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Knelson concentrator
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Multi-gravity sep.
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Operation
Mercury is sourced from on-site recycling of waste
plus mercury from traders from Hg mines (e.g. China and
Kyrgyzstan) and Hg waste exporters (e.g. Spain and USA)
[20]. In Mongolia some is sold by panners recovering
mercury [29,30,31]. Mercury is added in four situations:
Figure 13.
MERCURY-GOLD AMALGAM
Soft bead of HgAu amalgam ready for firing off the mercury to
leave gold. (photo: Peter Appel of GEUS)
Until 50 years ago, mercury (Hg) was the method-ofchoice for industrial-scale recovery of hardrock gold, and
to a lesser degree for recovery of placer gold also.
Since then, with the increased recognition of the
harmful impact of mercury on human health and
ecosystems, mercury use by companies and recreational
miners has become strictly controlled and in some regions
banned and eliminated. Mercury has been virtually
eliminated in industrial placer gold mines in the USA,
Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Russian Federation,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Mongolia. Yet mercury is
prevalent in large placer gold mines in South/Central
America, Africa and China.
Companies shun mercury for six interlocking reasons:
the gold
mercury
mercury
the gold
the gold
Figure 14.
Mercury is ineffective at amalgamating with gold smaller than 70 or larger than 1.5mm [12]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Operation
The sodium cyanide (NaCN) is either in a dry solid or
liquid form, sourced from specialised manufacturers.
1st stage leaching gold into solution
A weak cyanide solution is prepared, usually 0.020.05%, and must be kept strongly alkaline (pH 10-11).
Cyanide leaching can be by different methods:
Figure 15.
CYANIDE LEACHING
Figure 16.
Cyanide can dissolve (leach) >90% of very fine gold, but is too slow for leaching larger gold. [22] (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Operation
The floor is sealed, and a tap plus plastic garden
hose kept ready to flush spillages of bleach and acid. The
operators must be trained and clad in rubber gloves,
rubber apron, laboratory eye-protectors and rubber boots.
Preparation removal of carbonates
The first task is to dissolve carbonates as they can
interfere with leaching gold. A stock of STRONG 30% HCl
is added to water to produce 15% dilute HCl. The
concentrate is put in a lidded plastic bucket and 15% HCl
added to submerge the concentrate, using a plastic rod to
stir. A long handle cut from a plastic sweeping brush is
ideal.
Figure 17.
Chlorination can dissolve (leach) about 90% of gold <300 but is too slow for leaching larger gold. [35] (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 138.
Figure 139.
Recovery of placer gold by the Haber gold process (HGP) based on information from Haber Inc. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Operation
1st stage leaching gold into solution
The process equipment is made of PVC and other
plastics, as chlorine in the leach would attack mild steel
and other metals. Use of plastics allows transparent
vessels allowing the operator to witness the progress.
The feed is of finely screened concentrate with a
grade of >0.1% gold. A batch is added to the reaction
vessel where the gold is dissolved (leached) by a mixture
of pool acid (dilute hydrochloric acid) and bleach (sodium
hypochlorite). Gold is leached by attack by nascent
chorine to form gold chloride (AuCl2) in solution:
goldsolid + sodium hypochloriteaqueous + hydrochloric acidaqueous
= gold chlorideaqueous + sodium chlorideaqueous + waterliquid
Assessment of concentrate
Tests by Mintex show that concentrates from
different areas require slightly different recipes for the
iGoli process. Mintek SSMB requires a 2-kilo sample of
concentrate containing at least 1gram/ton to determine
the optimum recipe [187]. In some placers and a few
hardrock ores, carbonates are present in such abundance
that they interfere with leaching gold and have to be first
removed [35].
Figure 140.
Recovery of placer gold by the iGoli mercury-free gold extraction process [38,39,187]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 18.
Operation
The Harrison method in outline is as follows. First a
test batch of 0.43 kilos of ore is reduced to a <50-75
powder and leached without any preliminary roasting step.
1st stage leaching gold into solution
To prepare the leachate, 3.8 kilos of solid potassium
iodide are added to four litres of water and then 1.9 kilos
of iodine crystals added. The water is agitated until all the
crystals dissolve. Then 0.45 litres of concentrated nitric acid
is added in small steps with agitation. The leachate consists
of water, potassium iodide, hydroiodic acid, free iodine and
potassium nitrate able to completely dissolve all tellurides
and selenides, and sulphides of gold present.
The ore is added to the leachate and agitated for an
hour to form a pregnant solution. This is filtered and the
residue washed in a concentrated solution of potassium
iodide to dissolve insoluble silver iodide, until no yellow
precipitate remains. The wash water is thoroughly mixed
with the filtered pregnant solution.
2nd stage recovering gold from solution
Mercury is added to the pregnant solution to form
amalgams of gold, silver and base metals. This residue is
filtered off and to it is added a hot solution of four parts
concentrated nitric acid and one part water to prevent the
gold becoming colloidal. After cooling for 30 minutes, the
gold is recovered in a furnace.
Some gold and other precious metals remain in the
filtrate. This is treated with nitric acid (see patent for
details) and the gold precipitated is recovered by filtration.
Iodine can dissolve (leach) >90% of gold smaller than about 75, but is too slow for leaching larger gold. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 19.
Operation
The Fink and Putnam method in outline is as follows.
First the ore is finely powdered and preferably roasted.
Carbonates need not be removed as bromine solvents can
dissolve gold in the presence of carbonates.
1st stage leaching gold into solution
Bromine and sodium bromide are sourced from
specialised suppliers. Elemental bromine is particularly
hazardous and extremely difficult to store or transport
safely. Sodium bromide is more stable and cheaper.
The powered ore is added to water in a leach tank.
The leachate is prepared by adding sodium chloride @
100 grams/litre, sodium bromide @ 1gram/litre and finally
chlorine @ 1.4 grams/litre. Throughout the first 15
minutes, sulphuric acid is added @ 1.25 grams/litre to
maintain acidity. The reactive mixture is allowed to stand
for a further ten minutes for leaching to finish. In tests 23carat gold leaf dissolved in barely four minutes, and only
11.1% was lost to the tailings.
2nd stage recovering gold from solution
To recover the gold from the pregnant solution,
several methods are available: sodium metabisulphate,
zinc metal (chunks, bars or powder), oxalic acid,
ferrosulphate or sodium nitrate.
The solvent power of the barren liquid is restored by
either adding chlorine or a hypochlorite and a mineral
acid. According to the patent, Except for losses due to
Bromine can dissolve (leach) >90% of gold smaller than about 75, but is too slow for leaching larger gold. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Operation
The Dadgar method in outline is as follows.
The ore is reduced to a fine powder and leached
without any preliminary roasting step.
1st stage leaching gold into solution
Bromine is sourced from specialised suppliers as
sodium bromide, as elemental bromine is particularly
hazardous and extremely difficult to store or transport
safely. Sodium bromide is more stable and cheaper.
The powdered ore is delivered as a continuous feed
to the first of two cascade agitated leach tanks where it is
mixed with an aqueous bromide solution. The resulting
slurry overflows from the first leach tank to the second
leach tank and overflows again to a thickener. Solids
produce a sludge that passes through a countercurrent
washing system of several thickeners, the final thickener
being fed with an aqueous washing medium. Solids collect
in the bottom of the final thickener as tailings, while the
liquid fraction is a pregnant gold solution.
Figure 118.
Bromine can dissolve (leach) >90% of gold smaller than about 75, but is too slow for leaching larger gold. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 20.
Operation
The Wan-LeVier method is summarised as follows.
The thiocyanate is sourced from specialised suppliers.
Preparation oxidation of sulphides
The ore is finely powdered by milling and added to a
heap leach facility. Bio-oxidation of sulphides is
accomplished by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Leptospirillum
ferrooxidans, Sulfobocillus thermosulfidooxidans, Sedula,
Metallospheara or Acidianus brierley as in US patents
#5,246,486, #5,332,559, #5,834,294, #5,127,942 and
#5,244,493. Bio-oxidation takes about 90 days much
faster than with cyanide leaching as acidic products are
not a problem.
1st stage leaching gold into solution
The leach solution is first conditioned to adjust the
concentration and molar ratio of dissolved thiocyanate and
dissolved ferric iron, acidity and temperature. The
leachate is extremely acidic, ranging from pH 1 to 3.
The leach solution is introduced to the milled ore and
leaching takes from days to months in a heaped leach
facility, or hours in a heated pressurised autoclave.
2nd stage recovering gold from solution
The pregnant thiocyanate leach solution contains
dissolved gold in the form of gold-thiocyanate complex,
and the pregnant solution is removed for further
processing to recover the dissolved gold.
Residual solids depleted in gold may be subjected to
additional metal recovery operations or to further
treatment for disposal in an appropriate manner.
Thiocyanate can dissolve (leach) >90% of gold smaller than about 75, but is too slow for leaching larger gold. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 54.
Operation
1st stage leaching gold into solution
Sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate Na2S2O3.5H2O
(hypo) is usually supplied in powder form sourced from
specialised manufacturers. A solution of hypo is prepared,
and then ammonia added to make the leachate strongly
alkaline (10 to 10.5pH). Copper ions must also be present
as essential oxidising agent. The ammonia and copper are
catalyst-like for they are neither produced nor consumed
but recycled. In practice, copper may precipitate cupric
sulphide that inhibits leaching, while ammonia may escape
Hypo tends to be unstable, avoidable by adding
sulphite ions to regenerate the thiosulphate and prevent
silver precipitating too early as insoluble silver sulphide.
The milled ore is added to the thiosulphate leach with
a pulp density of 40 to 45% solids. Hypo consumption
may be as much as 30 kilos per ton or ore, but can be cut
to 13 kilos/ton by adding reducing agents as chelates.
2nd stage recovering gold from solution
The pregnant thiosulphate leach solution contains
dissolved gold in the form of gold-thiosulphate complex,
and the pregnant solution is removed for further
processing to recover the dissolved gold.
Activated carbon or resins are ineffective for
recovering the gold from the pregnant leach solution.
Instead gold is recovered by cementation method
using zinc, iron or copper. Under controlled conditions,
gold recovery from suitable ores can exceed 90%.
Thiosulphate can leach >90% of gold smaller than about 75, but is too slow for leaching larger gold. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Operation
Thiourea is usually supplied in powder form sourced
from specialised manufacturers. A weak solution of
thiourea is prepared, and the first stage is the oxidation of
thiourea to form formamidine disulphide:
2CS(NH2)2 + 2Fe3+ = C2S2(NH)2(NH2)2+ 2Fe2++ 2H+
The role of the formamidine is to oxidise the gold to
form a gold-thiourea complex:
+
2+
2Au + C2S2(NH)2(NH2)2 + 2CS(NH2)2 + 2H = 2Au(CS(NH2)2)
Figure 21.
Thiourea can dissolve (leach) >90% of gold smaller than about 150, but is too slow for leaching larger gold. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 22.
Figure 23.
Nitric acid cleans gold and aids recovery of >90% of 100-300, gold but its effect on <100 gold needs study. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 24.
Aqua regia can dissolve (leach) 90-100% of gold even as large as 1mm, but is too aggressive for mining use. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 25.
BORAX SMELTING
Figure 26.
Smelting with borax can recover fine gold, but usually only from a clean concentrate. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Operation
Disadvantages are:
Figure 66.
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Bioleaching can dissolve (leach) >90% of gold smaller than about 75, but is too slow for leaching larger gold. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 67.
Operation
The ore is first batch tested to determine if
biooxidation is effective. Batch testing may require six
months due to the time required for the bacteria to adapt
to the substrate and the time gap between inoculation of
the ore and its oxidation. The testing and evaluation can
be accelerated using a device such as the Oxidor column
reactor. Suitable cultures include the following species of
bacteria, either alone or in combination: Thiobacillus
thiooxidans, Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Sulfobacillus
thermosulfidooxidans,
Metallosphera
sedula
and
Leptospirillium ferrooxidans.
A bacterial culture is developed that can grow in high
acidity and high metal content. The bacteria suspension is
used to inoculate ore stacked in the open air resting on a
pad system. Biooxidation has a choice of settings:
Biooxidation can oxidise sulphide ores sufficient for leaching. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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GBP-enabled magnetic separation of extremely fine
gold particles from magnetite-rich slurry. A magnetic
mineral binding agent including a gold-specific protein is
added to a sample to form a complex of magnetic mineral
and gold. A magnetic field is applied and the complex
removed from the liquid. In a lab test, 3 gold beads were
coated with GBP antibodies and bound to magnetic beads
to form a complex. Being magnetic, the complex was
pulled to the wall of a microcentrifuge in a magnetic field
while the other material settled to the bottom of the tube.
In a very different test, gold was bound to natural
magnetite by means of a reagent with both gold-andmagnetite-binding-domains to form a complex that could
be separated by magnetic methods.
GBP-assisted floatation a GBP is modified to form a
hydrophobic reagent by reacting with valeric anhydride to
form a GBP with C5 hydrophobic tails (C5-GBP). A
laboratory experiment showed C5-GBP bound to extremely
fine gold (micron gold) could reside at the oil-water
interface. However in the authors opinion this result
should be treated with caution for gold itself is
hydrophobic and the merit of adding C5 hydrophobic tails
is not demonstrated.
GBP-assisted microbial extraction and transport is
envisaged for recovering sub-micron gold (<1). The
patent draws attention to strains of Escherichia coli cells
that express an extra-cellular GBP domain will bind small
particles of gold, and then the Escherichia coli can be
induced to follow a chemical gradient of attractants such
as ribose sugar to lead them to a recovery destination.
Figure 142.
Recovery of gold by gold-binding proteins is not yet commercial but may eventually become so. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
149
yet
to
be
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Operation
Figure 143.
PHYTOMINING
Figure 144.
Recovery of placer gold by the Ecologic gold concentrator based on manufacturers information. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 68.
COAL-GOLD AGGLOMERATION
Figure 69.
Coal-gold agglomeration (CGA) can recover 90% of gold in the range 53-300 [83]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 70.
Operation
The text is adapted from the account of the greasy
belt described by Royer Luckenbach in his patents.
Hardrock ore is milled to 2.5mm a major advantage
over froth floatation that requires much finer milling.
Placer ore is screened at 2.5mm. Gold in the oversize
is separated in a simple device such as sluice. The
<2.5mm fraction is subjected to oleophilic adhesion.
Water is added to the <2.5mm feed to create a slurry
of about 25% solids by volume. Hydrophilic particles are
wetted by adding a trace of wetting agent such as sodium
silicate (see patents) or liquid non-frothing detergent. This
weakens surface tension and sinks float gold.
The greasy belt is an endless rubber belt moving
between rollers, one of which is a drive roller. The belt is
coated in a thin sticky (tacky) coating of oil, grease or
wax but not so liquid that it might drip free when the
moving belt inverts on passing over the end roller.
Luckenbach suggests a flexible resin binder such as
rubber is added to the coating to make it waterproof.
The slurry issues as a thin stream onto the moving
endless belt and the gold adheres to the sticky coating by
oleophilic adhesion. At the end, the water and gangue
minerals are shed as tailings whereas the gold and other
oleophilic particles remain stuck to the inverted belt from
which they are removed by a scraper. The scraper also
removes some or all of the sticky coating.
The inverted belt passes across a roller that applies a
fresh sticky coating and then turns right-way-up over its
end roller to again capture oleophilic particles from slurry.
Recovery of placer gold by the oleophilic adhesion is unclear and the graph is highly conjectural. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Operation
For placer ore, the process is most appropriate to
gold recovery from fine tailings or from concentrate.
The feed consists of finely milled hardrock ore, or
else fine tailings or placer concentrate.
Slurry is made by adding water, and fed continuously
into a floatation tank.
In the floatation tank, the slurry is agitated and air
bubbles injected. The gold particles attach themselves to
the meniscus of the rising bubbles. This is due to gold
being hydrophobic and by selectively enhancing this
tendency by adding chemicals known as collectors; by
controlling the collectors using conditioners; by
stimulating wetting by wetting agents; by stimulating
frothing by frothing agents and by controlling pH.
The resulting froth is then removed and the gold
recovered by either gravity settling or chemical means.
Figure 27.
Froth floatation can separate >90% of gold <150, but is too slow for leaching >300 gold. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 119.
Operation
This account is based on the bench experiments of
Hamelmann and Lins in Brazil [167].
The concentrate is finely divided and made into
aqueous slurry of 25-30% solids.
The slurry is heated in a container to 70C, just 2
degrees centigrade above the melting point of the
paraffin-wax used (about 68C).
The temperature of the slurry is maintained at 70C,
and pieces of paraffin wax are added and allowed to melt.
A mechanical stirrer disperses the melted paraffin to
encourage it to contact the particles in the slurry. By this
simple means, the gold particles being hydrophobic
adhere to the globules (droplets) of paraffin wax whereas
black sand and quartz do not.
When the stirring ceases, the paraffin globules rise to
the surface to form a low-density paraffin phase above the
water phase. The gold is locked in the paraffin when it
solidifies as a floating solid. The solidified gold-containing
paraffin is removed from the surface of the aqueous
phase and further processed to remove the gold.
Recovery by the experimental gold-paraffin wax method that merits further investigation. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
135
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Operation
This text is based on the Kindig and Turner method
presented in US patent #4,229,209.
Iron carbonyl liquid is sourced from specialist
suppliers and stringent precautions are applied during
transport, storage and use regarding risk of fire and risk of
acute poisoning.
The placer ore is either dry-screened or else wetscreened and then dried. Magnetic minerals are removed
as fully as possible.
The dry non-magnetic fraction is fed to a rotating kiln
serving as a reaction vessel to bring the material into
direct contact with iron carbonyl vapours in the presence
of a gas such as nitrogen that is inert to the reaction.
The objective is to cause the decomposition of the
iron carbonyl to form a magnetic skin on the gold particles
but not on the other particles present. Typically about 0.5
to 4 kilos of carbonyl are added per ton of feed.
Generally a reaction time of from half an hour to an
hour is adequate, at 110-130C. The higher the
temperature the more complete is the gold recovery, but
at higher temperatures the iron carbonyl is liable to coat
other minerals beside gold particles.
After the treatment, the magnetic coated gold is
removed by dry magnetic separators such as a low to
medium separator with a magnetic drum having field
strengths of up to about 2,500 gauss, electromagnetic
drum separators up to about 7,000 gauss or induced roll
separators up to about 11,000 gauss.
Fe(CO)5 Fe + 5CO
Iron carbonyl Fe(CO)5 is a straw-yellow liquid that is
cheap, but unfortunately it requires special precautions as
it is not only flammable but is also toxic if inhaled.
The inventors recovered 93.3% of placer gold from
Clear Creek, Colorado; then 76.5-93.3% of placer gold
from the Vulture placer in Arizona, and later on their tests
were getting 99.98% gold recovery.
Of interest is that the Kindig and Turner method
requires no water at all, making it of potential value in
enabling large-scale placer gold recovery in arid regions.
However, the method has not been tested on gold <100
and therefore further research is warranted.
Figure 71.
Recovery of placer gold by the iron carbonyl method according to the original patent. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 28.
Figure 29.
Figure 30.
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Figure 72.
for gravels and gold to enter the riffles and the turbulence
destroys effective vertical segregation. [8]
Vortices cease after a few hours choked with
sediment, yet washing continues for an 8-hour shift.
Flat bar riffles are less strong than angle iron
(Hungarian riffles) and more prone to bending.
Figure 73.
Recovery of placer gold by slanted flat bar riffled sluice on ribbed rubber matting, tested by Mrs. Tsevel Delgertsoo. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 74.
ANGLE-IRON RIFFLES
Figure 75.
GOLD RECOVERY BY ANGLE-IRON RIFFLES ON UNBACKED NOMAD MATTING British Columbia tests
Recovery of placer gold in lab tests by James Hamilton and George Poling [7] (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 76.
Figure 77.
Figure 78.
Recovery of placer gold by 2x2-inch angle-iron riffles @ 4-inch spacing, on backed NomadTM matting [86]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
Recovery of placer gold by 3 x3-inch angle-iron riffles @ 6-inch spacing, on backed NomadTM matting [86]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
Recovery of placer gold by 1x2-inch angle-iron riffles @ 4-inch spacing on backed NomadTM matting [86]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 79.
Figure 80.
GOLD RECOVERY BY RAISED EXPANDED METAL GRATING ON BACKED NOMAD MATTING Yukon tests
Recovery of placer gold by expanded metal grating, type 4lbs/ft2 (4.0 grating) on backed NomadTM matting [86]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 81.
Figure 82.
are
popular
GOLD RECOVERY BY RAISED EXPANDED METAL MESH ON UNBACKED NOMAD MATTING B.C. tests
Recovery of placer gold by expanded metal mesh, type 1-10H on unbacked NomadTM matting. (compiler: Robin Grayson from Poling and Hamilton [7])
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Figure 83.
Figure 84.
GOLD RECOVERY BY RAISED EXPANDED METAL MESH ON BACKED NOMAD MATTING Yukon tests
Figure 85.
GOLD RECOVERY BY RAISED EXPANDED METAL MESH ON BACKED NOMAD MATTING Yukon tests
The superiority of NomadTM matting in recovering placer gold compared to close weave matting. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
Recovery by expanded metal mesh (type 1-10H ?) on backed NomadTM matting. (compiler: Robin Grayson from Clarkson 1989 [86])
Inability of expanded metal mesh (type 1-10H?) to retain medium-coarse placer gold. (compiler: Robin Grayson from Clarkson 1989 [86])
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Figure 86.
Figure 87.
Recovery of placer gold by McCanns small sluice, according to the original patent. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 120.
Recovery of placer gold by Damn Fine SluiceTM according to reports by many users. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 146.
POPANDSON SLUICE
Figure 147.
Figure 148.
Recovery of placer gold by the PopandSon sluice based on bench tests with gold and tungsten tracers [193]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 145.
Operation
This text is based on the Loewen electrostatic sluice
as presented in US patent #7,012,209.
Placer pay gravel is first screened to say 15mm and
gold recovered by sluices, jigs or similar gravitational
devices. Tailings are screened <1mm and fed into the
feed hopper of the Loewen electrostatic sluice.
Alternatively milled hardrock ore is screened <1mm
and fed directly into the feed hopper of the Loewen
electrostatic sluice.
The device consists of a simple inclined gravitational
sluice, typically ten feet in length and is four inches wide
Recovery of placer gold by Loewen electrostatic sluice according to the patent and diverse assumptions. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Operation
Figure 121.
CLEANGOLD SLUICE
Figure 122.
Recovery of placer gold by Cleangold sluice according to tests reported by Hylander and Plath [169]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 88.
Figure 89.
Recovery of placer gold by hydraulic riffles one of NZ-style, the other unknown. (compiler: Robin Grayson from Clarkson 1989 [86])
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Figure 31.
SIMPLE JIGS
Figure 32.
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Figure 39.
HELIX WHEEL
Figure 40.
Recovery of placer gold by helix wheels (gold wheels) [61] (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 111.
Figure 112.
Recovery of placer gold by Brosseuks helix cylinder, according to the original patent. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 153.
Figure 154.
Recovery of placer gold by the Extrac-TEC HPC helix belt, according to information from the manufacturer. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 41.
Figure 42.
Recovery of placer gold by Wilfley shaking table, based on comments of the British Geological Survey [24]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 43.
Figure 44.
Recovery of placer gold by traditional shaking table of uncertain type, results of tests in China [27]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 45.
Figure 46.
Recovery of placer gold by Soviet shaking tables in the Soviet Union. (compiler: Robin Grayson, after Zamyatin and Konyukova [62])
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Figure 131.
Top view of the Mongolian home-made version of the handcranked BGS shaking table. (photo: Robin Grayson)
Figure 132.
Recovery of placer gold by the hand-cranked BGS shaking table, tested under laboratory conditions [24]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 113.
TM
GEMENITM TABLE
Figure 114.
Recovery of placer gold by GemeniTM table, according to the original patent and testing [161,162]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Figure 135.
Figure 136.
Recovery of placer gold by U-Tech reverse polarity table, according to the original patent and makers website. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
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Operation
Gold-bearing black-sand concentrates as coarse as 35mm is fed into the variable feed-rate hopper of the
GoltonTM unit. The feed rate is 150lbs/hour of solids and
300-600 gallons/hour of water. Feed properties are less
critical than for conventional tables, or advanced tables
such as the GemeniTM table. The GoltonTM variable feedrate hopper contains an auger that dispenses steady
amounts of feed onto a coarse wet vibrating screen with
1.19mm apertures.
Oversize (>1.19mm) is routed to a carpeted nugget
trap. Undersize is re-screened on a fine wet vibrating
screen of 35-mesh (0.42mm). The GoltonTM table is
unique in having a coarse side and a fines side. Oversize
re-screened material (>0.42mm) is directed to the coarse
side of the GoltonTM table, while the undersize re-screened
material (<0.42mm) is directed to the fines side of the
GoltonTM table.
Gold is recovered in three locations:
Figure 133.
GOLTRONTM MACHINE
Figure 134.
Recovery of placer gold by the Goltron machine, based on information issued by the manufacturer. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
143
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 63.
Figure 64.
Gold recovery by Bartles-Mozley orbital tables, according to Michael Silva [61]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
104
www.mine.mn
Operation
Feed is screened at 100 to 1mm and should have
no more than 5% clays [25]. Slurry is fed by gravity from
a trommel or screen via a chute into the head of the
pinched sluice or arrives by pipe fed by a slurry pump.
The floor and walls of the pinched sluice must be free
of obstructions to achieve laminar flow. Laminar flow
permits gravitational settling and stratification of slurry.
In compelling the slurry to converge to a pinchpoint, wear on the floor and walls may be severe, and a
replaceable liner such as smooth rubber or wear-resistant
material is advisable. A pinched sluice should incorporate:
Figure 47.
PINCHED SLUICE
Figure 48.
Recovery of placer gold by pinched sluices; generalised information compiled from fragmentary sources. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
95
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Operation
Feed is pre-screened as cones are unable to
concentrate particles >0.5mm, and recovery falls if clay is
>5% of the feed. The cone is sensitive to changes in
slurry feed density (55-70% solids)
Slurry feed is poured into the cone evenly around its
circumference, and flows to the central hole. The slurry
becomes progressively crowded, due to all the particles
converging upon the central hole. The increased packing of
suspended particles increases the overall density of the
lower slurry. Suppose the slurry fluid attains 2g/cm3, then:
Figure 49.
REICHERT CONES
Figure 50.
Recovery of placer gold by Reichert cones, according to Erik Spiller and Thomas Feree [67,68]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
96
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Operation
Figure 51.
HUMPHREY SPIRALS
Figure 52.
Recovery of placer gold by Humphrey spirals, according to diverse fragmentary sources. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
97
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Operation
The feed is screened at <2mm and poured as slurry
in the spiral channel and helter-skelter down the spiral
with the denser particles settling as dense basal slurry or
traction carpet. The channels cross-section has a
continuously variable profile that takes its deep axis
outward during the descent, and the stream of dense
particles is constrained to follow the axis of the channel.
At the bottom of the helter-skelter run, the stream of
heavy concentrate is collected via a take-off port on the
final turn of the spiral.
As well as the concentrate stream, three other
streams are collected at the bottom of the spiral:
Figure 115.
Mark 7 Reichert spirals installed on a mobile placer gold washplant in the USA. (photo: courtesy of John Strain)
Figure 116.
Recovery of placer gold by mark7 Reichert spirals, according to the cassiterite and placer gold tests [164-166]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
132
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Operation
Figure 55.
Figure 56.
Recovery of placer gold by Dukes E-tank, according to the original patent. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
100
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 90.
GRAEFEs E-TANK
Figure 91.
Placer gold recovery by Graefes E-tank, according to the original patent. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
119
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Operation
Figure 123.
PYRAMID E-TANK
Figure 124.
Recovery of placer gold by Pyramid E-tank based on claims of the manufacturers advertisement. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
138
www.mine.mn
Figure 94.
Operation
Clean water is introduced into a 1-inch, 2-inch or 4inch diameter column either near its base or part-way up,
at a controlled rate as determined by experiments.
Rising up inside the column, the water enters a
teeter zone characterised by hindered settling.
Finely screened concentrate (e.g. <0.2mm) is
spooned into the tower from above and falls through the
rising water down as far as the teeter zone.
Extremely dense particles such as gold fall through
the teeter zone to accumulate in the bottom of the device
as a lag deposit to await batch discharge
Fairly dense particles accumulate as a hovering
fluidised mass (teeter bed) in the teeter zone. The
continuous arrival of new particles from above into the
teeter zone causes particles to become increasingly
crowded and then only hindered settling can occur
The hindered settling means that dense only dense
particles can get to the base of the teeter bed, and in
doing so they eject upwards less dense particles.
As a result the teeter bed becomes vertically
stratified with the densest particles at its base overlain by
lighter particles
The lighter particles are vulnerable to ejection with
the rising water as tailings whereas the heavier particles
are protected from scouring away by the carpet of lighter
particles resting upon them.
After processing many spoonfuls of material, the
enriched gold concentrate is siphoned off from the device.
Recovery of placer gold from black sand concentrate by Lashleys ASAT E-tower, according to diverse reports. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
121
www.mine.mn
Operation
Clean water is introduced into a 4-inch diameter
column near its base, at 2 gallons/minute. Once inside,
the water passes through a distributor in a sequence
designed to create a non-turbulent up-flow:
Figure 95.
OSTERBERGs E-TOWER
Figure 96.
Recovery of placer gold from black sand concentrate by Osterbergs E-tower, tentatively based on diverse reports. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
122
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 149.
REFLUX CLASSIFIER
Figure 150.
Hypothetical recovery of gold by the reflux classifier based on work by Zhou and colleagues [195]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
153
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 151.
ECOLOGIC CONCENTRATOR
Figure 152.
Recovery of placer gold by the Ecologic gold concentrator based on manufacturers information. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
154
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 57.
Feed is passed through a fine mesh screen (e.g. 13mm), then pumped as slurry into a CWC at a controlled
rate. The slurry pressure induces the slurry to slam
against the internal wall of the cyclone, and spin
vigorously while subjected to high g forces (e.g. 40-50 g).
A gold particles residence time in a CWC is a mere
second [72] before being ejected in the underflow. It is
unclear how separation is achieved so rapidly.
The densest particles, fine and coarse, are
continuously discharged as concentrate from the base of
the CWC with the underflow.
The lightest particles are continuously discharged
from the top of the CWC with the overflow. Unfortunately
the Alaska tests did not produce a high concentration
ratio, and therefore the compound water cyclone can be
inserted into a wash-plant as a useful but non-essential
stage, rather than replacing say a sluice, jig or centrifuge.
Results of tests are variable, and it is concluded by
the author that as yet in spite of considerable research
the theoretical basis for CWC is not firmly established and
this is an impediment to developing a device that
consistently produces good results in terms of fine gold
recovery and concentration ratio.
Figure 58.
Recovery of placer gold by CWCs in tests in Alaska by the Minerals Industry Research Laboratory [56,72,73]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
101
www.mine.mn
Operation
The feed consist of 15-35% solids that have been
finely screened, ideally 150. The slurry is fine enough to
be termed slime.
Slurry is fed to the device at a rate of about 500 kilos
per hour of solids. The slurry is introduced via a feed box
to about half the length of the central ridge of the belt.
Heavies settle on the belt and remain on it, moving
along with the belt, the belt travelling forward at a rate of
3-8mm per second. The moving belt passes through a
cleaning zone where middlings are washed off the belt.
The heavies remain on the belt to be discharged over
the roller when the belt starts to turn upside down.
The Bartles crossbelt is particularly effective for
recovering material from 20 to 150 and consistently
Figure 61.
BARTLES CROSSBELT
Figure 62.
Gold recovery by Bartles crossbelt, according to Silva 1986 [61]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
103
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 109.
VANNER
Figure 110.
Recovery of placer gold by Lemmons vanner, according to the original patent. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
129
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 97.
Figure 98.
Recovery of placer gold by Younges horizontal centrifuge, according to the original patent. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
123
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 129.
ITOMAKTM BOWL
Figure 130.
Recovery of placer gold by Itomak centrifuge bowl, based on information from the manufacturer. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
141
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 127.
FALCONTM SB BOWL
Figure 128.
Recovery by FalconTM Super Bowl, according to lab experiments with tungsten tracer [140]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
140
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 107.
FALCONTM C BOWL
Figure 108.
Recovery by FalconTM C bowl, according to lab experiments with gold tracer, and users claims. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
128
www.mine.mn
Operation
Gold is recovered in an inner bowl in a centrifugal
field with an apparent gravitational field of 60g. By
injecting pressurised water into the inner bowl maintains a
fluidised bed of black sand into which gold particles can
burrow. Black sand is dislodged to make room. Basic
models have batch discharge (manual or automatic), the
operation being stopped to permit the flushing out of
concentrate. In larger models, discharge may be
continuous, enabling uninterrupted operation.
Figure 105.
KNELSONTM BOWL
127
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 103.
YUNXI BOWL
Figure 104.
Recovery of cassiterite by the Yunxi bowl and its successor the SLS bowl according to Jie Xiao [125]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
126
www.mine.mn
Operation
Feed material is screened at 0.3 to 1.5mm, then
preferably to <100 Tyler mesh as larger solids may block
the groove. If feed is dry it must first be thoroughly
wetted, for instance in a longish water trough.
The Neffco bowl runs full of water as it spins. Slurry
is fed down the central tube to the bottom of the bowl
and works its way to the sidewall. The bowl and its spiral
groove drag the water and induce the water to spin. It
Figure 59.
NEFFCO BOWL
Figure 60.
Recovery of placer gold by Neffco bowl, according to manufacturers information and comments by users. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
102
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Operation
Figure 37.
GILKEY BOWL
A 6-inch Gilkey bowl, showing the flow of the slurry feed and
redirection by the striking surface to minimise flouring of
mercury. (redrawn from James Anderson [59] by Robin Grayson)
Figure 38.
The Gilkey bowl achieves 60% gold recovery at the 1st pass, 90% at the 2nd stage and 99% at the 3rd stage. [60]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
90
www.mine.mn
Operation
Pre-screened feed enters from above via a slurry pipe
that discharges in the centre of the spinning bowl about 1inch from the base. The slurry is flung sideward to slam
against the spinning wall. The climbing film of slurry is
impeded by concentric ribs of tough rubber riffles.
Dense particles slam in the grooves between the
riffles; Light particles climb the riffles to escape as tailings.
Lab tests by Mark Anthony [57,58] show the inventors
instructions to be in error. With <3/8 inch gravel the rocks
KNUDSEN BOWL
Knudsen Bowl showing the central feed pipe, rubber riffles and 3
struts that enable the position of each blade to be adjusted.
(photo: Steve Gaber of the Alaska Gold Forum)
Figure 36.
The Knudsen bowl recovers 100% of gold >0.2mm, plummeting to 70% for 100 gold, according to Alaska tests [57,58]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
89
www.mine.mn
Operation
The slurry feed is 25-40% solids and enters a
chamber consisting of a circular screen mounted vertically,
plus a particle bed. The chamber rotates at 30-45 rpm to
create a force of up to 50g. Water injected into the inner
chamber subjects the slurry to a jig-like pulsation force to
alternately expand and compress the particle bed. This
stimulates denser minerals to move towards the bed and
so be collected after passing through the screen into an
inner chamber and discharged via small holes. Lighter
particles overflow the chamber as tailings.
According to the maker, the ability to change the
Figure 101.
Figure 102.
Recovery of placer gold by Kelsey centrifugal jig, according to the patent and test on Alaska Gulf placers [122]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
125
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 125.
Figure 126.
Recovery of placer gold by Gekko in-line pressure jig, based on information from the manufacturer. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
139
www.mine.mn
Cleaveland jig and IHC jig 1980s research in USA and Holland
Operation
Figure 92.
Figure 93.
GOLD RECOVERY BY IHC TRAPEZOIDAL JIGS DERIVED FROM CLEAVELAND CIRCULAR JIGS
Placer gold recovery extrapolated from recovery of placer tin, as claimed in IHC technical literature. [96] (compiler: Robin Grayson)
120
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 33.
Figure 34.
Good recovery of gold by Pan-Am duplex jigs during tests by MIRL in Alaska [56]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
88
www.mine.mn
Figure 141.
Operation
Tincture of iodine is obtained from a lab supplier.
If placer ore, the pay gravel is finely screened, the
coarse fraction being subjected to conventional
gravitational separation, the fine fraction being subjected
to leaching. If hardrock, the ore is milled very finely
before being subjected to leaching
1st stage leaching gold into solution
The fine ore is added to a little water in a tank and
kept agitated by stirring. Tincture of iodine is stirred in,
and is dark brown due to the presence of I3- ions. These
are an effective oxidant and in the presence of I- ions
reacts to form the stable gold-iodine complex:
2Au + 3I3- 2[AuI4]- + ILab experiments show an hour is sufficient for the
tincture of iodine to leach most of the gold faster than
cyanide can. Then dissolution declines and full leaching of
gold from a saturated gold solution might take six hours.
2nd stage recovering gold from solution
To recover the dissolved gold from the pregnant
solution, ascorbic acid is added to reduce the iodine:
I2 J 2IThis reaction results in a deficiency in I3 causing the
tincture to lose its dark brown colour and become a poor
solvent. It is now possible to precipitate gold. Deposition
starts when the tank is diluted by about 70% water by
volume. The gold appears as colloidal gold and next as
fine-grained particles. The gold is removed by filtration.
Recovery of placer gold by tincture of iodine and vitamin C in tests by Hiroyasu Murakami and Y. Nakao [40]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
148
www.mine.mn
Operation
Figure 99.
Figure 100.
Recovery of gold by the Axsia-Mozley Multi-Gravity Separator, based on incomplete information [113-116]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
124
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Mining (JOM) volume 52, page 14.
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2. O.V. Zamyatin, A.G. Lopatin, N.P. Sammikova and A.D. Chugunov (1975). The Concentration of Auriferous Sands and
Conglomerates. Nedra Press: Moscow. 260 pages.
(English translation is available from Geological Survey of Canada).
3. Wenqian Wang and George W. Poling (1983). Methods for recovering fine placer gold.
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5/6. D.F. Stewart and P.W. Ramsay (1993). Improving the simple sluice box.
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Affairs: Yukon Region, iv +77 pages. Download: www.geology.gov.yk.ca/publications/tech/fine_gold_recovery_sluiceboxes.pdf
8. Randy Clarkson and Owen Peer (1990). An Analysis of Sluicebox Riffle Performance. New Era Engineering Corporation,
Yukon. Report for the Klondyke Placer Miners Association. 31 pages.
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9. John M. West (1971). How to Mine and Prospect for Placer Gold.
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Read: http://imcg.wr.usgs.gov/usbmak/ic8517.html
10. Daniel E. Walsh and P. Dharma Rao (1988). A Study of Factors Suspected of Influencing the Settling Velocity of Fine
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11. P. Dharma Rao, David R. Maneval and Daniel E. Walsh (1984). Field Investigation of Hydrocyclones for the Recovery of
Fine Gold, Phase III. June 1984, MMRRI Final Report. Mineral Industry Research Laboratory (MIRL), University of Alaska at
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12. Eoin H. MacDonald, (1983). Alluvial Mining: The Geology, Technology, and Economics of Placers. Publisher: Chapman &
Hall, Kluwer Academic Publishers, hardcover, 508 pages.
13. Robin Grayson (2006). Gold recovery in gold pans the term panning.
World Placer Journal, volume 6, pages 1-21. Download: www.mine.mn
14. Robin Grayson (2006). Gold recovery in cones in Laos the term dulanging.
World Placer Journal, volume 6, pages 36-41. Download: www.mine.mn
15. Robin Grayson (2006). Gold recovery in wooden trays in Russia the term 'lotoking'. World Placer Journal, volume 6,
pages 22-35. Download: www.mine.mn
16. Chimed-Erdene Baatar (2006). Gold recovery on mats in Mongolia the term matadoring.
World Placer Journal, volume 6. Download: www.mine.mn
17. Chimed-Erdene Baatar (2006). Gold recovery in bowls in Mongolia the term bowling.
World Placer Journal, volume 6. Download: www.mine.mn
18. Robin Grayson (2006). Gold recovery in buckets in Kyrgyzstan the term bucketing.
World Placer Journal, volume 6, pages 42-51. Download: www.mine.mn
19. Peter W. U. Appel (2005). Small-scale mining hazards and opportunities in Kyrgyzstan and Mongolia. Geological
Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin #7, pages 77-80.
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20. Lars Hylander and Markus Meili (2005). The Rise and Fall of Mercury: Converting a Resource to Refuse After 500 Years
of Mining and Pollution.
Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, volume 35, pages 1-36.
21. Marcello M. Veiga (1997). Introducing new technologies for abatement of global mercury pollution in Latin America.
UNIDO/UBC/CETEM, Rio de Janeiro, 94 pages.
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22. Kristina Shafer, Lars D. Hylander and David Plath (2006). Novel solution to reduce or eliminate mercury pollution from
artisanal and small scale gold mining. [ABSTRACT] Abstracts of 8th International Conference on Mercury as a Global Pollutant.
Lancaster, PA, USA.
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23. David Plath (2002). CleangoldTM in the Guianas. PowerPoint Presentation. 17 slides.
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24. Clive J. Mitchell, E.J. Evans and Michael T. Styles (1997). The design, construction and testing of a simple shaking table
for gold recovery: laboratory testing and field trials. British Geological Survey (BGS) Report #WC/97/061, DFD contract
#R6226, 27 pages plus Appendices.
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26. Marcello M. Veiga, Randy F. Baker, Stephen M. Metcalf, Bern Klein, Gillian Davis, Andrew Bamber and Patience Singo (2006).
Manual for Training Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners: Removal of Barriers to Introduction of Cleaner Artisanal
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27. Weqian Wang (1979). A Study on Methods for Fine Placer Gold Processing.
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28. Robin Grayson (2010).The Gold Miners Book BAT Best Available Techniques for Placer Gold Miners. Eco-Minex
International Ltd. 1,700 pages. Purchase: www.mine.mn
29. Baatar Tumenbayar, Minjin Batbayar and Robin Grayson (2000). Environmental hazard in Lake Baikal watershed posed by
mercury placer in Mongolia.
World Placer Journal volume 1, pages 134-159. Download: www.mine.mn
30. Baatar Tumenbayar and Robin Grayson (2001). Mercury pollution in North Mongolia.
Abstract of 6th International Conference on 'Mercury as Global Pollutant' held in Minamata, Japan, 15-19th October 2001.
31. Baatar Tumenbayar (2003). Action Research on Mercury in the Boroo Area, Mongolia.
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 79 pages.
32. L. Kozin and V. Melekhin (2004). Extraction of Gold from ores and concentrates by leaching with the use of cyanides
and alternative reagents. Publisher: MAIK Nauka Interperiodica. Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry, volume 77, pages 15731592.
33. Cleland N. Conwell (1980). Gold recovery from placer concentrates by cyanidation.
Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, Miscellaneous Publication #29, pages1-6.
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34. A.K. Williams (no date). Super Clorox. Prospector's Paradise website, San Pedro, Costa Rica.
View: www.prospectorsparadise.com/html/super_clorox.html
35. Rickford Vieira (2004). Mercury-Free Gold mining Technologies: Possibilities for Adoption in the Guianas. Technical
Paper #1 by WWF-Guianas Regional Program Office, 8 pages.
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36. Lars D. Hylander, David Plath, Conrado R. Miranda, Sofie Lucke, Jenny hlander and Ana T.F. Rivera (2007). Comparison of
different gold recovery methods with regard to pollution control and efficiency. Clean, volume 35, pages 52-61.
37. Sidney Mahkatsi (2006). The iGoli mercury-free gold extraction method.
Paper presented to the Communities and Small-scale Mining (CASM Annual General Meeting, 11-15th November 2006 held in
Antsirabe, Madagascar, 14 pages.
38. Sidney Mahkatsi and Rob Guest (2003). The iGoli mercury-free gold extraction process.
Urban Health and Development Bulletin, South Africa, volume 6, page 62.
39. Anon (2007). The iGoli mercury-free gold extraction process. Manuscript from Rob Guest of Minteks Small Scale Mining and
Beneficiation Division (SSMB), 5 pages. www.mintek.co.za
40. Hiroyasu Murakami and Y. Nakao (2006). A trial of extracting gold from stream sediment and high Au/Ag ore using
halogen-containing organic system. CCOP-GSJ/AIST-GAI CASM-Asia Workshop on the State-of-the-Art of Science and Technology
to Protect the Environment and People, 27-29th November 2006, Bandung, Indonesia. PowerPoint presentation, 16 slides.
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41. A.K. Williams (no date). Halide Leaching and Recovery.
Prospector's Paradise website, San Pedro, Costa Rica.
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42. Jinshan Li and Jan Miller (2006). A review of gold leaching in acid thiourea solutions.
Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, volume 27, pages 177-214.
43. Anon (2000). Gold Leaching using Thiourea.
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45. Marcello M. Veiga, Shefa Siegel, Patrick Schein, Cheick Santigui Camara, Joachim Dejean, Djibril Kamara and Amadou Diouf
(2006). Technical Mission to the Artisanal Gold Mines in Upper Guinea. Blacksmith Institute and UNIDO Report, 13 pages.
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145. V.A. Bocharov, V.G. Urikov and V.V. Gurikov (2002). Analysis of gold-containing products separation processes in
Knelson and Falcon SB concentrators.
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146. A.V. Bogdanovich and A.M. Vasilyev (2005). Study of operation of gravity separators designed to concentrate finegrained materials.
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147. T. Coulter and G.K.N. Subasinghe (2005). A mechanistic approach to modelling Knelson concentrators. Minerals
Engineering, volume 18, pages 9-17.
148. Luis A. Meza, Willy Hartmann and Carlos A. Escobar (1994). Recovery of placer gold using the Knelson concentrator.
Innovations in Mineral Processing, pages 339-347.
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149. Baatar Tumenbayar and Robin Grayson (2001). Winter testing of placer gold with a 3-inch Knelson Concentrator. World
Placer Journal, volume 2, pages 1-13. Download: www.mine.mn
150. Gary Beaudoin (2000). Gold Test on the Toson Terrace, Zaamar Goldfield of Mongolia.
World Placer Journal volume 1, pages 1-9. Download: www.mine.mn
151. Robin Grayson (2000). The failure of Java Gold Corporation at placer gold mining in Mongolia. World Placer Journal,
volume 1, pages 10-30. Download: www.mine.mn
152. Steve McAlister and K.C. Armstrong (1988). Development of the Falcon concentrators.
Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. Annual Meeting, Orlando, 9-11th March 1998.
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153. Steve McAlister (1992). Case study in the use of the Falcon gravity concentrator.
Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Mineral Processors, Ottawa, 1992, page 20.
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154. Andre R. Laplante, M. Buonvino, A. Veltmeyer, J. Robitaille and G. Naud (1994). A study of the Falcon concentrator.
Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, volume 33, pages 279-288.
155. Colin H.A. Sprake (1998). Falcon fine recovery. Falcon Concentrators Inc. 2 pages.
Download: www.concentrators.net/pdf/scriteria.pdf
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Operation
Figure 149.
REFLUX CLASSIFIER
Figure 150.
Hypothetical recovery of gold by the reflux classifier based on work by Zhou and colleagues [195]. (compiler: Robin Grayson)
153