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x (t )
X (s)
system
y (t )
Y (s)
G (s)
Y (s)
X (s)
where:
Y s L "# y t $%
X s L "# x t $%
()
()
()
()
input
output
forcing function
response
cause
effect
V C
dT
= wC (Ti T ) + Q
dt
(1)
T ( 0 ) = T , Ti ( 0 ) = Ti , Q ( 0 ) = Q
(2)
0 = wC (Ti T ) + Q
(3)
V C
dT
= wC "%(Ti Ti ) (T T )#& + (Q Q )
dt
(4)
But,
Evaluate T ! ( t = 0 ).
dT d (T T )
=
because T is a constant
dt
dt
(5)
T ! (0) = T (0) T
V C
dT "
= wC (Ti" T " ) + Q"
dt
(6)
(7)
(9)
But since our assumed initial condition was that the process
was initially at steady state, i.e., T ( 0 ) = T it follows from (9)
that T ! ( 0 ) = 0.
Note: The advantage of using deviation variables is that the
initial condition term becomes zero. This simplifies the later
analysis.
Rearrange (8) to solve for T ! ( s ) :
Take L of (6):
" K # $
" 1 # $
T $(s ) = %
&Q (s) + %
& Ti ( s )
' s +1 (
' s +1 (
1
V
and !
wC
w
(11)
Q ( t ) = Q Q! ( t ) = 0 Q! ( s ) = 0
Thus, rearranging
(10)
(12)
T "(s )
1
=
"
Ti ( s ) s + 1
(13)
Comments:
1.The TFs in (12) and (13) show the individual effects of Q and
on T. What about simultaneous changes in both Q and Ti ?
Answer: See (10). The same TFs are valid for simultaneous
changes.
Note that (10) shows that the effects of changes in both Q
and Ti are additive. This always occurs for linear, dynamic
models (like TFs) because the Principle of Superposition is
valid.
Chapter 4
0.05
T! =
Q!
2s + 1
No change in Ti
T #(t ) = 25[1 et / ] %
% T ( s) =
T "(t ) = 25[1 et / 2 ]
25
s( s + 1)
K=
y2 y1
u2 u1
K = lim G ( s )
2000 cal/sec
(4-38)
s 0
(14)
Definition:
2. Order of a TF Model
Consider a general n-th order, linear ODE:
n
an
d y
dt
+ an1
bm1
dy
dt
n 1
n 1
m 1
dt
m 1
+ K a1
dy
d u
+ a0 y = bm m +
dt
dt
+ K + b1
du
+ b0u
dt
(4-39)
G (s) =
Y (s)
U (s)
bi s
=
Physical Realizability:
For any physical system, n m in (4-38). Otherwise, the system
response to a step input will be an impulse. This cant happen.
Example:
i =0
n
ai s
a0 y = b1
(4-40)
i
du
+ b0u and step change in u
dt
(4-41)
i =0
4. Multiplicative Property
3. Additive Property
Suppose that an output is influenced by two inputs and that
the transfer functions are known:
Y (s)
Y (s)
= G1 ( s ) and
= G2 ( s )
U1 ( s )
U2 (s)
Then the response to changes in both U1 and U 2can be written
as:
Y ( s ) = G1 ( s )U1 ( s ) + G2 ( s )U 2 ( s )
The graphical representation (or block diagram) is:
U1(s)
G2(s)
Y (s)
U2 (s)
= G2 ( s ) and
U2 (s)
U3 ( s )
= G3 ( s )
Then,
Y ( s ) = G2 ( s )U 2 ( s ) and U 2 ( s ) = G3 ( s )U 3 ( s )
Substitute,
Y ( s ) = G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )U 3 ( s )
Or,
Y (s)
G1(s)
Y(s)
U2(s)
Suppose that,
U3 ( s )
= G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )
U3 ( s )
G2 ( s )
G3 ( s )
Y (s )
Example 1:
L
V
V = fluid velocity
Tank:
K
T(s)
G1 =
= 1
U(s) 1+ 1s
T (s) K e-s
Sensor: G 2 = s = 2
T(s) 1 + 2s
K 2 1,
2 is very small
(neglect)
Ts Ts T
K1 K 2 e s K1K 2 e s
= = G2 G1 =
U T U
1+ 1s 1+ 2 s
1+ 1s
dy
= f ( y, u )
dt
(4-60)
f
f (u, y ) = f (u , y ) +
u
f
u" +
y
y
y"
dy
f
= f (u , y ) +
dt
u
f
u" +
y
y
0 = f (u , y )
dy dy!
=
,
dt dt
dy! f
=
dt u
u! +
y
f
y
y!
(4-62)
Linearized
model
(4-61)
dh
= qi q (1)
dt
q = Cv h
(2)
A
A = area, Cv = constant
y"
y
A
Linearize
dh
= qi Cv h
dt
(3)
term,
dh
1 "
!
= qi Cv % h + h# &
dt
R
'
(
(6)
h h+
1
2 h
(h h )
0 = qi Cv h
(4)
Subtract (7) from (6) and let qi! ! qi qi , noting that dh = dh!
dt dt
gives the linearized model:
Or
h h+
1
h!
R
(5)
where:
dh!
1
= qi! h!
dt
R
R!2 h
h! ! h h
Summary:
In order to linearize a nonlinear, dynamic model:
Tank 1:
A1
Chapter 4
(7)
dh1
= qi q1
dt
q1 =
1
h1
R
A1
dh1
1
= qi h1
dt
R
A1
dh '1
1
= q'i h '1
dt
R
H1' ( s )
R1
K1
=
=
Qi' ( s ) A1R1s + 1 1s + 1
q1' =
1 '
h1
R
Q1' ( s ) 1
1
=
=
H1' ( s ) R1 K1
(8)
The same procedure leads to the model for tank 2 and valve 2 as below:
H 2' ( s)
R2
K2
=
=
Q1' ( s) A2 R2 s + 1 2 s + 1
Chapter 4
Q2' ( s ) 1
1
=
=
H 2' ( s ) R2 K 2
Q2' ( s ) Q2' ( s ) H 2' ( s ) Q1' ( s) H1' ( s)
=
Qi' ( s ) H 2' ( s ) Q1' ( s ) H1' ( s ) Qi' ( s )
Q2' ( s )
1 K 2 1 K1
1
=
=
Qi' ( s ) K 2 2 s + 1 K1 1s + 1 ( 1s + 1)( 2 s + 1)
Example(4.7((Nonlinear(Problem(
A horizontal cylindrical tank shown below is used to suppress the
surges in inlet flow. Develop a mathematical model for the process.
dh f
f
f
= f+
(h h) +
( qi qi ) + ( q q)
dt
h
qi
q
f
=
qi
f
=
q
Assume constant density, volumetric balance results in:
dV
= qi q
dt
dV
dh
= Wt L
dt
dt
dh
Wt L
= qi q
dt
Wt = 2 R2 ( R h)2 = 2 R2 ( R2 + h2 2Rh) = 2 2Rh h2 = 2 ( D h)h
dh
1
=
(q q )
dt L 2 ( D h)h i
L 2 ( D h) h
Qi(s)
G1(s)
1
_
H(s)
L 2 ( D h) h
1
(
&
Q(s)
%
#
&
L 2 ( D h )h #$
f
= '
h
h
G2(s)
( qi q ) = 0
dh '
=
dt
h=h
1
_
SH ' ( s) =
'
i
(q q ' )
L 2 ( D h) h
'
1
_
L 2 ( D h) h
1
s
L 2 ( D h) h
G2 =
1
_
L 2 ( D h) h
1
s
where:
State-Space Models
x =
u =
Dynamic models derived from physical principles typically
consist of one or more ordinary differential equations (ODEs).
In this section, we consider a general class of ODE models
referred to as state-space models.
d =
y =
x! = Ax + Bu + Ed
(4-90)
y = Cx
(4-91)
Example 4.9
Show that the linearized CSTR model of Example 4.8 can
be written in the state-space form of Eqs. 4-90 and 4-91.
Derive state-space models for two cases:
(a) Both cA and T are measured.
(b) Only T is measured.
Solution
The linearized CSTR model in Eqs. 4-84 and 4-85 can be written
in vector-matrix form:
(4-92)
Let x1 ! c!A and x2 ! T,! and denote their time derivatives by x!1
and x!2 . Suppose that the steam temperature Ts can be
manipulated. For this situation, there is a scalar control variable,
u ! Ts! , and no modeled disturbance. Substituting these
definitions into (4-92) gives,
! x $ ! a
$
a $! x $ !
# 1 & = # 11 12 &# 1 & + # 0 & u
b2 &%
# x & # a
&#
&
" 2 % " 21 a22 %" x2 % #"
B
A
(4-93)
which is in the form of Eq. 4-90 with x = col [x1, x2]. (The symbol
col denotes a column vector.)