
D IG ITA L
PU LSE
M O D U LA TIO N
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) the most used for voice

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Line Codifications
Facts:
An increase in data rate increases bit error rate
An increase in S/N decreases bit error rate
An increase in bandwidth allows increase in data rate
Evaluation factors:
Avoid high frequency components for less bandwidth
Avoid DC component, just AC allows transformers & media isolation
Signal Synchronization embedded in the bit sequency avoids separate clock
Signal Error Detecting Capability provided by the nature of the codification
Signal Interference and Noise Immunity
Cost and Complexity
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Line Codifications (ii)

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
+V
NRZ
Non
Return
Zero
-V
+V
AMI
2 Mbit/s
8 Mbit/s
Alternate
Mark
Inversion -V
HDB3
High
Density
Bipolar
Three
Zeroes
+V
B
2 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s
0
0
B: balancing
V: violation
-V
+V
CMI
Coded
Mark
Inverted
140 Mbit/s
155 Mbit/s
0
-V
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
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Multiplexing
Allows the use of several communications channels through a transmission media
DTE-A
BWs1
BWC
BW
s2
DTE-B
.
.
.
BWs1
DTE-F
MULTIPLEXER
Transmission media
FDMA
TDMA
Frequency Division Multiplexing Access
Time Division Multiplexing Access
CDMA
Code Division Multiplexing Access
11 01 0 00 10 11 01110 0 1
F
E
B
C
B A F E D CB A
frequency
0 0 10 111 0111 0 1110 0 1
time
Radio, TV, GSM

ISDN, Frame Relay,GSM
code
Bit
UMTS
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Digital switching
Analog switching & transmission: Inefficient, expensive
Requires continuous modulation/demodulation
Noise is always present

Modulator
multiplexer
Demodulator
demultiplexer
A(f1)
A(f1)
B(f2)
B(f2)
A(f1), B(f2), C(f3), D(f4)
C(f3)
A(f1), B(f2)
Analog
switch
C(f3)
D(f4)
D(f4)
C(f3), D(f4)
4 channels at the
same frequency
Digital switching & transmission
Integrates in one operation the demultiplexing and switching
Easy to manage
Digital switch
ABABABABAB
ABCDABCDABCDABCD
CDCDCDCDCD
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Typical analog arrangement

SU BSC R IBER S
PC M M U X
2 M bit/s
LTE
R EG EN ER A TO R
A N A LO G
EXC H A N G E
D IG ITAL
TR A N SM ISSIO N
LIN E
SU BSC R IBER S
R EG EN ER A TO R
2 M bit/s
LTE
The swictching capabilities are between subribers and digital multiplexors
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Typical digital arrangement

SU BSCR IBERS
PCM M UX
2 M bit/s
LTE
2 M bit/s
2 M bit/s
REG EN ERA TO R
DIG ITAL
EXCHANG E
DIG ITAL
TRANSM ISSIO N
LINE
REG EN ERA TO R
SU BSCR IBERS
PCM M UX
2 M bit/s
LTE
2 M bit/s
2 M bit/s
The swictching capabilities use to be inside and integrated with the digital network
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Advantages of digital technology
Reduces hardware cost
Simplifies swtiching
Improves reliability, maintenance and quality
Allows you to offer Quality of Service (QoS)
Optimizes the use of resources
Supports audio, data, video under a unified media
...but
Requires more Bandwidth
Needs synchronization
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Digital milestones
Telex (Germany 1935) first digital network
Digitalization (France 1942)
Fax (Japan 1950)
Integration (USA 50s) of transmission and switching
Digital switching AT&T (USA 1962)
T-Carrier (USA 1965) CM 24 channels Western Electric
RSAN (Spain 1968) first public packet Network Telefonica
PDH (Europe 1975)
IDN (USA 70s) first full digital network
ISDN (Europe 1984) standarized voice and data metwork
SONET (USA 1988) first installations
B-ISDN (Europe 1990) SDH+ATM broadband networks
GSM (France 1994) digital wireless telephony
UMTS (Europe 2001) broadband wireless network
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Identify Digital Technology areas
Switching
Symplifies demultiplexing and switching

operation
Allows network management
Transmission
Allows TDMA to transmit several

Allows error detection and quality
measurements
Mandatory for data cammunications
Signalling
Allows the development of advanced features

when stablishing, maintaining or realease
connections
Local loop
Allows advanced features for any applications

based on voice, data, hypermedia or
multimedia
End-to-end digital quality
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The PDH standards

IT U -T
T e le c o m m u n ic a tio n
S ta n d a rd iz a tio n S e cto r o f th e
In te rn a tio n a l
T e le c o m m u n ic a tio n
U n io n
R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
G S E R IE S :
T ra n s m is sio n s ys te m s a n d
M u ltip le x a tio n e q u ip m e n t
O S E R IE S :
M e a s u rin g e q u ip m e n t s p e cific a tio n s
M S E R IE S :
T ra n s m is sio n s ys te m s m a in te n a n c e
Section
Multiplexing Hierarchies
Provides an standarized way for transmission and multiplexing in terms of rates and formats
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PDH is the European hierarchy
It is digital
It is a hierachy because define four standarized layers for 2, 8, 34, and 140 Mbit/s
It is plesiochronous because each multiplexer can use its clock
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PDH is plesiochronous
PDH
PDH
PDH
PDH
PDH
PDH
clock
PDH circuits
alignment
SWITCH
Lines Input
Synchronization
Switched lines
Plesio- means almost but truth is that each PDH island has its own clock: the result is an
unsynchronized network
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PDH standard by ITU-T
hirarchy
standard
binary rate
line code
amplitude
attenuation
G.704/732
2048kbit/s50ppm
HDB3
2.37V
3.00V
6dB
G.742
8448kbit/s30ppm
HDB3
2.37V
6dB
G.751
34368kbit/s20ppm
HDB3
1.00V
12dB
G.751
139264kbit/s15ppm
CMI
1.00V
12dB
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PDH Frame stream sequence
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The PDH hierarchy
Remote Alarms Indicator (FAS and MFAS)
Spare bits (national use)
T1
i - Tributary bits
J11
Justification control bits
R1
Justification bits
ai bi ci di
i - Channel CAS bits
CRC-4 Error signaling bits
CAS multiframe alignment

Frame alignment bits
CRC-4 Multiframe alignment
Frame alignment supervision bits
C1 C2 C3 C4
Cyclic Redundancy Checksum bits
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Frame alignment
FA S
FA S
tim e slots
Allows targetting of synchronization to find the beginning of the frame
It needs the FAS word at the beginning of each odd framefor the 2 Mbit/s or at the beginning
of the frame for the rest of the hierarchies
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The 2048Mbit/s basic frame
Multiframe composed by 16 frames, each one has 32 bytes
The first time slot is for the control, the 16 channel is for signalling
The frame period is 125 s then 1byte is a 8 bit/125 s= 64 kbit/s channel
The transmission rate is (32channel x 8bit/channel) / 125 s = 2,048 Mbit/s
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The 2 Mbit/s basic frame (ii)

B inary rate = 2048.0 Kbit/s 50 ppm
Line C ode = H D B3
N om inalam plitude = 2.37 V (coaxialcable)
3.00 V (balanced cable)
Im pedance = 75 (coaxialcable)
120 (balanced cable)
Tolerated inputlevelattenuation = 0 to 6 dB at1024 Khz according to f
Fram e length = 256 bits

A vailable bits per tim eslot= 8 bits
M ultiplexing m ethod = octetinterleaving
Fram e rate = 8000 fram e/s
FA S bits rate = 28000 bit/s
(including supervision bit)= 32000 bit/s
It is the basic frame and the most used
All the european network equipment support
Most of the narrow band networks are built over this frame: POTS, Frame Relay, GSM, NISDN, and some leased lines, and ATM access networks
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The FAS for the alignment
FAS =0011011
FAS is only transmitted on odd frames the
NFAS uses a bit equal to 1 to avoid coincidences
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NFAS: Non Frame Alignment Sequence (i)
The second bit of the NFAS is equal to 1 and it is used to avoid aleatory coincidences with
the FAS
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NFAS: Non Frame Alingment Sequence (ii)
The A bits are used for alarm management
The S bits are reserved space for opertators that want to implement management and
maintenance protocols
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Check Redundancy Code CRC-4
It detects block errors. Each 4 bits CRC corresponds to the previous sub-multiframe
The receiver compute the submultiframe CRC and compares it with the code received on
the next frame
If it does not match then an indition is sent using the E bit
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Error monitoring
This two bits indicate block errors detected by the CRC. First for the upper submultiframe
and the second for the II submultiframe
1 is the defect value
If multiplexer detects block errors then sets to 0 the bit E to the frame which is sent to the
other side
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Multiframe alignment
The 001011 sequence is the alignment which is inserted on the odd frames
They must identify the CRC-4 submultiframe
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Distance alarm indication (bit A)
Used to send alarms to the remote side:
Alarm bit used to indicate a power fault, loss of incoming signal, loss of frame, coder/
decoder fault, a very high bit error rate (>10-3) that do not allows recover the channels
Then the receiver sets the bit A=1 on the frames travelling on the other direction
When transmitter realizes on the alarm state then send an AIS setting all the frame bits to 1
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Spare bits
The bits S are reserved for the Network Operator internal use only
Usually are application, maintenance or monitoring of performance
If they are not used, or in international links, must be set to 1
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The signalling channel
Used to interchange information between Local Exchanges (LE)
Allows to establish, maintain an release end user connections.
Uses the time-slot TS16 of the 2 Mbit/s frame
Si is a four bits channel (a1, a2, a3, a4) i values goes from 1 to 30, one per channel
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Signalling channel methods
Channel Associated Signalling CAS

Each 64 kbit/s channel (TS1-TS15 and TS17-TS30) has a 2 kbit/s channel, as fast as each one
of the 30 signalling channel can be found at predefined positions
Common Channel Signalling (CCS)

Byte oriented protocol. There is not a predefined position for each information channel
because the protocol messages can be identified by means of an specific field
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Multiframe Alignment Signal (MFAS)
To synchronize the CAS an alignment signal
0000 sequence is found on the first bits of the multiframe
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No Multiframe Alignment Signal (NMFAS)
Used to send alarms to the remote side:
Alarm bit used to indicate a power fault, loss of incoming signal, loss of multiframe CAS,
coder/decoder fault, a very high bit error rate (>10-3) that do not allows recover the channels
Then the receiver sets the bit A=1 on the frames travelling on the other direction
When transmitter realizes on the alarm state then sets all the bits of the CAS multiframe to
indicate the alarm on the response from the remote side is to set CAS bits to 1
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FAS - higher hierarchies

FA S
140 M bit/s
111110100000 A S
T1 T2T3 T4
34 M bit/s tributaries bits
FA S
34 M bit/s
1111010000 AS T
1 T2 T 3T 4
FA S
8 M bit/s
1111010000 AS T
1 T2 T 3T 4
Uses some bits more depending on the bit rate
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Frame synchronization criteria
Bit rate
CCITT standard
Frame Alignment
Frame Loss
2048 Kbit/s
G.704/732
FAS, NFAS(bit 2), FAS
3 consecutive
errored FAS
8448 Kbit/s
G.742
3 consecutive
correct FAS
4 consecutive
errored FAS
34368 Kbit/s
G.751
3 consecutive
correct FAS
4 consecutive
errored FAS
139264 Kbit/s
G.751
3 consecutive
correct FAS
4 consecutive
errored FAS
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8 Mbit/s channel structure

12 13
FAS
AST T T T
1 2 3 4
2121
T1T2T3 T4
212
45
Ji
T1 T2T3 T4T1
T4T1 T2T3 T4
Ji
45
212 1
45
T1 T2T3 T4 T1
T4 T1 T2T3 T4
Ji
212
89
Ri
T1 T2T3 T4 T1
T4T1 T2T3 T4
B in ary rate = 8448.0 K bit/s 30 ppm

L in e C od e = H D B 3
N o m in al am p litu d e = 2.37 V
Im p ed an ce = 75
T o lerated inp u t level atten u atio n = 0 to 6 dB at 4224 K hz according to f
N u m b er o f trib u taries = 4
Ju stificatio n : P ositive
bits Jij = 1 R i = fill-in (justification)
bits Jij = 0 R i = inform ation (no justification)
(decision is based on m ajority count of bits Jij)
M u ltip lexin g m eth od = bit interleaving

F ram e rate = 9962.264 fram e/s
F A S b its rate = 99622.64 bit/s
M axim u m ju stificatio n rate p er trib u tary = 10000 bit/s approx.
N o m in al ju stificatio n ratio = 0.424
F ram e len gth = 848 bits
A vailab le b its p er trib utary p er fram e = 206 bits
848 bits
F ram e d u ratio n =
= 100.4 s
8448 kbit/s
bits per tributary (per fram e)
206 bits
T rib u tary R ate =
=
100.4 s
fram e duration
= 2051,7 kbit/s
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12 13
FAS
AST T T T
1 2 3 4
384 1
T1 T2T3 T4
384
45
Ji
T1T2T3 T4 T1
T4 T1T2T3 T4
Ji
45
384 1
45
T1 T2T3 T4 T1
T4 T1 T2T3 T4
Ji
89
Ri
T1 T2T3T4 T1
384
T4T1 T2T3 T4
B inary rate = 34368.0 K bit/s 20 ppm

Line C ode = H D B 3
N om inal am plitude = 1 V
Im pedance = 75
Tolerated input levelattenuation = 0 to 12 dB at17.184 M hz according to f
N um ber of tributaries = 4
Justification :P ositive
bits Jij = 1 R i = fill-in (justification)
bits Jij = 0 R i = inform ation (no justification)
(decision is based on m ajority countofbits Jij)
M ultiplexing m ethod = bitinterleaving

Fram e rate = 22375.0 fram e/s
FA S bits rate = 223750.0 bit/s
M axim um justification rate per tributary = 22735 bit/s approx.
N om inaljustification ratio = 0.436
A vailable bits per tributary per fram e = 378 bits
1536 bits
Fram e duration =
= 44.7 s
34368 kbit/s
bits per tributary (per fram e) 378 bits
Tributary R ate =
=
fram e duration
44.7 s
= 8456,4 kbit/s
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16 17
FAS
1
A S
T1 T2T3T4
T1 T2T3 T4T1
488
T1 T2T3 T4 T1
T4 T1 T2T3 T4
488
45
Ji
T1 T2T3 T4T1
T4 T1 T2T3 T4
Ji
T1 T2T3 T4 T1
Ji
T4 T1 T2T3 T4
89
45
(decision is based on m ajority countofbits Jij)
488
45
Binary rate = 139264.0 Kbit/s 15 ppm

Line Code = CM I
Vpp nom inal= 1 V
Im pedance = 75
Tolerated inputlevelattenuation = 0 to 12 dB at70 M hz according to f
Num beroftributaries = 4
Justification :Positive
bits Jij = 1 R i= fill-in (justification)
bits Jij = 0 R i= inform ation (no justification)
T4 T1 T2T3 T4
45
Ji
T1 T2T3 T4
488
45
Ji
488
Ri
T1 T2T3 T4 T1
488
T4T1 T2T3 T4
M ultiplexing m ethod = bitinterleaving

Fram e rate = 47562.842 fram e/s
FAS bits rate = 570754.098 bit/s
M axim um justification rate pertributary = 47563 bit/s approx.
Nom inaljustification ratio = 0.419
Available bits pertributary perfram e = 723 bits
2928 bits
Fram e duration =
= 21.02 s
139264 kbit/s
bits pertributary (perfram e) 723 bits
= 34394,2 kbit/s
Tributary Rate =
=
21.02 s
fram e duration
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Synchronization problems
8448 Kbit/s (+5 ppm)

34368 Kbit/s
8448 Kbit/s (-10 ppm)
34
The standard allows some offsets from the nominal bit rates because it is assumed the lack
of synchronization on PDH networks
The problem appears when multiplexing to higher rate
In order to avoid errors the second, third and fourth hierachies provides mechanisms to
accommodate the rate impairments
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Majority criteria for justification
If the tributary were absolutely synchronized with the multiplexed frame the it would use the
R bit about the 50% of the opportunities
Then the multiplexer must set on all the Jik bits that belong to that tributary i.e.) if it is the
second tributary would set J21, J22, J23 = 1 and R2=1
At the reception site a majority criteria is applied to identify if R bit contains information of
the tributary or not. If it does the bits must be insert on the bit sequence when demultiplexing
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The justification mechanism
Bits Jik=1 then Ri is justification, no information
Bits Jik= 0 the Ri contains tributary information
if not all are 0s or 1s decision is based on majority count of Jik
Maximum justification rate. 2nd hierarchy: 9962,264 bits/s, 3rd hierarchy: 22375,0 bits/s, 4th.
hierarchy: 47562,842 bits/s
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Alarms - higher hierarchies
140, 34 y 8 Mbit/s
FAS
A S
T1T2T3 T4
The same functionality than 2 Mbit/s frame uses the full duplex capabilities of a link.
It is used to indicate for alarms at higher rates:
loss of signal
loss of frame (where the frame starts?)
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Spare channel - higher hierarchies
140 M bit/s.
34 M bit/s
8 M bit/s
FAS
FAS
FAS
A S S ST
A ST
T2T3T4
A ST
T2T3T4
1T2T3
T4
general purpose bit that defines a channel which can be used by any operator application
some samples are maintenance or monitoring of performance
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PDH events
hierarchy
ID
Explanation
All
AIS
Alarm Indication Signal
LOF
Loss Of Frame alarm
LOS
Loss Of Frame Signal alarm
RAI (RDI)
Remote Alarm Indication
FAS error
Alignment error
Bit error
Bit sequence mismatch (the patterns is known)
Code error
Violation on codification sequence
CRC-LOM
Cyclic Redundancy Checksum - Loss Of Multiframe
CAS-LOM
Channel Associated Signalling - Loss Of Multiframe
RLOM
Remote Loss Of Multiframe
CRC error
Redundancy Check error
REBE
Remote End Block Error
2Mbit/s
LOF
RAI (bit A=1)
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Different AIS types
:X
=1
2 Mbit/s AIS
TS16 AIS
8, 24, 140 Mbit/s AIS
AIS: all the tributary bits are 1
Receiver detects it when tries to identify the FAS
TS16 AIS at the signaling channel. The rest of the bits are not modified
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The CRC-4 mechanism

multiplexer
multiplexer
CRC4
errors....
2 Mbit/s
REBE (bit E=1)
1) CRC process
4) error indication reader
2) error detection
3) error indication writter
It is used for error detection as well as synchronization
It is OK for low error rates (< 10-6)
As all CRC It is not perfect the 6,25% of the errors are not detected
Each multiplexer informs to the partner the detected errors using the E bit:
Some of the old multiplexers does not implement this capabilities
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PDH as circuit provider

POTS
POTS
8
Alquilada
ISDN
2
8
Frame
Relay
Internet
Alquiladas
ISDN
2
8
GSM
2
34
Internet
34
GSM
ADSL
LMDS
Frame
Relay
ADSL
ATM
ATM
LMDS
PDH networks provide circuits to public and private networks like POTS, GSM, ISDN, FRL,
audio, video, and data.
The 2 Mbit/s frame is used also to build the synchronization network.
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PDH some restrictions
The supervision and

maintenance functions are
limited (just a few bits for
alarms in NFAS, NMFAS
and E bit (2 Mbit/s frame)
In order to get low speed

channel (i.e. 2 Mbit/s) from
a high hierarchy (i.e. 140
Mbit/s) a full
demultiplexing is need
Loss of compatibility
between European,
Japanese and North
American hierachies
There are no standards for

speeds over 140 Mbit/s
Low management
capabilities
The PDH hierarchy
56/
60
Test & Measurement
Section
How to measure
In Service Measurement
64
140
2
2 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s
(ISM)
2
140
64
FRAME
ANALYZER
test equipment
64
140
140 Mbit/s
Out Of Service Measurement

(OOS)
140
2 Mbit/s
64
2 Mbit/s
ERROR
DETECTOR
PATTERN
GENERATOR
test equipment
The PDH hierarchy
58/
60
Equalization
Attenuation (dB)
140 Mbit/s
140
34
28
8
2
EQUALIZATION
f
Test equipment provides automatic equalization
attenuation is bigger for high frequencies
amplification is a requirement
The PDH hierarchy
59/
60
Quality Measurements
%ROUTE ALLOCATION
OK
SERIAL
OUTPUT
DEGRADED
LIMIT
OK
BAD
LIMIT
BAD
ITU-T Recommendations
G.821 under 2Mbit/s,
G.826 applies to PDH and SDH,
M.2100 bringing into service and maintenance PDH
M2101.1 bringing into service and maintenance SDH
The PDH hierarchy
60/
60

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The PDH hierarchy

The telecommunication networks

Transmission media (3)

The PDH hierarchy

Signals & Information

The PDH hierarchy

- Attenuation (loss of signal power)

- Distorsion (modification of the signal format)

The PDH hierarchy

The PDH hierarchy

The arrival of digital technology

The PDH hierarchy

The digitalization of signals

It is a process in order to transport analog information through a digital network

The PDH hierarchy

Nyquist Sampling Theorem

fs 2BW (in Hertzs)

i.e.) a phone channel BWc = 4000 Hz in 8 bits each

T= 125s: this is the base period for all digital networks

8000 samples/seg* 8bits/sample = 64.000 bits/seg

64kbit/s is the basic rate, or the unit rate, in digital telecommunications

The PDH hierarchy

Capacity of a channel: the Shannon Law

The capacity of a noisy channel is :

Show a maximum capacity for a noisy channel

The PDH hierarchy

Types of digital modulation

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) the most used for voice

The PDH hierarchy

An increase in data rate increases bit error rate

An increase in S/N decreases bit error rate

An increase in bandwidth allows increase in data rate

Avoid high frequency components for less bandwidth

Avoid DC component, just AC allows transformers & media isolation

Signal Synchronization embedded in the bit sequency avoids separate clock

Signal Error Detecting Capability provided by the nature of the codification

Signal Interference and Noise Immunity

Cost and Complexity

The PDH hierarchy

Line Codifications (ii)

The PDH hierarchy

Frequency Division Multiplexing Access

Time Division Multiplexing Access

0 0 10 111 0111 0 1110 0 1

Radio, TV, GSM

ISDN, Frame Relay,GSM

Requires continuous modulation/demodulation

Noise is always present

Digital switching & transmission

Integrates in one operation the demultiplexing and switching

The PDH hierarchy

Typical analog arrangement

The swictching capabilities are between subribers and digital multiplexors

The PDH hierarchy

Typical digital arrangement

The PDH hierarchy

Advantages of digital technology

Reduces hardware cost

Improves reliability, maintenance and quality

Allows you to offer Quality of Service (QoS)

Optimizes the use of resources

Supports audio, data, video under a unified media

Requires more Bandwidth