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Table of Contents
1.0 Overview ............................................................................................................................... 1
2.1 Introduction to Static Analysis ............................................................................................... 3
2.2 Linear Static Analysis ............................................................................................................ 5
2.3 Nonlinear Static Analysis .................................................................................................... 16
2.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 16
2.3.2 Nonlinear Elastic Analysis ............................................................................................ 16
2.3.3 Elasto-plastic Analysis .................................................................................................. 17
3.1 Introduction to Seepage Analysis ........................................................................................ 28
3.2 Seepage Flow Rule ............................................................................................................. 29
3.3 Governing equations ........................................................................................................... 30
3.4 Finite Element Formulation ................................................................................................. 33
3.5 Time Integration .................................................................................................................. 34
4.1 Introduction to Stress-Seepage Coupled Analysis .............................................................. 36
4.2 Effective Stress ................................................................................................................... 36
4.3 Governing Equation ............................................................................................................ 37
5.1 Introduction to Consolidation Analysis ................................................................................ 39
5.2 Governing Equation ............................................................................................................ 40
5.3 Formulation of Finite Element ............................................................................................. 41
5.4 Properties of Consolidation Element ................................................................................... 42
5.4.1 Degrees of freedom for plane strain element ............................................................. 44
5.4.2 Degrees of freedom for solid elements ......................................................................... 45
5.5 Precautionary Points about Consolidation Analysis ............................................................ 47
midas GTS
midas GTS
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.0
Overview
In general, geotechnical analysis is often compared with structural analysis for its
fundamental concept. In structural analysis, the focus is placed on the uncertainty of
applied loads such that various load cases are analyzed for a given structure, and the load
cases are combined to determine the maximum force effects on each member for its final
design. On the other hand, geotechnical analysis is focused on construction sequence and
uncertainty of ground materials. Geotechnical engineers primarily place emphasis on
analyzing the physical state and behavior of soils through numerical analysis. Therefore,
the analysis model should be able to reflect the actual ground composition and construction
conditions using solid elements. In addition, the elements must possess nonlinear and
anisotropic characteristics of soils to reflect the in-situ conditions considering the initial state
of stresses of the ground.
A geotechnical analysis software package must serve to well reflect the actual site
conditions in numerical modeling in order to determine the suitability of design and
construction conditions. As a total solution package for geotechnical engineering, midas
GTS is designed to provide all the necessary functions required for numerical analysis for
tunnel engineering and soil/rock mechanics. The analysis features included in are outlined
below:
A.
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B.
Seepage Analysis
C.
D.
Consolidation analysis
E.
F.
Dynamic analysis
1) Eigen value analysis
2) Response spectrum analysis
3) Time history analysis
4) Complex response analysis
G.
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Chapter 2
Among the above models, midas GTS provides the linear elastic, nonlinear elastic, and
elasto-plastic models. More detailed list of the models is shown in Part 3. Constitutive
Model in the manual.
The strain due to the body action may be divided into large strain and finite strain. Most
geotechnical problems relate to large strain, and the physical interactions are evaluated
based on the assumption that the strain of foundation is small enough. The geometric
nonlinear behavior, including finite strain, would heavily occur on large deformed structures
midas GTS
The static stress analysis types provided by midas GTS can be divided as follows based on
the feature of behavior:
Linear analysis is regarded as an independent analysis type in midas GTS because of its
convenience and immediacy. In linear static stress analysis, the material model is limited to
linear elastic models, and elastic link element and tension only, compression only, hook,
and gap behaviors of truss element are available. Therefore, linear static stress analysis is
utilized to observe the approximate behavior of a foundation, construction in the initial
condition of construction stage analysis, or to perform a tunnel lining analysis.
When linear static stress analysis is performed on a foundation or structure that is assigned
with nonlinear material models, midas GTS internally converts the material models into
linear type and performs a linear static stress analysis.
The current spring element of midas GTS does not consider the nonlinear behavior.
midas GTS
2.2
Linear static stress analysis is used to determine the overall behavior of soil and rock
structures by assuming that all ground elements are composed of linear elastic materials.
Linear static stress analysis neglects the failure mode and idealizes the stress-strain
relationship in a straight line. Since finite element equations are expressed in a linear
elastic form based on Hookes Law, nonlinear elastic analysis and elasto-plastic analysis
can be also executed in the form of the linear elastic equations.
The inception of Nonlinear or elasto-plastic analysis by finite element method became
common in the practice of geotechnical engineering in the early 1990s. Initially, there were
technical difficulties in performing nonlinear analysis in practice. Relatively long analysis
time required for convergence for nonlinear or elasto-plastic analysis had to be overcome
as well. At this time, linear elastic analysis prevailed. However, due to the rapid
development of computer analysis speed and nonlinear and elasto-plastic analysis
algorithms, such analyses are now widespread and easily applicable to many geotechnical
projects. Linear analysis is still widely used in practice for efficiency in conducting
preliminary analysis and simple analysis involving materials with relatively less inherent
nonlinearity.
In most civil engineering applications, analysis problems can be condensed to whether or
not a structure is safe under a given set of loads and what the amount of deformation is
prior to structural failure. In order to find geotechnical deformation, a stress-strain
relationship is required. However, the stress-strain relationships of geo-materials are very
complex. A stress-strain relationship varies widely depending upon the material
composition, porosity, stress history and loading method.
Since stress-strain relationships exhibit very complex nonlinear material characteristics, it is
not practical to mathematically represent them in numerical models. In practice, the
material models are idealized to a simpler form to model stress-strain relationships. In the
process of idealizing the material models, the modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio
alone cannot adequately represent ground behavior realistically. But, approximations can
be made to analyze the behavior at some specific stress states. In such a case, a clear
definition of the modulus of elasticity is required to idealize the material model.
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The key material parameters are the modulus of elasticity, Tangent modulus, and Secant
modulus. For a perfectly linear elastic material model, the last two moduli are identical. The
Secant modulus is often referred to as the deformation modulus of a nonlinear material in
the stress range we are interested in.
One of the equilibrium equations used for linear elastic analysis is expressed in Eq. (2.1.1).
Ku p
(2.2.1)
where,
K : Stiffness matrix
u : Displacement vector
p : Load vector or unbalanced force vector
From Eq. (2.1.1), the displacement vector can be determined. This method is known as the
displacement method, which obtains the displacement vector from the first found analysis
results. The strain is calculated from the displacement vector through the compatibility
equation, and then the stress is determined from the strain through the constitutive
equation.
When materials undergo deformation, as shown in Fig. 2.2.1, an internal point e(x, y, z)
moves to a new coordinate B (x+u, y+v, z+w). Unless the element is rigid, the
displacement vector U u, v, w continuously changes, and it can be represented by a
function of x, y, and z coordinates.
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U u , v, w
A x, y , z
B x u , y v, z w
y
Figure 2.2.1 Displacement vector (u, v, w)
u
x
v
y
y
w
z
z
v u
xy
x y
w v
yz
y z
u w
zx
z x
(2.2.2)
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Applying uniaxial stress in an elastic material results in strain in the same direction as the
stress.
(2.2.3)
x y z
where,
E : Modulus of elasticity
: Poissons ratio
If shear stress, zx , exists, the shear strain can be expressed as Eq (2.2.4)
zx
zx
(2.2.4)
G : Shear modulus
where,
Shear modulus can be derived from the modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio.
E
2 1
(2.2.5)
( y z )
V
x y z x
(1 2 )
V
E
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(2.2.6)
1
[ x ( y z )]
E
1
y [ y ( z x )]
E
1
z [ z ( x y )]
E
x
where,
(2.2.7)
[( x y z ) / 3]
V / V
E
3(1 2 )
(2.2.8)
Due to the characteristics of the ground continuum, the use of the bulk modulus (K) and
shear modulus (G) may be a little controversial. But they are more conveniently used as
they can be expressed more concisely and clearly compared to E and . Figure 2.2.2
illustrates the physical significance of K and G.
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10
10
x y
M
1 1 2
(2.2.9)
(2.2.10)
The modulus obtained from field testing is one of the moduli above. This can be used in
practice after appropriately converting the modulus.
Boundary conditions for one dimensional consolidation behavior are identical to those for
the constrained modulus, which is closely related to the properties of one dimensional
consolidation behavior in soft ground. Table (2.2.1) summarizes the relationship between
the one dimensional consolidation property parameter and constrained modulus.
The values shown in Table (2.2.2) are based on testing results obtained from uncracked
small specimens of various materials. Accordingly, reduced moduli of elasticity of rocks
should be used to consider the discontinuity of materials in a large scale. Figure (2.2.3)
shows a graph indicating the testing data of elastic modulus reduction ratio relative to the
Rock Quality Designation (RQD). RQD is defined as the cumulative length of core pieces
longer than 100 mm in a run divided by the total length of the core run expressed in a
percentage. Higher RQD values imply better the rock quality. An RQD of 100% does not
necessarily mean that the rock is perfectly continuous without defects. Weathered rocks
exhibit small RQD values.
As shown in Figure 2.2.3, the Modulus of Elasticity reduces from 100% to 20%, as the RQD
reduces from 100% to 70%.
The 3D stress-strain relationship is expressed as follows:
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11
x
1/ E
/ E
y
/ E
z
xy
0
0
yz
0
zx
/ E
0
0
0 x
/ E
0
0
0 y
1/ E
0
0
0
z
0
1/ G
0
0 xy
0
0
1/ G
0 yz
0
0
0
1/ G
zx
/ E
1/ E
/ E
0
0
0
(2.2.11)
0
z
xy
0
yz
zx
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
x
y
0 z
xy
0 yz
zx
1
2
0
0
0
(2.2.12)
where, A
1 2 1
That is,
= D
(2.2.13)
y z
3
where, K
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12
K x y z
E
3 1 2
12
(2.2.14)
D1
D
2
D2
0
0
D2
D1
D2
0
0
0
D2
D2
D1
0
0
0
0
0
0
D3
0
0
0
0
0
0
D3
0
0
0
0
0
0
D3
(2.2.15)
where,
4
G
3
2
D2 K G
3
D3 G
D1 K
Consolidation Parameters
Relationship with M
mv
1
M
coefficient of compressibility, av
av
1 e0
M
compression index, cc
cc
(1 e0 ) va
0.435M
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13
Table 2.2.2 Moduli of Elasticity and Poissons Ratios of rocks & other materials
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14
Material
Poissons Ratio
amphibolite
9.4~12.1 106
0.28~0.30
anhydrite
6.8 106
0.30
siabase
8.7~11.7 106
0.27~0.30
siorite
7.5~10.8 106
0.26~0.29
solomite
11.0~12.1 106
0.30
sunite
14.9~18.3 106
0.26~0.28
deldspathic
gneiss
8.3~11.9 106
0.15~0.20
gabbro
8.9~11.7 106
0.27~0.31
granite
7.3~8.6 106
0.23~0.27
ice
7.1 106
0.36
limestone
8.7~10.8 106
0.27~0.30
marble
8.7~10.8 106
0.27~0.30
mica Schist
7.9~10.1 106
0.15~0.20
obsidian
6.5~8.0 106
0.12~0.18
oligoclasite
8.0~8.5 106
0.29
quartzite
8.2~9.7 106
0.12~0.15
rock salt
3.5 106
0.25
slate
7.9~11.2 106
0.15~0.20
aluminum
5.5~7.6 106
0.34~0.36
steel
20.0 106
0.28~0.29
14
1.2
Results from DWORSHAK DAM, Deere
et.al., 1967
Results after Coon and Merritt, 1970
1.0
0.8
DRAKENSBERG TESTS
ELANDSBERG TESTS
OTHER DATA, 1978
0.6
0.4
0.2
?
?
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
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15
15
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
A nonlinear elastic material changes its elastic characteristics depending upon the
analysis results. A hyperbolic model such as the Duncan-Chang model is a typical
example of a nonlinear material model which the stress and strain relationship is
described by a hyperbolic curve. The ground parameters are a function of confinement
stress and shear stress. The model is quite useful because it can be easily defined by
ground material properties obtained from triaxial tests or published literatures.
Hyperbolic curve
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16
2.3.3
Elasto-plastic Analysis
2.3.3.1 Introduction
The plastic strain is present after removing the applied load in the plastic behavior of
material unlike the elastic behavior. To represent the characteristic behavior, the total
strain can be calculated as follows:
e p
(2.3.1)
where,
: Total Strain
e : Elastic Strain
p : Plastic Strain
Hooks law defines the stress-strain relationship in elastic range, and from Eq. (2.3.1)
the stress can be expressed as the following:
De D p
(2.3.2)
where,
: Stress Vector
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17
f , 0
(2.3.3)
where,
f : yield function
: hardening parameter
If the value of the yield function f is less than zero, no plastic flow will occur. If f
is greater than zero, plastic flow will occur.
f i
(2.3.4)
where, n is the slope vector for the direction of the incremental stress perpendicular
to the yield surface, i is the total number of yield surfaces for the case that yield
function consists of multiple yield surfaces.
The incremental plastic strain is decomposed into two parts: magnitude and direction.
According to the Koiters law they are expressed below:
n
p i
i 1
n
gi
imi
i 1
(2.3.5)
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18
18
i 0
; i f 0
(2.3.6)
These conditions show that no plastic flow will occur since i is always zero if the
yield function f is less than zero.
In Eq. (2.3.5), m is defined as a directional vector of incremental plastic strain. When
f / including the yield function f defines the incremental plastic strain, instead
of plastic potential function g , it is called the associated flow rule. When the yield and
plastic potential functions differ, g / is used as the relation, which is known as the
non-associated flow rule.
In general, the associated flow rule is applied to material models which have constant
deviatoric stress distributions along the hydrostatic axis in stress space such as von
Mises and Tresca models. The non-associated flow rule is used for material models
where the deviatoric stress distribution is not constant along the hydrostatic axis in
stress space such as Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager models. When the nonassociated flow rule is used for models with varying deviatoric stress distributions
along the hydrostatic axis, it can prevent the excessive volume expansion (dilatancy
effects) induced by inconsistency of directions of stress and strain. It is important to
note that slower convergence should be expected whenever a non-symmetric stiffness
matrix is required to solve the system of equations.
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19
19
The constitutive equation for the large strain of a non-associate plastic flow is given as
below based on Eq. (2.3.2):
D( p ) D( m)
(2.3.7)
When the stress point lies on the yield surface, the linearized consistency condition is
defined as the following first order expansion Taylor series.
f
f
f ,
nT h 0
T
where, n
(2.3.8)
f
f
, and hardening modulus h
.
nT D
h nT Dm
(2.3.9)
Substituting Eq. (2.3.9) into Eq. (2.3.7) gives the incremental form of stress-strain
relationship as:
DmnT D
ep
D
D
T
h
n
Dm
(2.3.10)
where, Dep is the elastic-plastic tangent operator that means the tangential stiffness
matrix of material.
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20
20
Applying the non-associated flow rule, i.e., m n yields the non-symmetric matrix
Dep .
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21
21
Yield surface
(a) Location of the intersection point A
B
-mA
(1
C
A
X
Yield surface
(b) Moving from A to C in the tangential direction and calibrating to the point D
Figure 2.3.2 Explicit forward Euler algorithm
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22
- A mA
- B mB
- BmB
B
A
D
X
Yield surface
Figure 2.3.3 Sub-increment in the explicit forward Euler algorithm
e D
(2.3.11)
B X e
In the next step, the incremental stress specifying the elastic limit is calculated. The
initial elastic stress increment is decomposed into the allowable stress increment
1 r e
the yield function. The stress increment specifying the elastic limit is calculated from
the following equation. Refer to point A in Figure 2.3.2(a).
f X 1 r e , 0
r
(2.3.12)
fB
fB fX
where the suffixes in Eq. (2.3.10) and Eq. (2.3.11) are given in Figure (2.3.2).
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23
23
To apply the sub-increment method, the stress increment r e outside the yield
function should be approximately subdivided into small k sub-increments of stress
(Figure 2.3.3). The number of sub-increments is directly related to the size of error, and
is calculated from Eq. (2.3.13).
(2.3.13)
where, effA and effB are the effective stresses at the points A and B in Figure
2.3.2(a).
When the final stress point is not on the yield surface, the stress point should be
transferred to the point on the yield surface through the next iteration using a returning
algorithm. Refer to point D in Figure 2.3.3.
fC
h n TC Dm C
(2.3.14)
D C C DmC
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24
24
(2.3.15)
The iterative analysis is needed to find the solution since both left and right hand side
terms have the values of the unknown point C as shown in Eq. (2.3.15). Then, the
residual vector r which means the difference between the current stress and the
backward-Euler stress is introduced for the iterative analysis.
r C B DmC
(2.3.16)
Yield surface
Figure 2.3.4 Implicit forward Euler algorithm
The residual vector r converges to zero when the final stress point is on the yield
surface. The new residual vector rnew during the iterative analysis can be expressed
as the following using the first order expansion of Taylor series:
rnew rold Dm D
(2.3.17)
The residual vector rnew equals to zero according to the converged final stress.
Substituting rnew 0 into Eq. (2.3.7), and rearranging it for gives the Eq. (2.3.18).
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25
25
I D
old
Dm R 1 rold Dm
(2.3.18)
The yield function can be written as the following using the first order expansion Taylor
series:
f new f old
f
f
fold nT h 0
(2.3.19)
Therefore, substituting Eq. (2.3.19) into Eq. (2.3.18), yields the following equation:
f old nT R 1rold
h nR 1Dm
(2.3.20)
D p D Dm
(2.3.21)
Since the current stress point is always on the yield surface, the consistency condition
should be satisfied. Substituting Eq. (2.3.21) into Eq. (2.3.9) yields the large stress
rate of as shown in Eq. (2.3.22):
DmnT D
ep
D
D
T
h
n
Dm
(2.3.22)
The converged solution can be obtained faster due to the quadratic convergence
property of the Newton-Raphson method when the consistent tangent stiffness matrix
is used with the Newton-Raphson method in the explicit backward Euler method. To
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26
26
m
m
D
(2.3.23)
where, is the rate form of .
Eq (2.3.23) is rewritten as:
A D Dm
where, A I D
(2.3.24)
m
m
, m m
H m
(2.3.25)
Rewriting Eq (2.3.25) with respect to the total strain based on the linearized
consistency condition gives the following:
HmnT H
ep
H
C
h nT Hm
(2.3.26)
Where, Dep in Eq (2.3.22) is the tangent stiffness matrix, and Cep in Eq (2.3.26) is the
consistent tangent stiffness matrix.
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27
Chapter 3
Seepage Analysis
3.1
This chapter describes the techniques for developing and organizing the seepage function
in the analysis solver, the formulation procedure, and the relevant technologies. This
chapter will enable the user to become familiar with the programming methodology, solve
problems, and determine the acceptability of the analysis results.
The seepage analysis is globally divided into steady state and transient analysis.
Steady state analysis calculates a time-independent solution, whereas transient analysis
calculates a time dependent solution as a result of changing inflow/and or out-flow
conditions of the steady state are imposed.
The groundwater seepage may occur if water-permeable aquifer, head difference or flux
exists between region interfaces.
The seepage flow streams along the waterway connected to the empty space between soil
particles inside the foundation. The flow governed by Darcys law. According to this law, the
seepage quantity of water passing through the volume of soil in steady state is equal to the
permeability coefficient multiplied by hydraulic gradient and area. Darcys law is originally
for saturated zones, but also applies for unsaturated zones.
Unsaturated zones includes from bond drying to the state close to saturation. As the degree
of saturation decreases less than 100%, formation of air bubbles as well as water within the
pore between soil particles. When the degree of saturation is significantly low, the water
drops stick to the gaps of soil particles in the form of a concave surface.
As the degree of saturation decreases, the pore pressure gradually develops a tensile state
under the influence of surface tension, and accordingly, the negative pore pressure is called
suction pressure. In most cases, the suction pressure increases as the degree of saturation
decreases.
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28
The transient analysis is different from the steady state analysis in that the boundary
conditions vary with time and the volumetric water content is needed. When the
groundwater level rises or descends, the water content and porosity of unsaturated zone
are necessary due to the rising effects and decreasing velocities.
There is a great difference between the times required to reach the steady state of seepage
inside when the case that the water filling of reservoir begins in perfectly dry state of soil
dam is compared to that the water filling of reservoir begins in the state containing some
water content.
3.2
midas GTS provides seepage analysis based on laminar flow using Darcys law., Darcys
law is expressed by the following equation :
q ki
(3.2.1)
where,
: Hydraulic gradient
Darcys law is originally derived for saturated soil, and is verified to be applicable to the flow
of unsaturated soil according to published studies. The only difference is that the
permeability coefficient of unsaturated soil is not a constant but a function, and indirectly
varies with the change of pore pressure. Darcys law can be expressed as,
v ki
(3.2.2)
where, v is known as the Darcian velocity. When the water flows through permeable or
porous media, the actual average velocity can be calculated by dividing the Darcian
velocity into the porosity of soil.
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29
3.3
Governing Equations
midas GTS uses the following governing differential equation for the seepage:
H H H
kz
kx
ky
Q
x x y y z z
t
(3.3.1)
where,
: Time
The above equation shows that the change of volumetric water content equals to the
difference between the inflow and outflow quantities over an large volume in an arbitrary
location during an arbitrary time. In brief, the flow rates for the directions of x, y, and z axes
plus external flow quantity are same as the rate change of volumetric water content.
The governing equation is the seepage equation for the transient flow. Since the flow
quantities of inflow and outflow over the large volume are constant regardless of the time in
the steady state flow, the governing equation of Eq. (3.3.2) is obtained by assigning the Eq
(3.31) equal to zero.
H H H
kz
kx
ky
Q 0
x x y y z z
(3.3.2)
The change of volumetric water content depends on the change of stress state and the
characteristics of soil.
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30
The saturated and unsaturated stress state conditions are expressed as two state
variables. Those are
pa
and
pa pw , where
pa
content. Thus, the change of volumetric water content is only a function of the change of
pore pressure since it depends on the change of stress state pa pw , and pa is
constant.
The change of volumetric water content is related to the change of pore pressure according
to the stress state and the characteristics of soil, and the relation can be expressed as:
mwuw
(3.3.3)
where,
mw : Storage coefficient
Also, the total head is expressed as the summation of pressure head and potential head as
shown in Eq (3.3.4):
pw
(3.3.4)
where,
H : Total head
pw : Pore pressure
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31
pw w H y
(3.3.5)
mw w H y
(3.3.6)
(3.3.7)
Since height is constant, the derivative of y is eliminated but the following differential
equation still remains:
H
kx
x x
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32
H
H H
kz
ky
Q mw w
t
y y z z
(3.3.8)
3.4
The finite element formulation from application of the weighted residual Galerkin approach
to derivation of the governing differential equation is as follows:
T
B CB dV H N N dV H,t q N dA
T
(3.4.1)
where,
H ,t :
H
t
For two-dimensional analysis, the thickness of all elements in midas GTS is considered
constant. Accordingly, the finite element formulation is expressed as:
b BT CB dAH b NT N dAH,t qb NT dL
A
(3.4.2)
where, b is the element thickness. When the thickness is constant over the entire area,
the integration is calculated over the entire area which is reduced to the integration along
the length from a node to the other.
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33
33
KH MH,t Q
(3.4.3)
where,
K b BT CB dA
A
M b NT N dA : Mass matrix
A
Q qb NT dL
L
Eq (3.4.3) is a general finite element formulation for transient seepage analysis. For the
steady state seepage analysis, the equation is simplified since water head is not a function
of time, and accordingly the MH,t term is eliminated.
KH Q
3.5
(3.4.4)
Time Integration
The finite element solution of transient seepage analysis is a function of time as shown in
H,t term of equation 3.4.1. The time integration with respect to time is performed using the
finite difference approach.
The finite element equation is written in the finite difference method as follows:
tK M H1 t 1 Q0 Q1 M 1 tK H0
where,
t : Time increment,
: Ration between 0 and 1,
H1 : Water head at the final time increment
H 0 : Water head at the initial time increment
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34
(3.5.1)
tK M H1 tQ1 MH0
(3.5.2)
To determine the water head at the final time increment, the initial water head must be
known. Generally, the initial conditions must be known before carrying out a transient state
analysis.
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35
Chapter 4
Groundwater seepage flow is caused by the difference in water heads at the boundaries in
the seepage zone or the flux boundary condition. As the groundwater flows, seepage force
is developed due to the friction between the water and soil particles. This process induces
displacements and stresses. Seepage force is expressed as an integration of the pore
water pressure.
midas GTS determines the seepage force using the pore water pressure obtained by
seepage analysis.
Pore water pressure is the product of the weight density of water and the pressure head
(total head - elevation head). In general, the seepage force is extensively used in areas
near outflow boundaries where the total head reduces drastically. Due to a low constraint
pressure, shear and tensile strengths are relatively low in these areas. As a result, when
considering seepage force to analyze the effective stress, the chances of failure is more
likely to occur. Stress-seepage Semi-coupled analysis is a very important field for
determining the stability of ground structures.
4.2
Effective Stress
Pore water pressure in ground affects the total stress. According to the Terzaghis theory,
the total pressure can be divided into effective stress and pore water pressure (pw).
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36
Since water cannot resist any shear stress, the effective shear stress is equal to the total
shear stress. Thus, the total stress is expressed as:
xx xx pw
yy yy pw
zz zz pw
xy xy
(4.2.1)
yz yz
zx zx
The pore water pressure can be divided into steady state pore water pressure
steady
pw psteady pexcess
(4.2.2)
The steady state pore water pressure is input data obtained from the groundwater analysis,
which is determined by the height of groundwater table. The excess pore water pressure
occurs during the stress calculation of a material, which exhibits the behavior of undrained
materials. Calculation of excess pore water pressure is described in more detail in the
subsequent chapter.
4.3
Governing Equation
The inverse elastic Hookes law is considered to derive Hookes law expressed in large
strains.
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37
xxe
1
e
yy
e
zz 1
e
xy E 0
e
0
yze
0
zx
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 2
0
0 xx
0 yy
0 zz
0 xy
0 yz
2 2 zx
(4.3.1)
where,
pw pexcess
(4.3.2)
By applying the terms in Eq. 4.2.1, the above Eq. (4.3.1) can be rewritten as follows:
xxe
1
e
yy
e
zz 1
e
xy E 0
e
0
yze
zx
0
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38
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 2
0
0 xx pexcess
0 yy pexcess
0 zz pexcess
xy
0
yz
0
zx
2 2
(4.3.3)
Chapter 5
Consolidation Analysis
5.1
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39
5.2
Governing Equation
Until now solid and fluid analyses have been considered individually or by superposition.
However, Biot has formalized the theory of coupled solid-fluid interaction applied to soil
mechanics. Ground is treated as porous elastic solid, and the pore fluid coupled with the
solid is based on the conditions of compressibility and continuity.
The governing equation of Biot is given in Eq. (5.2.1).
K 2 pw
2 pw
2 pw pw p
ky
kz
kx
2
2
w x
y
z 2 t
t
(5.2.1)
where,
0
x
y
x
xy y pw
0
x
y
y
(5.2.2)
The constitutive rules for solid Eq. (5.2.1) and fluid Eq. (5.2.2) have been defined
separately before. If we now assume full saturation and incompressibility, the discharge of
water from the ground elements reduces the volume of the elements. Accordingly,
qx q y
d u v
x
y
dt x y
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(5.2.3)
The third differential equation from Eq. (5.2.1) is given as Eq. (5.2.4).
k x 2 pw k y 2 pw d u v
0
w x 2 w y 2 dt x y
5.3
(5.2.4)
u Nu
v Nv
p w N wp w
(5.3.1)
where,
u, v, pw : x & y direction displacements and pore water pressures
where,
(5.3.2)
du
K wp w 0
dt
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41
following type:
N j
x
(5.3.3)
Ni dxdy
The above finite element equation needs to be integrated again over time. This is executed
by the following linear interpolation by the finite difference method.
Ku1 Cp w1 1 Ku0 1 Cp w0 p
CT u1 2 tK wp w1 CT u0 1 tK wp w0
(5.3.4)
5.4
C u1 0
tK w p w1 CT
0 u0 p
0 p w0 0
(5.3.5)
The important variables commonly used in a finite element solution for consolidation
analysis are displacement and pore water pressure. As incremental displacements are
related to nodal displacements through an interpolation function, incremental pore
water pressures are also related to nodal pore water pressures through an
interpolation function in a similar way.
pw Nwpnodal
w
(5.4.1)
From the above relationship equation, the right side represents the incremental pore
water pressure, and the left side represents the interpolation function of each pore
water pressure and the nodal incremental pore water pressure. midas GTS assumes
that the interpolation function of pore water pressure is identical to that of displacement.
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Elements that can be assigned as consolidation elements presently are only plane
strain elements (3-node, 6-node, 4-node and 8-node) and solid elements (4-node, 10node, 6-node, 15-node, 8-node and 20-node). Detail description about the degrees of
freedom for displacements and pore water pressures per element and the integration
methods are outlined below.
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43
5.4.1
If elements are of higher order, excess pore water pressure is first linearly interpolated to
obtain stress analysis results. The nodes representing the excess pore water pressure
act as a dummy variable, see Figure 5.4.2. In consolidation analysis, every node for
excess pore water pressure is located at corners, and a linear function is used to
interpolate all of the elements. This is known to be appropriate for the distribution of
excess pore water pressure.
Triangular elements
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
1 Integration Point
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
Dummy node for pore
pressure output which is
linearly interpolated
3 Integration Point
Figure 5.4.2 DOF for a lower order 3-node and a higher order 6-node triangular elements
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44
Quadrilateral elements
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
4 Integration Point
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
Dummy node for pore
pressure output which
is linearly interpolated
4 Integration Point
Figure 5.4.3 DOF for a lower order 4-node and a higher order 8-node quadrilateral elements
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
Dummy node for pore
pressure output which is
linearly interpolated
27 Integration Point
Figure 5.4.4 DOF for a lower order 8-node and a higher order 20-node hexahedral elements
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45
Pentahedral elements
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
2 Integration Point
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
9 Integration Point
Dummy node for pore
pressure output which is
linearly interpolated
Figure 5.4.5 DOF for a lower order 6-node and a higher order 15-node Pentahedral elements
Tetrahedral elements
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
1 Integration Point
Structural DOF
Pore Pressure DOF
4 Integration Point
Dummy node for pore
pressure output which is
linearly interpolated
Figure 5.4.6 DOF for a lower order 4-node and a higher order 10-node tetrahedral elements
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46
For consolidation analysis, time and loading distribution is carried out by entering the
values as shown in Figure 5.5.1:
loading
1.0
1.0
loading
=1.0
...
1.0 time
1.0
10.0 time
0.0
12
16 ... time
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47
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48
Chapter 6
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49
Inactive
Activated
Deactivated
When additional elements are activated in a particular construction stage, these elements
are not affected by the previous construction stages New construction stages are created
per construction sequence to reflect any structural changes and updates in the analysis.
This means that inactive elements activated in a relevant construction stage will have zero
stress regardless of the loadings to which the structure is subjected.
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6.2
Inactive elements that are activated in a construction stage are assigned with zero initial
stress at which point their self weights are applied to the existing structure. These activated
will become part of the total structure in the subsequent stages.
All ground elements are subject to stress before deactivation. If a load is applied around the
deactivated elements, proper stress redistribution for the remaining activated elements must
take place so that the new free faces do not become subjected to any stress. This can be
explained by using an example:
Let us assume that Object A will become removed from Object B as shown in Figure 6.2.1.
A
B
AO
BO
(a)
T
FAB
(b)
FBA
(c)
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51
The stresses in Object A and Object B prior to removal of Object A are AO and BO
respectively. All external forces have been reflected in these stresses. Since these two
objects are in equilibrium, the load, FAB , must be applied to Object B due to Object A to
maintain the stress, BO . Similarly, the load, FBA , must be applied to Object A. Therefore,
any excavation load applied to a boundary depends on the stress state and the self weight
of the elements being excavated. This is expressed in Eq. 6.2.1.
FBA BT AO dVA NT dVA
VA
VA
(6.2.1)
where,
: Strain-Displacement Matrix,
VA
: Volume of excavation,
The global stiffness for the current construction stage is calculated by assembling the
stiffness parameters from each activated element as shown in Eq. (6.2.2). All elements used
in every construction stage are stored in the database, and the element information in the
current stage is defined by adding all elements retrieved as activated from initial to current
stage and by subtracting all elements deactivated.
n
K LTi k i Li
(6.2.2)
i 1
where,
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52
Li
ki
6.3
The construction stage analysis consists of the phased analysis with incremental form, and
the incremental load of the current construction stage is needed for the analysis. The
incremental load Fcurrent of the current stage is the difference between total load Fcurrent
of the current stage and total load Fprevious of the previous stage.
(6.3.1)
All the loadings used in every construction stage are stored in a database, and the total load
Fcurrent of the current stage is defined by adding all loadings retrieved as activated from
initial to current stage and by subtracting all deactivated loads.
The total loads of the current stage are divided into surface force and body force as the
following:
current
current
Fcurrent Fsurface
Fbody
(6.3.2)
where, surface force includes the loadings related to nodes such as nodal force or
distributed force, and body force includes the loadings related to elements such as selfweight. While the surface force is assembled by using the information about the degrees of
freedom of the nodes where the loads are imposed, the body force is assembled by using
the matrix L i in Eq. (6.2.2) since it is related to adding and subtracting of elements.
The sub-incremental load step is defined as the incremental load Fcurrent in Eq. (6.3.1)
multiplied by load factor of the current construction stage. It can be expressed for an
arbitrary load step i as
(6.3.3)
The linear algebraic equation of static stress analysis calculates the response of structure
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53
Fiubf K idi
(6.3.4)
where K i is the global stiffness of i th load step, and d i is the nodal displacement of i th
ubf
load step. The Fi
is the unbalance force of the i th step, and is computed by subtracting
the total internal force of previous step from the total current load.
(6.3.5)
current
internal
In Eq. (6.3.5), Fi
is given in Eq. (6.3.3), and Fi 1
is the total internal force of the
Fiinternal
LTj f j LTj
1
j 1
j 1
B dV
V
T
j
(6.3.6)
where,
fj
Lj
Bj
: Element stress
: Volume
internal
For i 1 , F0
is the total internal force of the final load step of the previous
construction stage. The element stress is updated after calculating each load step.
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6.5
In order to simplify the construction stage analysis, load distribution factors can be
considered. This is a numerical technique which enables the user to reflect the changing
effects of an element by applying distribution factors. Distribution factors are sequentially
applied to represent a number of construction stages, as shown in Figure 6.5.1. The
concept is generally used when construction stages are condensed in a 3 dimensional
analysis, or when a 3 dimensional model is simplified to a 2 dimensional model.
For example, if a sequential transfer of stresses takes place over 3 steps, 40%, 30% and
30%, from an excavation stage. In midas GTS, the user can define the excavation stage
and activate the load distribution factor option. The user can then simply enter 0.4, 0.3 and
0.3 for After Current Stage 0, 1 and 2 respectively.
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55
If we assign a 100% load distribution factor to deactivating elements, all the internal
stresses in the deactivating elements are redistributed to the remaining elements of the
structure causing stress changes in the remaining elements. Conversely, if we assign 0%
load distribution factor to the deactivating elements, no redistribution of the stresses in the
deactivating elements takes place. In such a case, the stresses in the remaining elements
in the structure remain unchanged.
The load distribution factor controls the amount of stress transfer from the deactivated
elements to the remaining elements. This function becomes very useful when the user has
to consider partial or staged stress transfers even after completely removing elements.
For tunnel analysis, the stresses in the excavated elements are not transferred at once.
Instead, the stresses are gradually redistributed to the rock bolts and shotcrete over a
number of stages. In such a case, the load distribution factor is used to reflect partial
transfer of stresses.
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6.6
Initialization of Displacements
6.7
Change Element Attribute is a function in midas GTS that is used to modify material
attributes in a construction stage analysis in order to reflect any improvements, ground
disturbance, and material hardening behavior over time. For instance, changing the
structural lining attributes, such as hardening of lining concrete and lining thickness, may be
modified during a particular stage.
A precautionary note, although linear elastic materials can be easily implemented, care
should be used when dealing with nonlinear material models. For instance, nonlinear
material models such as foundations, it is the case to fill up with different material after
excavation in construction stage analysis, and to change the material properties only
without adding or removing the element. It is physically not exact behavior to change the
material properties because the stress state from the previous step will be reflected in
subsequent stages of the analysis. Therefore, the material properties for a nonlinear
material model should be changed in the new stage after deactivating the elements. When
new elements are created, midas GTS initialize the stresses, strains, and internal state
variables of the new elements to zero.
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6.8
In-situ Stress
midas GTS provides the following two methods for computing in-situ stresses.
K 0 Method
6.8.1
The K0 method defines the earth pressure by calculating horizontal stresses from vertical
stresses using a non-dimensional quantity K 0 in ( K0 h / v ).
The vertical stress v is obtained first by performing a self-weight analysis, and then
the horizontal stress is modified using the relation h K0 v . In this case, the shear
stresses on the vertical and horizontal planes of the soil element are unchanged.
If the ground surface is horizontal, this method presents no problem. If the surface,
however, is not horizontal, the stress state determined by this method under self weight
will not be in static equilibrium. midasGTS always performs iterations using the K0
modified stresses as a starting point, to reach equilibrium. That means that calculated
stresses at the end of the K0-construction stage do not necessary obey the K0-condition.
6.8.2
The initial stress state is determined by the stress state obtained by self weight analysis.
If the ground surface is horizontal, this method is identical to that of the K0 method,
K0 /(1 ) . If it is not horizontal, the results will differ from those of the K 0 method
and shear stress will exist because horizontal strains exist.
Therefore, this method is more suited for a sloped ground surface. This method does not
allow us to specify a K0 value greater than 1. If large values of K0 are unavoidable, then
the K0 method is used and a null stage is used subsequently to satisfy an equilibrium
condition.
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6.9
Restart Function
Construction stage analysis may be interrupted during analysis midway, or the program may
terminate due to system instability. In unforeseeable circumstances, GTS provides a restart
function Save for restart enables users to continue the analysis from where it has left off
and select the restart stage in the analysis controls option. Refer to Online help for details.
This option is only available for Construction Stages. This is a useful feature that will
significantly reduce the total analysis duration against unexpected errors during the analysis.
Note: restarts can be defined per stage. The restart stages can be initialized in the
analysis control panel.
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Chapter 7
Dynamic Analysis
7.1
7.1.1
Eigenvector Analysis
In midas GTS, Mode shapes and natural periods of an undamped free vibration are
obtained from the characteristic equation below:
Kn nMn
(7.1.1)
where,
K : Stiffness matrix
M : Mass matrix
n : n-th mode eigenvalue
n : n-th mode eigenvector (mode shape)
Eigenvalue analysis is also referred to as free vibration analysis and is used to analyze
the dynamic characteristics of structures.
The dynamic characteristics obtained by an Eigenvalue analysis include vibration modes
(mode shapes), natural periods of vibration (natural frequencies) and modal participation
factors. They are determined by the mass and stiffness of a structure.
Vibration modes take the form of natural shapes in which a structure freely vibrates or
deforms. The first mode shape or natural vibration shape is identified by a shape that
can be deformed with the least energy or force. The shapes formed with increase in
energy define the subsequent higher modes. Figure (7.1.1) shows the vibration modes
of a cantilever beam, arranged in the order of their energy requirements for deflected
shapes, starting from the shape formed by the least energy.
A natural period of vibration is the time required to complete one full cycle of the free
vibration motion in the corresponding natural mode.
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60
60
sec
sec
sec
1 1.87510407
2 4.69409113
3 7.85475744
T1 1.78702 sec
T 2 0.28515 sec
T 3 0.10184 sec
The methods to calculate the natural period in a single degree of freedom system
(SDOF) assumes that the load and damping terms equal to zero. The equation of
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motion in SDOF yields to the free vibration equation of a linear second order differential
equation as given in Eq. (7.1.2).
mu cu ku p(t )
mu ku 0
(7.1.2)
A is a constant related to the initial displacement. Therefore, Eq. (7.1.2) can be written
as:
(m 2 k ) A cost 0
(7.1.3)
In order to satisfy Eq. 7.3, the value in the parenthesis must be zero, which leads to Eq.
(7.1.4)
k
k
,
,
m
m
, T
1
f
(7.1.4)
where,
2 : Eigenvalue
: Rotational natural frequency
f : Natural frequency
T : Natural period
The modal participation factor is expressed as a contribution ratio of the corresponding
mode to the total modes and is written as:
M
M
i
im
2
im
where,
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62
(7.1.5)
M i : Mass at location i,
im M i
Mm
im2 M i
(7.1.6)
where,
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63
Translational mass:
dm
(7.1.7)
dm
where,
The units for mass and rotational mass moment of inertia are defined by the unit of
weights divided by the gravitational acceleration, W(T2/L) and the unit of masses
multiplied by the square of a length unit, W(T2/L)L2 respectively. Here, W, T and L
represent the weight, time and length units respectively. In the case of an MKS or
English unit system, the mass is determined by the weight divided by the gravitational
acceleration. The masses in an SI unit system directly use the weights in the MKS units,
whereas the stiffness or loads in the MKS units are multiplied by the gravitational
acceleration for the SI unit system.
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64
Shape
Translation mass
Rectangular shape
bd 3
M bd
Im
12
M
12
db3
12
d2
Triangular shape
M area of
triangle
Im I x I y
Circular shape
d2
d4
32
Im
General shape
M dA
Im I x I y
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65
Line shape
L mass per unit
L3
12
Im L
lengh
M L L
Eccentric mass
Eccentric mass : m
M=m
midas GTS uses lumped masses in analyses for efficiency. Mass data can be entered in
the main menu through Model > Load > Nodal Mass.
midas GTS adopts the subspace iteration method for the solution of an eigenvalue
analysis, which is suitable for the analyses of large structures.
7.2
Consideration of Damping
7.2.1
Introduction
Structural damping in a dynamic analysis can be largely classified into the following:
A.
B.
Hysteretic damping
C.
Friction damping
Internal friction damping (Material damping)
2.
3.
D.
Radiation damping
E.
Modal damping
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66
1.
66
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
F.
Proportional damping
Mass proportional type
Stiffness proportional type
Rayleigh type
Caughey type
Non-proportional damping
1.
Among the many different ways of expressing the damping phenomena above, modal
damping is most frequently used in the numerical analyses of structures. The values for
modal damping are determined for each modal natural frequency of a vibration system.
The modal damping can be classified into proportional and non-proportional damping.
midas GTS provides proportional damping, which includes mass proportional, stiffness
proportional and Rayleigh type damping.
In midas GTS, mass-proportional, stiffness-proportional, and Rayleigh types of damping
are available.
7.2.2
Proportional damping
The mass-proportional damping represents the external viscous damping caused by air
resistance, and is based on the assumption that damping matrix is proportional to mass.
The stiffness-proportional damping might overestimate the damping of high order modes
since it is assumed that damping is proportional to stiffness due to the difficulty in
considering the vibration energy release directly.
Rayleigh damping is from modifying the damping value of high order modes in stiffnessproportional damping, and is expressed by combining the mass and stiffness types of
proportional damping.
The general type of proportional damping matrix C is defined by Caughey as follows:
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67
N 1
C M { a j ( M 1K ) j }
(7.2.1)
j 0
where,
j , N : Degrees of freedom of nodes (Mode number)
(7.2.2)
{ y } { u }eiax
(7.2.3)
(7.2.4)
Substituting M 1K obtained from the equations (7.2.2)~(7.2.3) into the equation (7.2.1),
T
and multiplying { s u } on the left hand side of the equation and { s u } on the right hand
N 1
j 0
j 0
{ s u }T C{ s u } s C a j s 2 j { su }T M{ s u } a j s 2 j s M
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68
C 2 s h s s M
68
(7.2.5)
(7.2.6)
1
sC
a j s 2 j
2 s s M 2 s
(7.2.7)
1 a
( 0 a1 s a2 s 3 aN 1 2 N 3 ), s 1 N
2 s
The damping coefficients for N number of natural modes are then determined.
Damping constants and matrices for the mass proportional type and stiffness proportional
type are as follows:
s
a0
,
2 s
a1 s
,
2
C a0 M
(7.2.8)
(7.2.9)
1 a
h ( 0 a1 s ),
2 s
where,
7.3
C a0 M a1K
a0
2 1 2 ( 1 h 2 2 h 1 )
( 2 2 1 2 )
a1
2( 2 h 2 1 h 1 )
( 2 2 1 2 )
(7.2.10)
The dynamic equilibrium equation for a structure subjected to a ground motion used in a
response spectrum analysis can be expressed as follows:
(7.3.1)
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where,
: Mass matrix,
: Damping matrix,
: Stiffness matrix,
wg
: Ground acceleration
(7.3.2)
where,
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70
curvature changes (refer to Figure 1.2.2). The range of natural periods for spectral data
must be sufficiently extended to include the maximum and minimum natural periods
obtained from the Eigenvalue analysis.
midas GTS can easily generate the spectral data for seismic design by inputting Dynamic
coefficient, Foundation factor, Zoning factor, Importance factor, Ductility factor (or Response
modification factor or Seismic response factor), etc.
Response spectrum analyses are allowed in any direction on the Global X-Y plane and in
the vertical Global Z direction. The user may choose an appropriate method of modal
combination for analysis results such as the Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC)
method or the Square Root of the Sum of the Squares (SRSS) method. 1
The following describes the methods of modal combinations:
SRSS(Square Root of the Sum of the Squares)
12
Rmax R12 R2 2 Rn 2
(7.3.3)
ABS(ABsolute Sum)
Rmax R1 R2 Rn
(7.3.4)
N N
Rmax Ri ij R j
i
1
j
(7.3.5)
The user may reinstate the signs lost during the modal combination process and apply them to the
response spectrum analysis results. For details, refer to Analysis>Analysis Case > Response Spectrum Analysis
Control in the Online Manual.
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71
ij
where,
8 2 (1 r )r 3 2
,
(1 r )2 4 2 r (1 r )2
j
,
i
Rmax
: Peak response,
Ri
: Damping ratio
In Eq. 7.34, when i = j, then ij = 1 regardless of the damping ratio. If the damping ratio ()
becomes zero (0), both CQC and SRSS methods produce identical results.
The ABS method produces the largest combination values among the three methods. The
SRSS method has been widely used in the past, but it tends to overestimate or
underestimate the combination results in the cases where the values of natural frequencies
are close to one another. As a result, the use of the CQC method is increasing recently as
it accounts for probabilistic inter-relations between the modes.
If the displacements of each mode are compared for a structure having 3 DOF with a
damping ratio of 0.05, the results from the applications of SRSS and CQC are as follows:
Natural frequencies,
1 0.46 , 2 0.52 , 3 1.42
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If SRSS is applied to compute the modal combination for each degree of freedom,
12
If CQC is applied,
12 21 0.3985
13 31 0.0061
23 32 0.0080
12
Comparing the two sets of displacements for each degree of freedom, we note that the
SRSS method underestimates the magnitude for the first degree of freedom but
overestimates the value for the second degree of freedom relative to those obtained by
CQC. Thus, the SRSS method should be used with care when natural frequencies are
close to one another.
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S6
S3
S7
S4
S5
S6
T6 T x T7
S7
S2
S n 1
Sn
Tn 1
Tn
S1
T1 T 2
T3 T 4 T5 T6
T7
Figure 7.3.1 Response spectrum curve and linear interpolation of spectral data
7.4
7.4.1
Introduction
The dynamic equilibrium equation for time history analysis is written as:
[M ]u(t ) [C]u(t ) [ K ]u(t ) p(t )
where,
[M ]
: Mass matrix
[C ]
: Damping matrix
[K ]
: Stiffness matrix
p(t )
: Dynamic load
(7.4.1)
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74
Time history analysis seeks out a solution for the dynamic equilibrium equation when a
structure is subjected to dynamic loads. It calculates a series of structural responses
(displacements, member forces, etc.) within a given period of time based on the dynamic
characteristics of the structure under the applied loads. midas GTS uses the Modal
Superposition Method and Direct Integration Method for time history analysis.
The following describes the general concept of Modal Superposition Method and data
input precautions.
7.4.2
C M K
(7.4.2)
(7.4.3)
mi qi (t ) ci qi (t ) ki qi (t ) Pi (t )
(7.4.4)
(i 1,2,3, , m)
u (t ) i qi (t )
(7.4.5)
i j
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q (0) qi (0)
qi (t ) e ii t qi (0)cos Dit i i i
sin Dit
Di
t
1
i i ( t )
Pi ( )e
sin Di (t )d
miDi 0
(7.4.6)
Di i 1 i 2 ,
where,
: Rayleigh coefficient,
qi (t )
When a time history analysis is carried out, the displacement of a structure is determined
by summing up the product of each mode shape and the solution for the corresponding
modal equation as expressed in Eq. (7.4.5). Its accuracy depends on the number of
modes used.
This modal superposition method is very effective and, as a result, widely used in linear
dynamic analyses for large structures. However, this method cannot be applied to
nonlinear dynamic analyses or to the cases where damping devices are included such
that the damping matrix cannot be assumed as a linear combination of the mass and
stiffness matrices.
The following outlines some precautions required during data entry when using the
modal superposition method:
Total analysis time (or Iteration number): the time to analysis or the total
number of iteration
Time Step: Time step can affect the accuracy of analysis results significantly. The
increment must be closely related to the periods of higher modes of the structure and the
period of the applied force. The time step directly influences the integral in Eq. (7.4.6),
and as such specifying an improper time step may lead to inaccurate results. In general,
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one-tenth of the highest modal period under consideration is a reasonable value for the
time step. In addition, the time step should be smaller than that of the applied load.
t
where,
Tp
Tp
(7.4.7)
10
: the highest modal period being considered
Modal damping ratios (or Rayleigh coefficients): Values for determining the
energy dissipation (damping) properties of a structure, which relate to either
the total structure or individual modes
Dynamic loads: Dynamic loads are directly applied to the nodes or foundation
of a structure, and are expressed as a function of time. The change of loadings
must be well represented in the forcing function. A loading at an unspecified
time is linearly interpolated.
7.4.3
The method of direct integration solves the dynamic equilibrium method by integrating it
over time steps. Without changing the form of the equilibrium equation, various methods
can be used to determine the solution.
midas GTS uses the Newmark method for the method of direct integration. The following
are the basic assumptions and integration process:
t t
t t
t
u t u 1 u t t u t
(7.4.8)
t
1
u t u t ut u t t u t 2
(7.4.9)
t t
t t
is
determined from Eq. (7.4.8). Thus, the equilibrium can be expressed in terms of
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77
u f
u f
t t
u, t u, t u, t u
t t
u, t u, t u, t u
(7.4.10)
By applying the Eq. (7.4.11) to the dynamic equilibrium equation, Eq. (7.4.12),
equilibrium can be defined in terms of displacement, velocity and acceleration of the
previous stage and displacement of the current stage. The displacement of the current
stage can be obtained from Eq. (7.4.13). After determining the displacement of the
current stage, the current acceleration and velocity can be found as shown in Eq.
(7.4.14). Damping is determined using the ratio of strength and mass as shown in Eq
(7.4.15).
t t
u C
t t
u K
t t
K a0 M a1 C
t t
t t
(7.4.11)
p M a0 t u a2 t u a3 t u
C a1 t u a4 t u a5 t u
(7.4.13)
K K a0 M a1 C
t t
p t t p M a0 t u a2 t u a3 t u C a1 t u a4 t u a5 t u
t t
u a0 t t u t u a2 t u a3 t u,
a0
where,
a4
midas GTS
(7.4.12)
u t t p
where,
78
t t
u t t p
78
t 2
, a1
t t
u t u a6 t u a7 t t u
1
1
, a2
, a3
1
t
t
2
1, a5 2 , a6 t 1 , a7 t
(7.4.14)
a,
C a K b M
where,
a, b
(7.4.15)
For analysis involving the nonlinearity of stiffness and damping, the direct integration
method should be used in most of these cases. The analysis time is proportional to the
total number of time steps since the direct integration method is performed with respect
to all time steps. The data and noteworthy points are as follows:
Total analysis time (Iteration number) : the time to analysis or the total
number of iteration
Time step : Time step can affect the accuracy of analysis results significantly.
The increment must be closely related to the periods of higher modes of the
structure and the period of the applied force. The time step directly influences
the integral in Eq. (7.4.12), and as such specifying an improper time step may
lead to inaccurate results. In general, one-tenth of the highest modal period
under consideration is a reasonable value for the time step. In addition, the
time step should be smaller than that of the applied load.
where,
Tp
Tp
(7.4.16)
10
: the highest modal period being considered
The time step should not be unnecessarily small since the analysis time increases in
proportion to the number of time steps. increases
Defining the damping using stiffness and mass : the damping is defined as
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79
The following describes the fundamentals to help the user understand better.
Figure (7.4.1) shows an idealized system to illustrate the motion of a SDOF structural
system. The equilibrium equation of motion subjected to forces exerting on a SDOF
system is as follows:
f I (t ) f D (t ) f E (t ) f (t )
(7.4.17)
f E (t) is an elastic force by which the structure restores its configuration to the original
state when the structure undergoes a deformation. This force acts in the opposite
direction to the displacement, and its magnitude is ku(t ) .
f D (t) is a damping force, which is a fictitious internal force dissipating kinetic energy
and thereby decreasing the amplitude of a motion. The damping force may occur in a
form of internal friction. It acts in the opposite direction to the velocity, and its magnitude
is cu (t ) .
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80
(elastic force)
(inertia force)
(external force)
(damping force)
f I mu (t )
f D cu (t )
(7.4.18)
f E ku (t )
where,
m : Mass
c : Damping coefficient
k : Elastic coefficient
From the force equilibrium shown in Figure 7.4 (b), we can obtain the equation for
motion for a SDOF structural system.
mu cu ku f (t )
(7.4.19)
Eq. 7.4.19 becomes the equation of damped free vibration if f(t)=0, and it becomes the
equation of undamped free vibration if the condition of c=0 is additionally imposed on the
damped free vibration. If f(t) is assigned as a seismic loading (or displacements,
velocities, accelerations, etc.) with varying time, the equation then represents a forced
vibration analysis problem. The solution can be determined by using either the Modal
Superposition Method or Direction Integration Method.
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7.5
7.5.1
midas GTS uses free field analysis to calculate the response of foundation during
earthquake before structure is constructed. The free field analysis is mainly used in
predicting the vibration of earths surface in calculating the dynamic stress and strain for
liquefaction assessment, and determining the earthquake load that will cause the
instability of foundation or earth structure.
The free field analysis is used to compute the response of foundation due to the vertical
radio wave of shear waves passing through the linear visco-elastic zone. The foundation
to analyze is composed of a number of stratum which are infinite to horizontal direction
and the semi-infinite bottom layers as shown in Figure 7.5.1. It is assumed that each
stratum is homogeneous and isotropic. The vibration is induced by the shear wave that
is transmitted through and reflected by the foundation in vertical direction, and the
displacement is produced only in horizontal direction. Therefore, the wave equation of
Eq. (7.5.3) should be satisfied in every stratum.
2u
2u
3u
G 2 2 G 2
2
t
x
x t
(7.5.1)
u( x, t ) u( x, )eit
u ( x, ) 2u ( x, ) 0
x 2
(7.5.2)
G*
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(7.5.3)
( x, ) G*
u ( x, )
x
(7.5.4)
Coordinate
System
Propagation
Direction
Properties
Thickness
u1
1
x1
...
x2
xm
m+1
xm+1
...
xm+2
G1 1 1
h1
Gm m m
hm
u2
um
um+1
Gm 1 m 1 m 1
um+2
hm+1
uN
GN N N
xN
Particle motion
Incident wave
Reflected wave
hN=
um ( xm , ) Am ()eikm xm Bm ()eikm xm
*
(7.5.5)
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*
m xm
Bm ()eikm xm
*
(7.5.6)
*
*
*
Gm* / m , and Am and Bm are the layer response factors,
where, km / Vsm , Vsm
where Am is the elastic wave component that is transmitted upward, Bm is the elastic
wave component that is transmitted downward. The compatibility condition of Eq. (7.5.7)
and force equilibrium should be satisfied in the boundary of adjacent layers
um ( xm hm ) um 1 ( xm 1 0)
m 1,2,...,( N 1)
m ( xm hm ) m 1 ( xm 1 0)
(7.5.7)
Substituting Eq. (7.5.5) and (7.5.6) into Eq. (7.5.7) gives the relationship between the
factors as shown in Eq. (7.5.8).
Am 1 Bm 1 Ameikm hm Bmeikm hm
* *
, m 1,2,...,( N 1)
kmGm
ikm* hm
ikm* hm
Bme
Am 1 Bm 1 * * Ame
km 1Gm 1
(7.5.8)
Rearranging to derive the relationship between the response factors of adjacent soil
layers, the recurrence equation of Eq. (7.5.9) is obtained as
*
*
1
1
Am (1 m* )eikm hm Bm (1 m* )e ikm hm
2
2
*
*
1
1
Bm 1 Am (1 m* )eikm hm Bm (1 m* )e ikm hm
2
2
Am 1
(7.5.9)
where,
hm : thickness of m th layer
m*
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84
*
m
*
m 1
k Gm*
k Gm* 1
(7.5.10)
Since the shear stress is always zero, it is clear that A1 B1 from Eq. (7.5.6). Therefore,
the response factor of m th layer can be calculated by applying the recurrence equation
of Eq. (7.5.9) subsequently from the first to m th layers.
Am ( ) am ( ) A1 ( )
(7.5.11)
Bm ( ) bm ( ) B1 ( )
where a1 b1 1 .
H ij ( )
ui ( ) ai ( ) bi ( )
u j ( ) a j ( ) b j ( )
(7.5.12)
When the transfer function H ij ( ) and the response u j ( ) for the boundary of layer
j are given, the response ui ( ) for the boundary of layer i is obtained as Eq.
(7.5.13).
ui () Hij () u j ()
(7.5.13)
When the frequency domain analysis is used, the effect of nonlinear behavior of
foundation is generally considered by the equivalent linearization technique. The reason
for using this equivalent linearization technique is that the frequency domain analysis
basically assumes the foundation as the linear behavior.
Since the constant stiffness (shear modulus) and damping are applied in frequency
domain analysis, the change of stiffness due to the actual shear strain is not considered
as shown in Figure 7.5.2. Therefore, the nonlinear behavior of foundation is considered
by iteratively conducting the linear analysis that includes the change of stiffness and
damping ratio of foundation according to the shear strain which is obtained from the
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previous step, as shown in Figure 7.5.3. To determine the stiffness and damping, the
effective shear strain that is given as constant value less than one(e.g., 0.65) multiplied
by the maximum shear strain obtained from the previous step as shown in Eq. (7.5.5) is
used. The reason for using the effective shear strain is that the maximum shear strain
induces the more strain energy than the actual behavior does, as shown in Figure 7.5.2.
The method to consider the nonlinearity of foundation by using the equivalent
linearization technique is summarized in Table 7.5.1.
1 2
x (t ) z2 (t ) { x (t ) z (t )}2 6 yz2 (t ) 6 xz2 (t )
3
Figure 7.5.2 Difference between maximum shear strain and effective strain
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86
(7.5.14)
(7.5.15)
Figure 7.5.3 The process to converge nonlinear shear modulus and damping factor by the equivalent
linearization technique
Table 7.5.1 The process for free field analysis using the equivalent linearization technique
Determine the initial values of the shear modulus( G ) and damping ratio( h )
of each layer. In general, the values where the strain is very small are used.
Calculate the maximum shear strain max of each layer from the free field
analysis using the initial values.
Calculate the effective shear strain eff of each layer.
eff R max
where R is the ratio between the effective shear strain and maximum shear
strain. The 0.65 is used, or the following M is used according to the
magnitude of earthquake(Seed & Sun, 1992).
R
M 1
10
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7.5.2
7.5.2.1 Overview
The biggest difference between soil-structure interaction problem and general
structural dynamics problem is the radiation damping induced by the infiniteness of
foundation. While the general damping property decreases the structural movement
by material friction, the radiation damping decreases the structural kinetic energy by
releasing wave energy to the infinite region of foundation.
The radiation damping is considered by introducing a damping term in the equation of
motion, and the magnitude is dependent on the shape of wave that is propagated
outside. Since the wave shape can be modeled easily in frequency domain, a
frequency domain analysis would be efficient. In general, the soil material is basically
inhomogeneous, and the mechanical behavior of the soil is highly nonlinear.
To accurately describe soil-structure interaction problems, it is necessary to consider
the important characteristics of radiation damping and nonlinearity. Therefore, in a
frequency domain analysis in which the radiation damping can be easily modeled is
used, and the material nonlinearity is analyzed by the equivalent linearization method.
The analysis applies the standard frequency domain analysis that uses the FFT(Fast
Fourier Transform). In addition, the responses from foundation and structure can be
calculated in one operation since the equation of motion builds the integrated soilstructure system with input motion of free field response. The interpolation method of
transfer function for single degree of freedom system is used to reduce the number of
frequencies for calculating the solution of the equation of motion. This method is used
to obtain the interpolated value for a transfer function based on the solution of two
frequencies in a row. Therefore, selecting the basic frequencies is very important, and
it is needed to define the cut-off frequencies high enough to guarantee the validity for
foundation analysis.
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(7.5.5)
where
{u}
[K ]
:Complex stiffness matrix including the damping effect for the twodimensional soil-structure system with a unit thickness.
{m}
{V }
{V }
1
[C ]({u} {u f })
L
(7.5.6)
where L is the thickness of plane system, [C ] is the diagonal matrix which includes
the characteristic of free field, and {u f } is velocity vector of free field.
{F } is characterized as the load acting on the vertical face of soil-structure system,
{F} [G]{u f }
(7.5.7)
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vector of free field. {T } is the force by the horizontal transfer of wave energy which is
expressed as the transmitting boundary condition.
{T } ([ R] [ L])({u} {u f })
(7.5.8)
y (t ) Re Ys eis t
(7.5.9)
s 0
where, N is the number of points to represent the input motions. Therefore, the
response of soil-structure system is given as Eq. (7.5.10)
N /2
{u} Re {U }s eis t
(7.5.10a)
s 0
N /2
{u f } Re {U f }s eis t
(7.5.10b)
s 0
Substituting Eq. (7.5.10) and Eq. (7.5.6) into Eq. (7.5.5), and rearranging it give the Eq.
(7.5.11).
is
[C ] s2[ M ]){U }s
L
i
{m}Ys ([G ] [ R]s [ L]s s [C ]){U f }s
L
([ K ] [ R]s [ L]s
(7.5.11)
In Eq. (7.5.11), {U f }s is expressed as Eq. (7.5.12), and { Af }s is the transfer
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90
{U f }s {Af }s Ys
(7.5.12)
Substituting Eq. (7.5.12) into Eq. (7.5.11), and rearranging it give the Eq. (7.5.13).
[ K ]s is the stiffness matrix according to the frequency of the system, and {P}s is the
load vector for the input motion of Ys 1 .
[ K ]s {U }s {P}s Ys
[ K ]s [ K ] [ R]s [ L]s
(7.5.13a)
is
[C ] s2[ M ]
L
(7.5.13b)
is
[C ]){ Af }s {m}
L
(7.5.13c)
Using Eq. (7.5.14) which is obtained from dividing the both side terms of Eq. (7.5.13)
by Ys , [ K ]s and {P}s are the functions of frequency , and { A}s is also a
function of frequency.
[ K ]s {A}s {P}s
(7.5.14)
Obtaining { A}s from Eq. (7.5.14), {u} of Eq. (7.5.15) is given as Eq. (7.5.10a).
(7.5.15)
Also, the response in time domain analysis can be obtained by inverse transformation
of Eq. (7.5.11) using FFT method.
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7.5.3
Transmitting boundary
It is difficult to accurately describe the actual infinite ground soil from a 2-dimensional
model for soil-structure analysis. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the boundaries of a
model in appropriate positions, and to settle the boundary similarly to the actual site
conditions.
The boundary conditions in soil modeling are divided into element boundary, viscous
boundary, and transmitting boundary condition. The element boundary condition is
subdivided into free ends which include the force from earthquake response load in the
boundary for the free field, the fixed ends include the displacement, and the rotating end
represents the horizontal and vertical rotating ends. The element boundary condition
considers the effect of earthquake wave for the free field adequately, but it cannot
consider the effect of reflected waves that are reflected from a footing slab. Also, these
effects increase as the location of boundary becomes closer to the footing slab.
To overcome the shortcomings of element boundary condition, Kuhlemeyer, Ang,
Newmark, et al. developed the viscous boundary condition that can absorb the material
wave with a constant angle in the boundary. However, the viscous boundary condition
also needs to be placed at a certain distance away from a footing slab since it cannot
accurately consider the effects of complicated surface wave.
Although viscous boundary conditions have certain limitations, transmitting boundary
conditions can consider various effects from material waves and surface waves. The soil
layers parallel to horizontal direction are represented by a spring function of frequency
and damper. Since it is generally assumed that the property of each soil layer, in the
horizontal direction, is homogeneous, satisfactory results can be obtained for cases
when the boundary conditions are attached to the structure itself. However, it is effective
to place a certain distance between footing slab and boundary to accurately consider the
change of characteristic according to the strain of horizontal direction.
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Chapter 8
Slope stability analyses for both embankments and excavation are subjects most frequently
encountered in geotechnical engineering. A slope naturally is subjected to potential energy
due to its self weight. If pore water pressure, external forces, seismic loads and wave
forces are exerted on a slope, slope instability may arise. When the shear stress due to self
weight and external load are greater than the shear strength of soil, either slip or failure
may occur. Determining such shear stress and soil strength can be summed up as slope
stability analysis.
Slope stability has been conventionally analyzed by performing displacement and stability
analyses separately (Duncan, 1984; Huang, 1983; Brunsden, 1984). However, actual slope
failure is caused by large displacements in local areas and develops slowly. It is known that
displacement and failure are not distinguished, but take place in the process of progressive
failure (Chowdhury, 1978; Griffiths, 1993). Therefore, it is important to formulate a slope
stability analysis method which can track the failure process from initial deformation to
ultimate failure.
pore water pressure, applied load,
earthquake load, wave load, etc.
Fs
W
T
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93
S
T
The following methods are currently suggested for slope stability analysis:
Limit theory
In order to monitor the stability of slopes on site, it is important to determine not only the
minimum factor of safety, but also the failure behavior. For a progressive slope failure, the
locations and the control values for monitoring must be determined in advance and
managed appropriately. The finite element method provides suitable analysis results and
also used to determine the progressive failure behavior of a slope (Anderson, 1987;
Duncan, 1996).
The on-going development in computational technology, finite element methods have been
widely used for analyzing structural ground behavior for displacements, stresses, pore
water stresses, etc. The finite element method recently has extended its applications from
simple behavioral analysis for ground structures to evaluating slope failures in stability
problems as well.
midas GTS uses the Strength Reduction method, which is developed for solving slope
stability problems, formulated using finite element techniques.
8.2
8.2.1
The finite element method is a precise numerical analysis method which satisfies the
force equilibrium, compatibility condition, constitutive equation and boundary condition at
each point of a slope. It simulates the actual slope failure mechanism and determines
both the minimum factor of safety and the failure behavior. It can also reflect real in-situ
conditions better than most methods. Moreover, it can determine the failure process
without assuming any failure planes in advance. (Griffith 1999; Matsui, 1990).
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94
There are two types of methods used in finite element method to analyze slope stability
Strength Reduction method and Indirect method (Pasternack, S.C. and Gao, S, 1988).
The Strength Reduction method is a direct method, which gradually reduces the shear
strength (c, ) of sloped ground materials until failure takes place. Failure is assumed
to occur when the analysis does not converge. Under this condition, the maximum
strength reduction factor where analysis fails to converge becomes the factor of safety.
The Indirect method determines the factor of safety by applying the calculated stresses
combined with the conventional Limit theory method.
8.2.2
Theoretical Background
The Strength Reduction method uses a finite element technique first proposed by
Zienkiewicz (1975). We now focus on a Gauss point, A, of an element in a sloped ground
structure to calculate the factor of safety of a slope as shown in Figure (8.2.1) The stress
state at this point is represented in a Mohr circle. In order to represent the sliding surface,
the shear stress at the point is divided by a factor of safety, F, so that the Mohr circle for
the stress state of the fictitious sliding surface becomes tangent to the failure criterion.
That is, the stress state of the point is corrected to the failure state. An increase in the
number of points results in a global slope failure. As soon as a finite element solution
diverges, the analysis stops and the limit value, F, becomes the minimum factor of safety
for the slope. This method requires stability in numerical analysis, but returns consistent
results and evaluates the actual failure behavior.
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95
Modified
Line
Modified
Line
Mohrs circle
for A
'
'
8.2.3
To determine the minimum factor of stability of slopes, the modulus of elasticity (E) and
Poissons ratio ( ) are assumed to be constant. The cohesion ( c ) and friction angle ( )
are simultaneously reduced, and the factor of safety, Fs is determined at the diverging
point. The factor of safety for slope failure is determined on the basis of shear failure as
follows:
Fs
(8.2.1)
where,
c n tan
The shear stress at the sliding surface, f is expressed in Eq. 8.2.3.
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(8.2.2)
f c f n tan f
(8.2.3)
where,
cf
c
SRF
tan
SRF
f tan 1
SRF
In order to determine the SRF accurately, it is necessary to trace the resulting values of Fs
causing the slope to fail. The incremental parameter Fs is increased in very small steps
even though it may extend the analysis time duration. Otherwise, calculating the minimum
factor of safety may face difficulties.
Introduction
Slope stability analysis is globally divided into two methods: simplified method and
numerical analysis method. The limit equilibrium which belongs to the simplified methods,
is one way to approach slope stability problems and is most widely used in practice.
However, this method cannot consider the stress hysteresis effects during the formation
of slope and the variation of stress for foundations due to the groundwater. Although the
finite element techniques considers the formation process of slope and the property of
foundation, the method requires high cost and long analysis time, and the slope stability
data for evaluation purposes is relatively insufficient. Recently, a numerous researches
are conducted to concentrate on the good points of the simplified method and numerical
analysis method. Among these, the slope stability analysis method using the finite
element method which has been proposed by Kim(1998) in KAIST is applied for slope
stability analysis.
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97
In this method, stress analysis is first performed on the slope using the finite element
method. Based on the stress analysis results, the factor of safety for potential sliding
surface is calculated, and the critical section is determined using the minimum safety
factor.
8.3.2
Fs
f d
(8.3.1)
md
criteria.
f c n tan
m
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98
1
y x sin 2 xy cos 2
2
98
(8.3.2)
(8.3.3)
:Viscosity,
xy :Shear stress.
sliding surface
xy
x
xy
y
To calculate the safety factor, stress integration is required with respect to the potential
sliding surface as shown in Eq. (8.3.1). Since the stress integration of continuous stress
field with respect to node is more reliable than that of Gaussian integration point, the
continuous stress field in every node is calculated using the global stress smoothing
method(Hinton & Compbell, 1974) in midas GTS.
8.3.3
The integration of shear stress along the potential sliding surface is required to evaluate
the factor of safety of the assumed potential sliding surface as shown in Eq. (8.3.1). This
process is performed by integrating over all elements along the sliding surface.
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99
The shear stress of an arbitrary point within an element is expressed using the stresses
of nodal points that are calculated by the global stress smoothing methods:
node
Ni inode
(8.3.4)
i 1
where,
N i : Shape function at node i
The stress integration over the potential sliding surface in two-dimensional global
coordinate system is given as the following by transforming into the integral in onedimensional local coordinate system.
n2
n1
x, y d
L 1
L nint
T d TWi i
2 1
2 i 1
(8.3.5)
where,
midas GTS
100
100
The global safety factor for the potential sliding surface is given as
Fs
nel
n2
i 1
nel
n1
n2
i 1
n1
f d
(8.3.6)
md
where,
midas GTS
101
101