Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Vibration Isolation
D. Karnopp
Department of Mechanical
and Aeronautical Engineering,
University of California, Davis,
Davis, CA 95616
In the five decades since the founding of the ASME Design Engineering Division, the
important problem of vibration isolation has been attacked first through the design of
passive spring-damper suspensions and later by the use of active and semi-active
elements. This paper reviews the historical development of theoretical concepts
necessary for the design of isolation systems and indicates how control theory began to
influence vibration isolation in the last half of this period. Practical active and
semi-active suspensions have only recently become possible with the advent of powerful
but relatively inexpensive signal processors. To illustrate these developments for
engineers who have not been intimately involved with active systems, only simple
vibrational system models will be discussed, although some modern hardware will be
shown which is now being applied to complex systems. Instead of attempting to review
the many theoretical concepts which have been proposed for active systems, this article
will focus on a relatively simple idea with which the author has been associated over the
past thirty years; namely the "skyhook" damper. This idea came through purely
theoretical studies but is now used in combination with other concepts in production
suspension systems. Two quite different application areas will be discussed. The first
involves stable platforms to provide extreme isolation for delicate manufacturing
operations against seismic inputs and the second involves automotive suspensions.
Although similar concepts are found in these two application areas, the widely varying
requirements result in very different suspension hardware. The special case of the
semi-active damper, which requires very little control power and is presently reaching
production, will also be discussed.
Introduction
The theory of vibrations is a triumph of classical analytical
mechanics. Whittaker (1904) traces the development of this
theory from the study of small oscillations of a pendulum by
Galileo through major contributions by Brook Taylor,
D'Alembert, Euler and Daniel Bernoulli who in 1753 showed
that compound vibrations could be resolved into motions of
independent simple modes. Lagrange provided a general
theory of the vibration of systems with finite degrees-of-freedom in 1762-5.
In the face of this theoretical understanding, a mathematical physicist might be excused for thinking that the job of
engineering practical control measures to ameliorate the
undesirable effects of vibration would be relatively trivial. In
fact, apart from the usual problems associated with cost,
reliability, and manufacturability, engineers initially were
prevented from designing effective vibration isolation schemes
by a lack of education in the field. It has been pointed out
(Den Hartog, 1947) that prior to the middle 1930's, "the
subject had not yet been introduced into the curriculum of
our technical schools." Den Hartog, having been trained as
an electrical engineer and familiar with the techniques used
to describe alternating current electrical circuits, was a pioneer in introducing mechanical engineers to vibration control
means.
In the early days of vibration isolation, the emphasis was
on the balancing of rotating machinery and the introduction
of compliant suspension elements. Most of the time, spring
rates for suspensions were chosen to avoid resonant response
but in some cases the basic concepts were surprisingly vague.
Den Hartog himself (Den Hartog, 1947, p. 149) answers his
own question, " . . . how do we have to design the main
springs [of an automobile] for maximum riding comfort... ?
with the answer, "the springs have to be made as soft as
possible... ." Since there was no discussion of any real
limitations to the softness of suspension springs, it seems that
design guides for isolation systems were not very well developed at this time.
The importance of energy dissipation in suspension systems was recognized early on but it was often not clear how
much damping was desirable and, for that matter, there were
few damping devices which produced the viscous type of
damping forces assumed by the linear theory of vibrations.
The relatively few special cases treatable by the mathematical theory of nonlinear oscillations provided little help for
practical vibration control and computers capable of simulating nonlinear systems were not readily available until fairly
recently. In many cases, what damping did exist came from
JUNE 1995, Vol. 117/177
Moving Base
Fig. 1
RECEIVER
VIBRATION
INPUT
VIBRATION
OPTIMUM
TRANSFER
FUNCTION
i
W (S)
Bta f
gun
'f-
'
"' i
RELATIVE
EXCURSION
IM/Y\
J
k-f
<?
V _
V0
s2 + 2ltoBs + a>l
(1)
s/m
2
~F ~ s + 2l<oms + (o2
(2)
10.0
f\
f Y
'
-C-0.1
-
0.Z5
0.5
- 0.707(opt1mai;
-1.0
.,
1.0
""s ~ X T T 1
< \A\
v/v|
Fig. 3 Conventional passive isolator
10.0
ja
\
0.1
V
i
IA
SfKc
S
\8
"/ 1
1.0
0.01
Y^,S.
0.1
s\ s
Ml
1.0
u/u)
10.0
C=1.0
+ 2cons + u>l
(3)
0.707-
where was always y2 / 2 but wn depended upon the weighting factor between mean square acceleration and mean square
rattle space in the criterion function used for optimization.
The frequency response plot of this transfer function shown
"
0.25 in Fig. 5 shows that damping values sufficient to control the
/
resonance have no adverse effect on high frequency isolation.
U. 1
The curve for the optimum damping ratio of = 0.707 in
0 0
Fig. 5 shows that the optimum isolator forms an ideal low-pass
/
filter with a cut off frequency of wn. Strictly speaking, the
result is valid only for a white-noise velocity input, but
intuitively one can imagine that low frequency input components of V0 must be followed by V in order to minimize the
0.001
I-W
lr-. . .
mean square relative deflection of the isolator while at high
0.1
1.0
10.0
frequencies the isolator should apply only small forces to
ia/u>
minimize mean square acceleration of the isolated mass.
Fig. 4 Frequency response plot for passive isolator
Thus the response of V falls off sharply for frequencies
greater than con.
Clearly, a resonant peak is undesirable so it seems logical
where 5 is the Laplace transform variable, f is the damping that f should be greater than about 0.5, but too high a value
ratio, con is the natural circular frequency and m is the mass. for I effectively lowers the response near a>/wn = 1.0, inFigure 4 is a frequency response plot from Eq. (1) showing creasing deflection without changing the degree of isolation
that con divides the low frequency range in which the mass for o)/(i>n 1.0. The optimum filter has just enough damping
velocity essentially follows the base velocity, V =V0, from the to provide a sharp low pass filter response with no resonance
high frequency range of isolation, V < V0. A fundamental peak, and the tradeoff between suspension deflection and
problem is that while a high value of damping ratio sup- acceleration is adjusted entirely by changing the undamped
presses the resonancewhich is goodit also comprises the natural frequency coir
isolation for co > u>n. (This is the fundamental problem Den
The important point is that the passive isolator system
Hartog referred to in the quote about damping in automobile represented by Eq. (1) and Fig. 4 is considerably different
suspensions cited in the introduction.)
from the optimum active isolator system represented by Eq.
When the Wiener filter technique was applied, it was (2) and Fig. 5. No parameter set for the passive system can
found that the optimal transfer function for the active isola- result in an optimum system. The fundamental reason is that
tor corresponding to Eq. (1) for the passive isolator became: the placement of the damper in Fig. 3 results in high forces
0.1
>
^^v
V,
PAYLOAD MASS M
,X4m_ i
, ,
gjr8'
j
l r
^ ^
y a y
76 .
*-
I g^
13
_
f-;^22
21 T1 K F u i
HL
*IN
f
l >
,f
SOUT
t
"-yyTTrr-r-r-
JguL
Fig. 10 Schematic diagram of an active suspension constructed
by Federspiel-Labrosse in 1954
-=^_
-==1
m ,
_f
_J ..
Fig. 9 A "hard mount" active isolator (Beard, Schubert and von
Flotow, 1994)
Skyhook damper
Manosuvering
loads ,
I Manosuvering
I loads
Broadband
actuator
Roadway disturbances
mi
Control
Roadway disturbances
Equivalent Model
Propagation Character.siics
FN
Frequency
Rood Surface
o Resonant Frequency
or Spring
Conventional
Suspensions
r-CHJL
essure Control |
Resonant Freauency
ol Soting
customers' subjective opinions showed that only certain aspects of body control by the active systems were considered
to be noticeable improvements.
The number of patents in the field of active suspensions is
very large (Wallentowitz, 1991) but there continues to be a
need for concepts which solve important motion control and
isolation problems without requiring unrealistic hardware
performance or costs which outweigh benefits.
There are many attempts in recent years to sort out the
essential and realizable functions which active suspensions
can be expected to perform, (Hrovat, 1993; Karnopp and
Heess, 1991; Karnopp, 1992) and there are a number of
proposed versions of active suspensions which use different
hardware configurations to reduce power, increase reliability
and reduce cost. Figure 12 shows two contrasting concepts.
Fast load leveling (or "slow active" or "low bandwidth")
active systems combined with semi-active controlled shock
absorbers for higher frequency force generation could result
in more practical systems than the high frequency actuator
approach (Karnopp, 1987).
Naturally, there are a wide variety of control systems for
the many proposed or realized active systems. It is interesting
however that many contain a "skyhook damping" component
(Tillback and Brod, 1989; Anon., 1989; Yokoya et al., 1984;
Yokoya et al., 1990; Akatsu et al, 1990). Figure 13 shows
how the Nisson Hydraulic Active Suspension incorporates a
skyhook damper effect. The incorporation of absolute body
velocity feedback in addition to other feedback terms and
forces that could be generated by passive elements allows a
close approach to an optimal state variable feedback system.
This type of control policy is even more prominent when we
consider high frequency control of dampers as a means to
Transactions of the ASME
D. Karnopp
Department of Mechanical
and Aeronautical Engineering,
University of California, Davis,
Davis, CA 95616
In the five decades since the founding of the ASME Design Engineering Division, the
important problem of vibration isolation has been attacked first through the design of
passive spring-damper suspensions and later by the use of active and semi-active
elements. This paper reviews the historical development of theoretical concepts
necessary for the design of isolation systems and indicates how control theory began to
influence vibration isolation in the last half of this period. Practical active and
semi-active suspensions have only recently become possible with the advent of powerful
but relatively inexpensive signal processors. To illustrate these developments for
engineers who have not been intimately involved with active systems, only simple
vibrational system models will be discussed, although some modern hardware will be
shown which is now being applied to complex systems. Instead of attempting to review
the many theoretical concepts which have been proposed for active systems, this article
will focus on a relatively simple idea with which the author has been associated over the
past thirty years; namely the "skyhook" damper. This idea came through purely
theoretical studies but is now used in combination with other concepts in production
suspension systems. Two quite different application areas will be discussed. The first
involves stable platforms to provide extreme isolation for delicate manufacturing
operations against seismic inputs and the second involves automotive suspensions.
Although similar concepts are found in these two application areas, the widely varying
requirements result in very different suspension hardware. The special case of the
semi-active damper, which requires very little control power and is presently reaching
production, will also be discussed.
Introduction
The theory of vibrations is a triumph of classical analytical
mechanics. Whittaker (1904) traces the development of this
theory from the study of small oscillations of a pendulum by
Galileo through major contributions by Brook Taylor,
D'Alembert, Euler and Daniel Bernoulli who in 1753 showed
that compound vibrations could be resolved into motions of
independent simple modes. Lagrange provided a general
theory of the vibration of systems with finite degrees-of-freedom in 1762-5.
In the face of this theoretical understanding, a mathematical physicist might be excused for thinking that the job of
engineering practical control measures to ameliorate the
undesirable effects of vibration would be relatively trivial. In
fact, apart from the usual problems associated with cost,
reliability, and manufacturability, engineers initially were
prevented from designing effective vibration isolation schemes
by a lack of education in the field. It has been pointed out
(Den Hartog, 1947) that prior to the middle 1930's, "the
subject had not yet been introduced into the curriculum of
our technical schools." Den Hartog, having been trained as
an electrical engineer and familiar with the techniques used
to describe alternating current electrical circuits, was a pioneer in introducing mechanical engineers to vibration control
means.
In the early days of vibration isolation, the emphasis was
on the balancing of rotating machinery and the introduction
of compliant suspension elements. Most of the time, spring
rates for suspensions were chosen to avoid resonant response
but in some cases the basic concepts were surprisingly vague.
Den Hartog himself (Den Hartog, 1947, p. 149) answers his
own question, " . . . how do we have to design the main
springs [of an automobile] for maximum riding comfort... ?
with the answer, "the springs have to be made as soft as
possible... ." Since there was no discussion of any real
limitations to the softness of suspension springs, it seems that
design guides for isolation systems were not very well developed at this time.
The importance of energy dissipation in suspension systems was recognized early on but it was often not clear how
much damping was desirable and, for that matter, there were
few damping devices which produced the viscous type of
damping forces assumed by the linear theory of vibrations.
The relatively few special cases treatable by the mathematical theory of nonlinear oscillations provided little help for
practical vibration control and computers capable of simulating nonlinear systems were not readily available until fairly
recently. In many cases, what damping did exist came from
JUNE 1995, Vol. 117/177
101
5
l=j
:::=
fi=
M
A
/\
2
10
5
*gsd
-*
r v-
"V
V
V
^
\\\\ s \ \
S, \ \
\\
^
\
^
' /\
2
icr1
Is
" 7~m.
5
_l_
\
\
0.1
\\s \
10"
10"
10
2
5
10 1
FREQUENCY [HZ]
10 c
101
5
2
10
5
~*s~
k
-. V '
s \ V
N\^
"^
.
2
_L_
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
100
1000
io-i
10"
10"
10
2
5
10 1
FREQUENCY [HZ]
102
Conclusions
It is probably no surprise in retrospect that progress on
practical active or semi-active vibration control systems has
been relatively slow. The design of such systems requires a
clear concept, related not only to the mechanics of the
system but also to automatic control and system dynamics.
Sensors and actuators must be available and their limitations
considered and finally cost effective signal processing devices
must be available. Only relatively recently has progress in all
these aspects come to the point at which practical designs are
possible. The reason why so much effort has been expended
in the field of automobile active suspensions no doubt has to
do with a potential mass market, but there are many other
potential areas for active control. Active noise control techniques are well advanced, active motor mounts are in the
prototype stage and there are even proposals for actively
isolating buildings from earthquakes. Although each application area has its own specific problems, some of which may
prove practically insurmountable, the future will certainly see
an increasing use of active means for vibration and noise
isolation.
References
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Vehicle Structural Dynamics," AIAA Paper No. 75-821.
Akatsu, Y., Fukushima, N., Takahashi, K., Satoh, M., and Kawarazaki,
Y., 1990, "An Active Suspension Employing an Electrohydraulic Pressure
Control System," SAE Paper 905123.
Anon., 1989, "Nissan Active Hydraulic Suspension," Nissan Motor Co.
Ltd., Tokyo.
Anon., 1992, "Computerized Electronic Suspension," Yamaha-Ohlins
HS Project Division Report.
Karnopp, D. C , 1973, "Active and Passive Isolation of Random Vibration," Isolation of Mechanical Vibration Impact and Noise, AMD Vol. 1,
No. 1, J. C. Snowdon and E. E. Ungar, eds., ASME Monograph, pp.
64-86.
Karnopp, D. C , 1983, "Active Damping in Road Vehicle Suspension
Systems," Vehicle System Dynamics, Vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 291-311.
Karnopp, D., 1987, "Active Suspensions Based on Fact Acting Load
Levelers," Vehicle System Dynamics, Vol. 16, No. 5-6, pp. 355-380.
Karnopp, D., 1988, "Design Principles for Vibration Control Systems
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Karnopp, D., 1992, "Active and Semi-Active Vehicle Suspension," The
Automotive Technology for Safety and Environment, Proc. Kia Academic
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Leatherwood, J. D., and Dixon, G. V., 1968, "Active Vibration Isolation for Flexible Payloads," IES P r o c , pp. 407-413.
Obson, W. O., and Allen, L. R., 1965, "Active Suspension for Automotive Military Vehicles," Westinghouse Research Laboratory Scientific Paper 65-IDI-HYDRA-PI.
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Schubert, D. W., 1992, "Active Vibration Isolation System," United
States Patent Number Re. 33,937.
Smith, R. E., and Lum, E. L. S., 1968, "Linear Optimal Theory Applied
to Active Structural Bending Control," AIAA J. of Aircraft, Vol. 5, No. 5,
pp. 475-479.
Tillback, L. R., and Brodd, S., 1989, "Active SuspensionThe Volvo
Experience," Proc. Autotechnologies Conference P-221, pp. 59-67.
Wallentowitz, H., 1991, "Von der Niveauregulierung zur Aktiven
Federung: Erkennbare Entwicklungstendensen," Aktive Fahrwerktechnik
Vieweg Verlag, Braunschweig, pp. 150-191.
Whittaker, E. T., 1904, A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles
and Rigid Bodies, Paperback Edition, 1961, Cambridge University Press,
p. 177.
Wright, P. G., and Williams, D. A., 1989, "The Case for an Irreversible
Active Suspension System," Proc. Autotechnologies, P-221, Paper 890081,
pp. 41-48.
Williams, D., and Wright, P., 1984, "Vehicle Suspension Arrangements," Group Lotus Car Companies European Patent PLC E P O 142
947.
Witt, D. C , 1976, "Improvements In or Relating to Vehicle Suspension
Systems," Patent Specification 1 450 765, The Patent Office, London.
Yokoya, Y., Asami, K., Hamajima, T., and Nakashima, N., 1984,
"Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension (TEMS) System for the 1983
Soarer," SAE Paper 840341.
Yokoya, Y., Kizu, R., Kawaguchi, H., and Ohashi, K., 1990, "Integrated Control System Between Active Control Suspension and Four
Wheel Steering for the 1989 CELICA," SAE Paper 901748.