Training Theory Book

Dragan Milanovi
and Colleagues
TRAINING THEORY
reviewed teaching materials
University of Zagreb
Faculty of Kinesiology
Zagreb, 2013
Publisher:
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology
For the Publisher:
Prof. Damir Knjaz, PhD, Dean
Author:
Prof. Dragan Milanovi, PhD
Colleagues:
Prof. Sanja alaj, PhD
Prof. Igor Juki, PhD
Cvita Gregov, Mag.Cin.
Peer-reviewers:
Prof. Milan oh, PhD, Faculty of Kinesiology University of Ljubljana
Prof. Bojan Jot, PhD, Faculty of Kinesiology University of Ljubljana
Prof. Cvetan eljaskov, PhD, National Sports Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria
Translations:
Marko Hrvatin, Mag.A.
eljka Jaklinovi, Mag.A.
Lecture:
Elizabeth Harrison Paj
Edition:
1st Internet edition
URL:
http://kif.hr/predmet/trathe
Date of publication on the internet: December 2, 2013
ISBN: 978-953-317-020-6
Available in the digital catalog of the National and University Library in Zagreb
Copyright 2013. University of Zagreb Faculty of Kinesiology. All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the
reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including xerography, photocopyng, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden
without the written permission of the publisher.
The Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Commission for Science and Academic Literature and Publishing,on its session held
on February 15, 2012, reached the decision on approving the publication of this book. Photographs from the archives of the journal
Sportske novosti by kindness and permission of Director General Mr. Janko Gole, or from the authors private collections.
FOREWORD
In contemporary sport sports training has become an extremely complex process,
involving numerous input and output variables. High-quality expert and scientific
knowledge is therefore indispensable in understanding, modelling and managing
sports training today. The Theory of Training as a scientific and academic field of
study taught within the master university programme for the education of
kinesiologists and coaches has to address numerous questions posed daily by
sports experts as well as athletes.
Future professionals in the fields of professional and school sport, sport for all, and
sport for people with disabilities have many questions, such as:
-
Is there a clear delineation between professional and amateur sport?
Which abilities, characteristics and motor skills are required to achieve top sport
results in a specific sport or sports discipline?
Can athletes' abilities, characteristics and motor skills be objectively and reliably
measured?
Is it possible to choose a sport that best matches the child's sports potentials
based on objective indicators? Is the selection of future athletes based on
intuition or scientific facts?
To what extent is sports talent a genetic feature and to what extent can
preparedness components be developed during the sports career?
Is the concern regarding premature involvement of children in intensive sports

training justified? Is sports training too demanding for them?
Which exercises, loads and methods are optimal for the development of abilities,
characteristics and skills that determine sports results?
When is it recommendable to introduce external loads or weight training without

the risk of causing locomotor system injuries?
What is the simplest and the quickest way to master correct technical-tactical
elements in a specific sport?
Is there an optimum technology for the planning and programming of sports

preparation process?
The number of competitions is increasing. What happens when competitions start

to dominate sports preparation?
The total load in certain sports has reached over 1000 training hours per year, or
over 20 hours per week. Is that not excessive?
Are sport and sport preparation based on professional and scientific facts or do
intuition, improvisation and experience of coaches and other experts still prevail?
Of course, these are only some of the questions of professionals who want to make
their contribution towards the efficiency of the sports preparation process on all
levels. These are also some of the key questions that we have attempted to provide
the best possible answers to in this handbook intended for the foreign students
studying to become Physical Education teachers or coaches.
The English handbook The Theory and Methodology of Training is divided into three
main parts: 1. The Theoretical Foundations of Sport and Sports Training, 2. The
Methodological Foundations of Sports Training, and 3. Sports Training Planning,
Programming and Controlling.
The intention behind the creation of this teaching material was to raise the quality of
teaching and to facilitate participation of students in class, as well as to help them
prepare for the exam in the Theory of Training and pass it successfully. The complex
body of knowledge and information in the area of sport and sports training is
delivered in a very simple and succinct manner to students, who need to understand,
interpret and learn this information.
In order to encourage active participation of students in class, each slide is followed
by empty lines where the students can write down additional information obtained in
class and, more importantly, their own comments that will help them better
understand the presented material. In this way, the student ceases to be a passive
observer of the lecture and becomes an active participant.
Furthermore, each chapter of the handbook is followed by a list of key questions,
which guide the student in preparing the exam and passing it. A list of references is
provided at the very end of each chapter, which can be very helpful in expanding the
presented information.
There are many people I would like to express my gratitude to for their significant
contribution in conceptualising and developing this handbook. I would primarily like
to thank my closest collaborators, junior researcher Sanja alaj, Ph.D., professor Igor
Juki, Ph.D. and junior researcher Cvita Gregov, who have been involved in the
development of this teaching material for several years. I also extend my thanks to
the peer reviewers, professor Milan oh, Ph.D., professor Bojan Jot, Ph.D. and
professor Cvetan eljaskov, Ph.D. for their meticulous work and their valuable
suggestions.
My special thanks goes to Marko Hrvatin for the valuable translation work and eljka
Jaklinovi-Fressl for the valuable translation, editing and proofreading work.
Even though we are aware of the fact that we could have been more detailed and
elaborate in conceptualising and presenting the subject matter of the theory of
training, we hope that this handbook will provide impetus for the development of the
theory of training as a field of study and facilitate class participation and mastering of
this body of knowledge.
This handbook might provide an incentive for the students enrolled in the English
language programme to approach this area of applied kinesiology with an increased
interest and motivation and to become better prepared for tackling the ever
increasing demands of sports and sports training, both as an academic field and
profession.
Dragan Milanovi
CONTENTS
1st chapter:
The Theoretical Foundations of Sport and Sports Training
1. TRAINING THEORY
1.1. Basic fields of training theory
1.2. Training theory contents
1.3. Training theory definition
1.4. Training theory subjects
1.5. Training theory tasks
2. SPORT (CURRENT ISSUES OF SPORT IN CROATIA AND ABROAD)
2.1. Definition of sport
2.2. Sports Features
2.3. Why a special social status belongs tosport?
2.4. Sport participation and health
3. SPORT IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
3.1. Characteristics of sport in the European Union
3.1.1. NGOs in European sport
3.1.2. Association of Sports Sciences in Europe
3.2. Top level sport in European countries
3.2.1. Top level sport in Slovenia
3.2.2. Top level sport in Austria
3.2.3. Top level sport in France
3.2.4. Top level sport in the United Kingdom
3.2.5. Top level sport in Finland
4. PERSONNEL, MATERIAL, FINANCIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF
SPORT AND TRAINING
4.1. Most important factors affecting the status and development of sport
4.2. Coaches and other experts in sport
4.3. Organization of sport
4.4. Sports facilities and equipment
4.5. Sport funding
4.5.1. Taxes
4.5.2. Sponsorships
5. SCIENCE, THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SPORT AND SPORTS TRAINING

5.1. Scientific research area
5.2. Theoretical work area
5.3. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level
6. SPORTS TRAINING (SPORTS PREPARATION)
6.1. Sports training sports preparation
6.2. Sports training definitions
6.3. The essence of sports training
6.4. Sports training tasks
6.5. Cybernetic approach to sports training
7. SPORTS TRAINING A SHORTHISTORY
7.1. A short overview of sport development in the world
7.2. A short overview of sport development in Croatia
8. ANALYSIS OF SPORT ACTIVITIES
8.1. Structural analysis of a sport activity
8.2. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities
8.3. Anatomical analysis
8.4. Functional (energy) analysis
8.5. The criteria for the classification of sports activities
8.5.1. The structural complexity
8.5.2. The complexity of the biomechanical parameters
8.5.3. The dominance of energy processes - physiological classification
8.5.4. The dominance of motor - physical abilities
9. ANALYSIS OF ATHLETES DIMENSIONS (COMPONENTS OF PREPAREDNESS)
9.1. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes
9.1.1. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes
9.1.2. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes
9.1.3. Performance of athletes / situation-related efficiency
9.1.4. Competition result / achievement (the final outcome of sports activities)
10. DIAGNOSTICS IN SPORT - MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF
ABILITIES, FEATURES AND KNOWLEDGE OF ATHLETES
10.1. Diagnostics in sports
10.2. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes
10.3. Diagnostics in sports (10 stages of diagnostic procedure)

11. SELECTION IN SPORT(ORIENTATION TO SPORTS AND CHOICE OF SPORTS BRANCH)
11.1. System of orientation to sports first selection
11.2. Orientation to a group of sports branches second selection
11.3. System of selection of a sports branch third selection
11.4. Procedure of selection
12. SPORT AND SPORTS TRAINING OF CHILDREN AND THE YOUNG
12.1. Sports schools
12.1.1. Universal sports school
12.1.2. Elementary sports school
12.1.3. Specialized sports schools
12.2. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young
12.3. Performance factors of a sports career
12.3.1. Social environment (community, peers, neighbourhood)
12.3.2. Family
12.3.3. School
12.3.4. Sports club sports federation
12.3.5. A training program
13. TRAINING FORFITNESSAND SPORT PREPAREDNESS
13.1. Fitness of athletes
13.2. Sport shape / preparedness
13.3. Sport shape development phases
13.4. Sport shape management
13.5. Dynamic attributes of sport shape
14. SPORTS TRAINING AS A TRANSFORMATION PROCESS
14.1. Definitions
14.2. General model of transformation process in sport
14.3. Types of trajectories of preparedness conditions
14.4. Types of transformation processes
15. SPORTS COMPETITIONS
15.1. Definition and characteristics of competitions
15.2. Classification of competitions
15.3. Planning and conducting a competition
16. RECOVERY OF ATHLETES: SUPPLEMENTAL FACTORS OF SPORTS PREPARATION

16.1. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes
16.2. Classification of recovery methods and means
16.3. Illicit pharmacological means: doping
17. BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING
17.1. Introductory observations
17.2. Adaptation in sports
17.3. Continuity of the process of training
17.4. Load progression of training and competition
17.5. Undulation of training and competition loads
18. DIDACTICAL PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING
18.1. Target orientation of training
18.2. Interaction of sports preparation programmes
18.3. Cyclic nature of training
2nd chapter:
The Methodological Foundations of Sports Training
19. METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS TRAINING
19.1. Definition and Elements of the Methodology of Training
20. THE MEANS (CONTENTS) OF SPORTS PREPARATION
20.1. Classification and characteristics of training means
20.2. The effects of training exercise implementation
20.3. Selection and order of training exercises application
21. TRAINING LOAD MANAGEMENT
21.1. Training and competition load
21.2. Total load and its components
21.2.1. Energy component of a training load
21.2.2. Information component of a training load
21.3. Effects of a training load on an athletes body
21.3.1. Effects of a training load on the muscle fibre
21.3.2. Effects of a training load on the nervous system
21.3.3. Effects of a training load on the oxygen transport system
21.4. Classification (characteristics) of training loads

21.5. Training load managementdosage
22. SPORTSTRAININGMETHODS
22.1. Classification and description of training methods
22.2. Exercise methods
22.2.1. Exercise method with respect to load type
22.2.2. Exercise methods with respect to the training mode
22.3. Teaching and learning methods in sport
22.3.1. Teaching methods with respect to the mode of motor information transfer and motor task
assignment
22.3.2. Teaching methods with respect to motor task perfomance mode
23. ORGANISATIONAL FORMS AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMS OF TRAINING
23.1. Organisational training forms
23.1.1. Individual training
23.1.2. Group training
23.1.3. Frontal training
23.2. Methodological forms of training
23.2.1. Station methodological form (station training)
23.2.2. Circuit methodological form (circuit training)
23.2.3. Course training form (course form)
23.3. Methodological aspects of the location, training equipment and training gear use
23.3.1. Training facilities
23.3.2. Training equipment and gear
24. BASICS OF PHYSICAL CONDITIONING METHODOLOGY
24.1. Definition, structure and characteristics of physical conditioning
24.2. The effects of physical conditioning on an athletes body
24.3. Physical preparation types
24.3.1. General or versatile physical preparation
24.3.2. Fundamental or basic physical preparation
24.3.3. Specific physical preparation
24.3.4. Situational physical preparation
25. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES
25.1. Methodology of development and maintenance of functional abilities
25.2. Aerobic training methodology
25.3. Anaerobic training methodology

26. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF QUANTITATIVE MOTOR ABILITY
26.1. Strength training methodology
26.2. Speed training methodology
26.3. Endurance training methodology
26.3.1. Endurance training methods
26.4. Flexibility training methodology
27. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF QUALITATIVE MOTOR ABILITY
27.1. Coordination training methodology
27.2. Agility training methodology
27.3. Methodology of accuracy training
27.4. Balance training methodology
28. TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL PREPAREDNESS OF ATHLETES
28.1. Sports technique
28.2. Sports tactics
28.3. Levels of efficiency of the programme for technical-tactical command
29. TECHNICAL-TACTICAL PREPARATION METHODOLOGY
29.1. Teaching and learning the basics of technical-tactical skills
29.2. Motor learning phases
29.3. Teaching methods
29.4. The coach and athlete in the process of technical-tactical teaching-learning
30. PROGRAMMING OF TEACHING TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL SKILLS
30.1. Programme of teaching technical-tactical skills
30.2. Principles of programmed teaching learning
30.3. Cybernetic model of programmed teaching learning in sport
30.4. Programming of the teaching process in multi-annual and annual cycles
3rd chapter:
Sports Training Planning, Programming and Controlling
31. PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING TRAINING COURSES
31.1. Planning of training
31.2. Periodisation
31.3. Programming of training

31.4. Types of planning and programming of training
31.5. Methods of planning and programming of training
31.6. A plan and programme modelling of training is conducted on five levels
32. LONG-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING: MULTI-ANNUAL CYCLE OF TRAINING
32.1. Long-term sports preparation periodisation
32.2. Long-term sports preparation modeling
32.3. Long-term sports preparation planning and programming
32.3.3. Specialised sports school
32.3.4. Final sports specialisation
33. MID-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (OLYMPIC CYCLE)
33.1. The significance of the Olympic Games
33.2. Organisational and methodical aspects of the Olympic cycle planning
34. SHORT-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (ANNUAL AND SEMI-ANNUAL CYCLES)
34.1. Annual and semi-annual macrocycle
35. CURRENT PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
35.1. Periods and phases characteristics
35.2. Preparatory period
35.3. Competitive period
35.3.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in competitive period phases
35.4. Transition period
35.4.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in the transition period phases
36. OPERATIVE PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (MICROCYCLE)
36.1. Planning and programming training in a microcycle
36.2. Microcycle classification
37. OPERATIVE PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (TRAINING DAY AND TRAINING UNIT)
37.1. Operative planning and programming of a day of training
37.2. Planning and programming a training unit
38. MODELLING OF PHYSICAL PREPARATION
38.1. Specificities of the competition activity in team sports

38.2. Factorial structure of readiness
38.3. Model characteristics of top athletes
38.4. Diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics
38.5. Comparison of individual and model preparedness characteristics
38.6. Methodology of physical preparation
38.7. Physical preparation plan and programme modelling in an annual training cycle
38.8. Physical preparation programme modelling in a competitive microcycle
38.9. Conclusion
39. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN SPORT
39.1. Research in the field of sport and the sports training
39.2. Structure of the scientific research in the field of sport and sports training
39.2.1. Research into sports and sports results
39.2.2. Research into characteristics of sports activities
39.2.3. Research into the athletes' dimensions
39.2.4. Research into the competition efficiency factors
39.2.5. Research into the effects of drill and teaching methods
39.2.6. Research into the effects of the programmed sports preparation process
39.3. Applicability of scientific research results in sport
TRAINING THEORY
1.1. Basic fields of training

theory:
Contemporary sport
Theoretical fundamentals of sports training
Training methods
Planning, programming and control of the
training process
1-1
1.2. Training theory contents:

SPORT
1st level
Definition
Organization
Values
Social significance
Strategic development
Sport in Croatia
Sport in the EU countries
2nd level
SPORTS TRAINING
TRAINING
TRAINING
PURPOSE
Definition
Fitness
Subject
Peak performance
Interdisciplinary
approach
Sports results
PRINCIPLES
Pedagogical and
psychological principles
Biological and medical
principles
Physical foundation
Scientific background
Transformational processes and effects
1-2
3rd level
ANALYSIS OF SPORTS ACTIVITY

Movement structures sports
techniques
Situation structures sports tactics
Structural analysis
Biomechanical analysis
Anatomical analysis
Functional / energetical analysis
Sports classification
4th level
FITNESS COMPONENTS
MORPHOLOGIC
CHARACTERISTICS
- CONSTITUTION
HEALTH
PHY
Physical
preparedness
Technical and tactical

(informational)
TE preparedness
Conative
characteristics
- personality
Cognitive abilities
cleverness
FSS= f(a1H + a2PHY + a3TE + a4P + a5C + a6A + a7E
1-3
5th level
DIAGNOSTICS AND ANALYSIS OF

AN ATHLETES FITNESS
selection of athletes (sample of subjects)

selection of characteristics (sample of dimensions)
selection of tests (sample of variables)
testing procedures (protocol)
editing of test results
processing of obtained data
results analysis
presentation of results to coaches and athletes
applying results in sports practice
control of training effects
6th level
SPORTS PREPARATION SYSTEM
Analysis and prognosis of sport

activities and sport results
Model values of sport activities and
athletes fitness
Selection directing to and choosing a sport
Training system
Competition system
Recovery methods
Coaches and other personnel
Sport organization
Material and financial conditions
Scientific research
1-4
7th level
GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATHLETES

LEVELS OF TRAINING
PROCESS (AGE
CATEGORIES)
LEVELS OF SPORT
PREPARATION
(TYPES OF PREPARATION)
childrens training
preliminary (multilateral)
training of young
athletes
basic
training of adult top

level athletes (peak
performance)
integrated (junior to senior

category)
training of athletes
through a prolonged
sports career
maintaining preparation
specific
final preparation for maximum

sport achievements
8th level
TRAINING PRINCIPLES
Adaptation
Training specificity
Training continuity
Interaction of training programmes
Load progressiveness
Undulating training
Cyclic training
1-5
9th level
TRAINING METHODOLOGY
Modelling and evaluation of training operators

Means
Loads
Methods
(exercises)
Organizational
forms
Methodical
forms
Training
locations
Training aids and

devices
Basic methodology of
tecnical and tactical
training
Methodology of integrative preparation of athletes
Basic methodology of
physical conditioning
10th level
TRAINING PLANNING AND

PROGRAMMING
TRAINING PLANNING
TRAINING PROGRAMMING
Goals, tasks, periodization

and resources
Selection, distribution,
organization and application of
training operators
Sport preparation cycles
Sports
career
Olympic
cycle
Mezocycle
Annual cycle
Microcycle
EVALUATION OF TRAINING EFFECTS
1-6
One training
unit
1.3. Training theory definition

Scientific-educational discipline in which the
organization and function of a sport
system is studied, as well as
kinesiological, anthropological,
methodological and methodical
principles of planning, programming
and control of the process of training,
competition and recovery in different cycles
of sport preparation.
Analysis of results in the long jump

9.00
X X
X
X
X X
8.50
X
4
8.00
X
X
7.50
X
X
7.00
2
6.50
6.00
X
X
1948
1896
1868 80
92
16
28
40
1-7
1968
52
64
76
1996
88
2000
Diagnostics of individual characteristics of

handball players (Milanovi et al., 2004)
Variables
Player X (back)
Player Y (wing)
1. Height
cm
192,8
184,5
2. Weight
kg
89,0
83,6
3. Shoulder wideness
cm
43,0
44,5
4. Arm wideness
cm
200,0
183,5
5. Hand wideness
cm
25,4
24
6. Ball throw 800 gr.
38,07
32,53
7. Horizontal jump
cm
259,67
269,33
8. Vertical jump both legs
cm
62,33
68,33
9. Vertical jump unilateral
cm
62,33
73
10. Lateral stepping
7,22
6,35
11. Triangle movement
6,17
5,82
12. Abdominal crunches
26,33
36,33
13. Bench-press
kg
85
85
14. Shuttle run
30,45
29,05
15. 30m sprint
4,85
4,51
Basic statistical parameters of motor

characteristics of handball players (Milanovi et al., 1997)
Motor abilities
AS
SD
MIN
MAX
1. MAGKUS
6,92
0,45
6,25
8.25
2. MBKPOP
12,66
1,49
9,79
14.40
3. MFPTAP
33,07
3,38
28,00
38.00
4. MFLPRR
65,64
13,94
38.00
84.00
5. MFABP
77,71
10,60
60.00
95.00
6. MRCTRB
32,07
4,38
21.00
38.00
7. MBF30V
4,19
1,77
3.95
4.50
8. SBFV30
4,35
1,70
4.12
4.73
9. MFEBMR
28,64
1,95
26.00
33.00
10. MFESVM
67,78
5,53
57.00
77.00
1-8
Example of maximum strength training

1. Training purpose:
Development of maximum strength
2. Athletes:
Adult athletes in preparatory and competition period
3. Training methods:
Repetition method maximum interval training
4. Loads:
4.1. Intensity:
80-90-100% (1RM), 60% warm-up
4.2. Volume:
Number of repetitions (R): 5-3-1

Number of sets (S): 2-4 sets at each load
Number of sets (S): 6-12 per exercises
4.3. Rest:
2-4 minutes (sets), 3-5 (load)
4.4. Tempo
Load appropriate
4.5. Activity during rest Stretching and relaxation

5. Exercises
Basic and specific exercises with weights
Structure of microcycle in second part of

preparatory period (Grosser et al., 1986)
100%
Load level
IV
80%
Total load
III
Intensity
60%
Volume
II
40%
I
M
T
1T
2T
SpF TeTa
SpB SBF
SPI
W
1T
AeI
akO
F
Su
Th
Sa
2T 2T
1T
1T
sBKK SpF sBKK akO
Te SpB BI
SpB SPI aBF
SpF specific strength, SpB specific speed, BF speed power, SPI specific
endurance, AeI aerobic endurance, akO active rest, BKK speed coordination,
B - speed, Te technical training, BI speed endurance
1-9
1.4. Training theory subjects

The first subject of training theory is studying the
sport system with respect to historical, cultural,
economical and political aspects of structure and
activities at state, regional and local level.
The second subject of training theory is studying
the transformational processes that enable
the functioning of an integral system: the athlete,
the sport activity and the sport environment in the
sport preparation process.
Thanks to sport science research, we understand

the psycho-physical reactions of an athlete and the
training adaptation better than 10 or 20 years ago.
It is our constant obligation and challenge to
analyze the current principles of training theory
and adjust them to the needs of contemporary
sport and new technologies.
1 - 10
Today, it is possible to
develop certain models
of training (for different
sports and athletes of
different ages and
quality) that are based
on the newest scientific
information concerning
means, loads and
methods of sport
preparation.
1.5. Training theory tasks:

Training theory ascertains the principles by which
it is possible to identify and analyze:
a) Different sport systems in Croatia and
abroad
b) Resources on which the position and
development of sport at local, regional and
global level depend
c) External characteristics of sport activities
(structural, biomechanical, functional and motor
characteristics)
d) Internal characteristics of athletes (basic,
specific and situational abilities and knowledge that
affect its success - the success equation in sports)
1 - 11
e) Diagnostic procedures and test results in

the function of the selection of athletes and
their successful training
f) Selection procedure for directing to
different sports and choosing sports
branches (disciplines)
g) Sports training as a transformation
process aimed at a full development of
fitness components and top level results
h) Peak performance as a state of an athletes

fitness that allows him/her to achieve top
results in major competitions
i)
Methodology procedures directed to the

full development of fitness components and
athletic performance (strength and
conditioning and technical-tactical training)
j) Models of plans and training programmes

according to the goals, fitness level,
competition calendar and conditions for the
implementation of sports training.
1 - 12
Lesson 2:
SPORT (current issues of

sport in Croatia and abroad)
After attending the class and mastering this

lesson students will be able to:
Define sport as an occupation
Discuss contemporary sports
characteristics
Define the characteristics of a
professional or selective sport and mass
sport or sport for all
Explain the special status of sport in
society
Discuss the health benefits of sport
2-1
2.1. Definition of sport

The law on sport in Croatia defines a
sport as an activity that enables
children, youth and adults to meet the
needs for movement and play, develop
qualities, skills and motor knowledge,
sports and creative expression,
preservation and promotion of health
and sports achievements at all levels
of competition.
Sport by definition can be:

Top level
Elite
Selective
Quality
Sport for all

Mass
Non-selective
Questionable quality
Sport by definition can be:

Professional
Olympic
In sport clubs
Sport of healthy
persons
Amateur
Non-olympic
In schools/high schools
Sport of persons with
disabilities
2-2
Quality level
TOP LEVEL
SELECTIVE
Types of sport
Professional
MASS
NON-SELECTIVE
SPORT
++
Amateur
++
In sport clubs
++
In schools
+*
++
Recreational
SPORT FOR ALL
++
SPORT OF PERSONS WITH

DISABILITIES
++
MILITARY SPORT (CISM)
++
* Most succesfull in USA
2.2. Sports Features

1. Sport with a suitable system of training and
competition gives children opportunities to
meet a large number of biological motives and
psychogenic needs, especially gifted children
have the opportunity to confirm their creative
potential through sport.
2. Sport and sport training must be realized as the
union of effective educational influences in the
shaping of a 'healthy' personality.
2-3
3. Sport is full of events that enables (top)

athletes to experience success, selfactualization through their own activity and
effort. In that way, an athlete experiences joy
and enjoys training and competition.
4. Sport is an area of interest of the broad layers
of society.
5. Sport is very encouraging for different forms

of communication
6. Sport and sports training should be a child's
wish, not pressure from parents or coaches.
7. Sports activities should not harm the school or
professional education.
8. It is useful to orient young athletes to sports
models
9. Athletes are true idols of young people on all
continents.
10. Sporting achievements can not be achieved
without scientific research carried out by the
best experts, interdisciplinary.
2-4
2.3. Why does a special social

status belongs to sport?
1. Sporting activity allows each individual to
meet primary human needs: the basic
biological need for movement and play, the
need for safety, order, belonging and love,
esteem and self-actualization.
2. Sport and sport activities significantly affect
the desirable psychosomatic development of
children and young people, they improve
and maintain health.
3. Sport activities raise the quality of life - it is

the foundation of mental and physical health
and well-being.
4. Engaging in sports is an important factor in
preventing various types of addictions.
Members of sports teams can be an important
support to young athletes. Besides the family, an
athlete still has a protective layer that defends
him/her against negative environmental
influences.
2-5
5. Sport and exercise enhance ones abilities

for coping with stress and trauma.
6. In addition to affirming an individual, sport
can promote the state, nation, region or
local environment.
7. Sport is extremely encouraging for
interaction and communication, regardless
of educational, generational, gender or
other status - and thus highly affects the
current social processes and forms of social
awareness.
Medal and other results at the Olympic

Games in Athens, 2004.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Total
state
USA
CHN
RUS
AUS
JPN
GER
FRA
ITA
KOR
GBR
CUB
UKR
HUN
ROM
GRE
NOR
NED
BRA
SWE
ESP
G
35
32
27
17
16
14
11
10
9
9
9
9
8
8
6
5
4
4
4
3
S
39
17
27
16
9
16
9
11
12
9
7
5
6
5
6
9
3
1
11
B
29
14
38
16
12
18
13
11
9
12
11
9
3
6
4
1
9
3
2
5
4.
24
16
19
20
6
12
9
4
3
10
4
7
8
5
4
2
4
5
8
7
Results
5.
6.
21 17
8
18
18 11
8
16
10
8
22 23
19 12
12
4
8
5
13 10
4
1
16
9
8
6
7
4
11
7
1
1
9
6
6
1
2
2
14
8
7.
16
17
10
11
7
23
15
11
16
16
3
12
5
8
8
2
2
4
3
13
2-6
8.
15
10
13
12
9
13
9
15
8
8
7
10
4
5
14
1
3
4
5
10
9.
20
17
27
16
8
13
11
9
6
11
5
13
1
4
11
3
6
7
6
7
10.
13
10
10
8
9
8
14
16
5
7
3
14
6
2
5
3
4
4
9
1-3
103
63
92
49
37
48
33
32
30
30
27
23
17
19
16
6
22
10
7
19
Sum of results
4-10
1-10
126
229
96
159
108
200
91
140
57
94
114
162
89
122
71
103
51
81
75
105
27
54
81
104
38
55
35
54
60
76
10
16
33
55
31
41
30
37
68
87
Medals won by Croatian

national selections in sports
games at the European and
World championships and
Olympic games
HANDBALL
10
BASKETBALL
WATERPOLO
FOOTBALL
VOLLEYBALL (F)
25
2.4. Sport participation and

health
Longitudinal study (Lee and
Paffenbarger, 1994) on
sporting activities, social
habits and health of 36,500
men who joined Harvard
University between the
years 1916 and 1950, which
resulted in the knowledge of
the causes of illness and
death.
2-7
Students who spent more than 2000 kcal

per week in sporting activities, were
compared to the less active students and
had a quarter lower likelihood that they
would suffer from cardiovascular disease
that could cause death.
"The defensive influence" of early
sport participation does not count if
one does not continue to lead a
physically active life.
Students who sit a lot, but

choose an active lifestyle,
have a much lower
probability of morbidity and
mortality from
cardiovascular disease than
former student-athletes
who have abandoned or
reduced physical activity in
middle age.
Most at risk were
students - athletes who
had suddenly stopped
any physical activity.
2-8
It is important
that athletes
never forget
that!
Society focused on the future development

is aware of the sport potential and provides
the conditions for engaging in sports
activities for its members.
Special conditions for the highest sports
achievements society provides for talented
and positively selected young athletes.
2-9
Lesson 3:
Sport in European
countries

Distinguish between the non-governmental
and the governmental vertical of sport
organisation
Define and describe non-governmental
organisations in European sport
Discuss physical education in European
countries
Describe examples of the professional sport
structure and operation in some European
countries
3-1
3.1. Characteristics of sport in the

European Union
Sport is a major social movement in Europe.
Sport is very important as an element that
brings people and nations together.
Interest and willingness to establish cooperation
between countries is often stronger in sports
than in many other spheres of life.
This means that the sport can be often ahead of
politics in the European integration process.
As a result, a complex system of European
sports organizations was created.
They represent european sport in institutional

frames.
Many countries have adopted or rebuilt legislation
in sport by accepting the European Sports
Charter.
There is a general increase in attention to
different groups in society: people with
disabilities, the elite and professional athletes,
foreign citizens, the elderly, the armed forces,
women and workers (Sport in the workplace or
supported by the company).
Attention is directed towards sustainable
development in sport (Finland, Great Britain,
Hungary, the Czech Republic, Switzerland,
Luxembourg, Portugal).
3-2
4 out of 10 Europeans exercise at least once

a week
the numbers are rising from year to year
in the Scandinavian countries, most citizens
exercise
Men go to training programmes more than
women 41%: 35%
There are different interests in sport by age:
15-24 =60%; 25-39 = 41%; 40-54 = 34%;
55 and more = 28%.
More educated citizens are more likely to do
sports (completion of schooling to age 15 - 20%
with 16-19 years-32% 20 years and more = 50%)
Typically, the modern lifestyle (lack of time) is a
reason not to exercise, rather than the cost of
equipment, facility or exercise programme.
3.1.1. NGOs in European sport

National sports
federation
National sports
federations provide a
basis for the European
sports system,
representing about
700,000 sports clubs
and approximately 70
million members.
National Sports
Confederation
In almost all European
countries in sport,
there is one umbrella
sports organization: a
community of sports
federations or a
National Olympic
Committee
3-3
European sports
federations
Federations of certain
types of sports are
organized into
European federations
at the level of the
community of the
European states. Some
of these federations
(eg UEFA - Union of
European Football
Associations) play a
major role in the
politics of European
sport.
NOC's (NOC - National

Olympic Committees)
National Olympic
Committees are 1)
representatives of the
Olympic Movement in
their country (eg. NOK,
Germany) or 2) act as a
national umbrella sports
organization (eg. CONI,
Italy)
EOC (European Olympic

Committees)
The European Olympic Committee
is an umbrella organization of the
national Olympic committees in
Europe. Formerly called AENOC
(Association of European National
Olympic Committees) and was
founded in Versailles, France in
the year 1997.
At this point, the EOC has 48
member organizations.
3-4
3.1.2. Association of Sports Sciences

in Europe
ENSSEE (European Network of Sport
Sciences, Education and Employment)
The European Network of Sport
Sciences was founded under the
name ENSSHE (European Network
of Sport Sciences in Higher
Education) that was changed to
ENSSEE in 2001.
It was the first step in 1989 towards
the europeanization of sports
science.
The primary aims of the network which currently

numbers 200 institutes from 30 countries are:
To nourish a comprehensive European
cooperation
to promote mobility and increase the number
of exchange programmes between
educational institutions, persons in
employment and students
3-5
ECSS (European College of

Sport Science)
ECSS, which was founded in 1995, is another
organization that strives to promote sports
science in Europe.
Unlike ENSSEE it is not an association of institutes
and organizations of sports science, but
associations of sports scientists in Europe.
To integrate sport science in Europe, ECSS brings
together and publishes new scientific information
from various fields of sports science.
3.2. Top level sport in

European countries
3.2.1. Top level sport in Slovenia
Under the law of sport in Slovenia, top level sport is
specifically classified as a subject of public
interest, which the state is responsible to
maintain.
Top athletes have established a special system of
health insurance.
The State has provided conditions of
employment for the top 200 athletes in the
state administration.
3-6
Direct government support for sport, which is

determined by the national sports programme
divides roughly 8% of public funds for the top
level sport.
The fund of the State lottery gives 16-20%
for top level sport activities.
Particular attention in Slovenia is placed
on supporting talented children and
young athletes.
3.2.2. Top level sport in Austria

With little more than 8 million people, Austria is
one of the smallest EU member states.
114 medals won at World Championships
and 101 medal at the European
championships by the athletes of various
sports federations and the federation of sport
for people with disabilities.
In 2000 a total of 1.2 million euros was
allocated to professional sports, and the
allocation of resources was based on the
principle of promoting competitive sport.
3-7
3.2.3. Top level sport in France

The organization of top sport in France is
governed by different sport laws.
The government's responsibility is to
facilitate the necessary funds on the one
hand, and ensuring social security for the
athletes on the other.
To meet the requirements for continuing
support athletes train in different groups
(elite, seniors, juniors, perspective).
Deployment in one of these categories is based
on specific national performance criteria.
During their sporting careers, top athletes

(sportifs de haut niveau) receive
compensation, aid:
On the one hand, there are special sports boarding
schools offered for schooling and/or university
education or vocational education.
On the other hand, athletes are provided with
assistance to facilitate their reintegration into the
sport field of work after their athletic career.
With INSEP there are top sports institutions at the
regional level.
Since France has a unique school system, talent
identification starts in elementary school.
Well-organized school sports association conducts
the selection of potential athletes
3-8
3.2.4. Top level sport in the United

Kingdom
Support for top sport in the UK comes in the
form of a World Class programme and the
Sport Institute of the UK.
The programme ''World Class'' has activities at
three levels: World Class Performance, World
Class Potential, World Class Start.
The first level is strictly related to athletes with
the potential to win a medal at the Olympic or
Paralympic Games.
The Sports Institute of Great Britain consists

of a network of centers located throughout
the UK and a central office based in London.
The aim of the institute is to provide the best
male and female athletes the best conditions
they need for competition and winning at top
level.
The central office in London provides
professional knowledge in sport science,
sport training, sports medicine, planning
of competitions and informational
technology. It is concerned with the
education of coaches and other professional
personnel in different sports.
3-9
3.2.5. Top level sport in Finland

1906: first participated in the Olympics
1600 top level athletes, 35 internationally
famous athletes (cross-country running, javelin,
marathon, ski jumping, ice hockey, motor racing,
orienteering, swimming, aerobics)
Now enters as one of the top 10 countries in
the winter and summer Olympics
21% of the population are members of

sports clubs in more than 60 sports
(football, skiing, ice hockey, swimming,
athletics, skating, cycling, football,
gymnastics, hiking)
50% of children exercise in sports clubs
50% male and 25% of women attend
sports events
90% of the population follows sporting events
via television, 58% through the press
Top level sport is considered a good example to
young people
3 - 10
Support networks to
athletes and coaches:
National coaching centers,
research institutions of
Sports Medicine, Research
Institute for Olympic
Sports, Faculty of Sport and
Medical Sciences, Finland
sports federations and the
Ministry of Education in
collaboration with the SOK
10% (550,000)
participates at
competitions
Sports Schools: 12 sport high schools (1400

young athletes in 35 sports), professional
schools for athletes (14 professional institutions
in the form of sports classes), the Finnish
Defence Forces School (160 persons per year
do military service in the sports school)
Sport buildings and fields (Venues):
28,000 (one for every 180 people)
Finnish sports organizations constitutes
114 organizations from all areas of sports
(advocating competitive and recreational sport,
the promotion of cooperation between member
states)
3 - 11
Volunteering in sport
800,000 volunteers work in sports
organizations, whose work is estimated at
more than $ 800 million annually
A country with a high GDP (more than 30,000
$ PC) allows citizens a better fulfillment of
their free time and often they do voluntary
work
Sports Centers
In 1909 was founded the first Finnish Institute
of Sport
Today: there are 11 national and 3 regional
centers for physical education.
Centers for preparation of elite athletes:

Kurtane Sport Institute (track and field,
wrestling, shooting, rhythmic gymnastics),
Finnish Institute of Sport (hockey,
basketball, athletics, tennis, golf, squash),
Vuokati Institute of Sport (skiing, ski
jumping, Nordic combined, biathlon),
Sports Center Pujalahti (badminton,
wrestling, athletics)
3 - 12
Scientific research in sport

More than 60 years have been spent on research
The headquarters are at the Faculty of Sport and
Health at the University of Jyvskyl:
Department of Physical Education (teaching
physical culture, training, motor skills, motivation)
Department of Social Sciences in Sport (sports and
social phenomenon of social behavior)
Department of Biology and physical activity
(structure, operation, control and adjusting the
body to move in terms of training),
Department of Medicine (functional ability, health
and habits of the elderly)
3 - 13
Lesson 4:
Organizational, material
and financial resources in
sport and sport training

Understand factors affecting the status
and development of sport
Discuss about coaches and other experts
in sport
Describe basic strategic tasks for
upgrading the quality of expertise in sport
Discuss on organization of sport, sports
facilities and equipment and sport funding
4-1
Recent sports issues that every country is

dealing with, and therefore so is Croatia, are
directly connected to people, organizational
material and financial resources.
Therefore, it is necessary to determine the
standards and criteria for the optimal status of
sport, and to prioritize its aspects which
are to be developed in order to achieve
the main goals.
Developmental strategy and sports programme
basics must define its actual status, and
interventions for the enrichment of
conditions in which the sports activity is
carried out
Factors affecting the status and

development of sport
1) Government authorities and society in
general, take the stand that sport is a
profession and include people working
in sport, especially physical
education/kinesiology teachers, sports
coaches and other sports
professionals/experts as well as athletes.
2) Organizational and programme
framework in the field of top level sport and
quality sport.
4-2
3) Basic material,
financial i spatial
conditions for sports
programmes
functioning.
4) Entrepreneurial
programmes and
marketing that
significantly affect the
financial status of
sport.
5) The number and professional expertise of

personnel functioning in sport (PE/kinesiology
teachers, sports coaches and other personnel
from related fields)
6) Quality of the educational system in qualifying
and specialization for sports needs
7) Level of sports results
compared with
international competition
8) Scientific basis of sport,
that is, the application of
scientific research results
in the selection and
preparation of athletes (of
different ages and quality
levels).
4-3
4.2. Coaches and other experts

in sport
Coaching education for higher qualifications
in Croatia, is achieved via two professional
degrees (undergraduate), two
university degrees (graduate) and via
the specialized postgraduate degree for
the highest qualifications in sport.
Coaches in Croatia are educated via courses
for coaches, teachers and instructors.
Educational system of sports experts in the

Republic of Croatia (professional degree)
2 year
SPECIALIST GRADUATE
SPECIJALISTIKI
DIPLOMSKI
PROFESSIONAL
STRUNI
STUDIJ STUDIES
(4 sem.)
(Professional (Vii
bachelor
of specijalista)
sport a specialist coach)
trener
Coach in
different sports
Coach in
Track and
recreation Coach in
field
physical
Swimming
conditioning
Archery
Wrestling
Coach in
Judo
fitness
Handball
Coach /
Basketball
instructor
Soccer
in police,
UNDERGRADUATE
Volleyball
army
Tennis
PROFESSIONAL STUDIES
etc.
(Professional bachelor of sport a coach)

UNIVERSITY
STUDIES
PROFESSIONAL STUDIES
4-4
3 years
(6 sem.)
Basic strategic tasks for upgrading

the quality of expertise in sport are:
A continuous selection of potential sports
coaches candidates,
eduaction of coaches and other experts based
on recent discoveries and knowledge which is
supposed to improve their coaching
efficiency/successes,
providing professional qualifications for
coaches through seminars, conventions and
other national and international conferences.
other than coaches, experts of

different profiles must be
involved in the training
process
Their expertise and
responsibilities should be
strategically defined and
distributed
A team of experts, led by a
sports coach, in contemporary
Croatian sport should be a
warranty for achieving the
highest sports results.
4-5
4.3. Organization of sport

In order for a sport system to operate
efficiently, the tasks and interrelations
between key institutions in the
organizational scheme which is made up of the
Croatian Olympic Committee, Ministry of
Science, education and sport and the
Croatian Faculties of Kinesiology must be
defined.
National and regional sport research and
development centres should be added to that
scheme, especially the future Croatian Sport
Institute.
Relations between governmental and nongovernmental organization of Croatian sport

with scientific, educational and research
institutions
S
C
H
O
O
L
S
P
O
R
T
Croatian Olympic
Committee
National sports
federations
Ministry of Science,
Education and Sport of
the RC
District offices for
education, science,
culture and sport
Municipal offices for

education, science,
culture and sport
Scientific and
educational and
research
institutions
(Faculty of
Kinesiology,
Research
Centres)
Unions of the district

sports federations
Municipal sports
federations (Zagreb
Sports Federation, e.g.
Zagreb Athletic Federation,
Athletic clubs)
Other Governmental Ministries of the Republic of Croatia

Public, media, sponsors, social institutions
4-6
T
O
P
L
E
V
E
L
S
P
O
R
T
4.4. Sports facilities and

equipment
Sports facilities must comply with standard sizes,
qualities and other demands. The lack of sports
halls, swimming pools and playing fields in Croatia
is evident. It is necessary to review the current
facilities infrastructure and draw attention to the
need for building new ones.
It is very important to implement the required
equipment for carrying out the training process.
Contemporary apparatus, devices and equipment
facilitate the quality of training.
It is also necessary to ensure considerable

financial means for the supply of modern
diagnostic and training equipment for top
level athletes.
Sports centers must be equipped with
diagnostic apparatus that enable an
objective assessment of athletes
preparation/fitness and a continuous control of
performance.
4-7
4.5. Sport funding

By sport development activities are determined
Sport funding/financing is the most
important resource in all sport systems
It is necessary to additionally motivate investors
through tax relief or significant benefits of the
invested money. It is also necessary to design
different enterpreneurial programmes and
sports marketing.
The Republic of Croatia, local and territorial

(regional) governments and the City of
Zagreb shall determine the public purpose
of sport and, for their implementation,
provide funds from their budgets in
accordance with the law on sport.
In determining the public needs it is started
from the needs and opportunities of
society and in the modern world of
sports achievements.
The minister responsible for sport, by law
sets the minimum standards for the
funding of sport in Croatia.
4-8
4.5.1. Taxes
Countries in the transitional stage of
development have not provided tax relief in the
same way for sports organizations as other
European countries have.
Croatia has not yet provided an affordable way to
solve the question of tax relief for investment in
high-performance athletes. In this sense, a top
sport in Croatia has a large reserve.
4.5.2. Sponsorships
Sponsorships are usually included in the toplevel and popular sport.
It is often difficult to achieve an
implementation of the financial
structure recommended by the European
Charter, which does not encourage public and
private financial support for sport.
4-9
Lesson 5:
Science, theory and practice

of sport and sports training

Explain the importance of scientific research
in sport
Talk about the theoretical work area in sport
Explain the correlation between the coach
and an athlete
Present and explain fitness profiles of toplevel athletes
Explain the correlation between training
programme and fitness level
5-1
5.1. Scientific research area

Scientific research
System
kinesiology
Biomechanics
Pedagogy
Didactics
IT
Mathematics
What enables a top

level performance in
sport?
What are the factors
enabling a successful
selection of future top
level athletes?
Sport kinesiology
What are the reasons for

the great results of
Croatian athletes?
(Research in sport)
Sports
physiology
Sports
medicine
Sports
psychology
Sports
sociology
How can one create and

evaluate training,
competition and the
recovery process?
A scientific work/paper is an original

contribution to the knowledge of something
general or specific and is oriented towards
discovering new universal laws or
methods.
In contemporary sport the training process
has become so complex and therefore
impossible to manage without the
implementation of scientific information.
Scientists and their research may
contribute greatly to sport and sports
preparation enhancement.
5-2
Constant cooperation between researchers

and coaches, as well as keeping up with the new
information in professional papers and periodicals,
and attending conferences and professional
seminars definitely influences the improvement of
the coaches professional work level.
Nowadays, the highest sports results are achieved

by extremely talented athletes due to a
programmed training process based on
scientific knowledge, Gambetta (1989)
The relationship between sport and science,
that was founded a long time ago, has reached its
full potential nowadays.
5.2. Theoretical work area

Training theory scientific and teaching discipline
Training theory (integration of scientific research
results)
Theoretical basics
Methodics
Programming and
control
Sports performance
5-3
Sports training
Sports preparation
Sport
Theory, in general, denotes a system of

knowledge which is aimed at the explanation
of successful functioning of a certain
expertise.
Accordingly, the Training theory systematically
explains the functioning of sport and
sports training along with all its components.
The training theory contains the broadest
generalizations by which the facts and laws
of training based on sports practice or
scientific research are explained.
5.3. Practical work area

5.3.1. Correlation between the coach and an
athlete
Fitness level
(effects)
Model
Athlete
sports team
Athlete X
Coach expert team
Training plan and programme
(operators)
5-4
Disrupting
variables
A very important part of the previous figure

represents the correlation between the
model and an athlete X
The coach who designed the training

programme must be informed about the
fitness of a top level athlete (the model),
the fitness characteristics and the fitness
characteristics of an athlete that is being
trained (an athlete X)
Those characteristics are, in fact, the test
results obtained by evaluating any athletes
abilities and skills.
Model characteristics/values of physical

fitness in top level football/soccer players
(Vazny, 1978)
ANTROPOLOGICAL
VARIABLES
MODEL VALUES
1. Body height (cm)
178.0
2. Body weight (kg)
74.0
3. 30 m run FLYING (s)
3.30
4. 1030m run p15 (s)
40.0
5. Standing high jump (cm)
65.0
6. Running high jump (cm)
75.0
7. Pull ups (repetitions)
10.0
8. Deep squat (kg)
111.0 kg (150% BW)
9. Slalom run (s)
8.60
10. Slalom run with a ball (s)
10.10
11. Oxygen uptake VO2

(ml/kg/min)
68.00
12. Cognitive test 1
6.00
70% (+)
5-5
Test results of an X player in the variables to

assess their fitness (Vazny, 1978)
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
VARIABLES
FOOTBALL PLAYER Xs
TEST RESULT
1. Body height (cm)
176.3
2. Body weight (kg)
72.0
3.48
4. 1030m run p15 (s)
43.2
5. Standing high jump (cm)
56.7
6. Running high jump (cm)
62.6
7.0
8. Deep squat (kg)
96.4 kg (134% body weight)
9. Slalom run (s)
8.80
10. Slalom run with a ball (s)
10.71
11. Oxygen uptake VO2

(ml/kg/min)
62.78
4.40
45% (+)
Football players (X) test results and model values

comparison
(Milanovi, 2005, according to Vazny, 1978)
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
VARIABLES
MODEL
VALUES
FOOTBALL
PLAYER Xs
TEST
RESULT
1. Body height (cm)
178.0
176.3
2. Body weight (kg)
74.0
72.0
3.30
3.48
4. 1030m run p15 (s)
40.0
43.2
5. Standing high jump

(cm)
65.0
56.7
50
6. From a moving high

jump (cm)
75.0
62.6
40
Points
70
60
10.0
7.0
30
111.0 kg
(150% BW)
96.4 kg
(134% BW)
20
8.60
8.80
10. Slalom run with a

ball (s)
10.10
10.71
11. Oxygen uptake

VO2 (ml/kg/min)
68.00
8. Deep squat (kg)

9. Slalom run (s)
6.00
4.40
70% (+)
45% (+)
10
11
12
13
Characteristics and
abilities
62.78
5-6
Top level Croatian basketball players results in

tests for assessment of basic and specific motor
abilities
(according to Milanovi et al., 1989)
Guards
Measuring instruments - tests
Demanded
result
Player 1
Player 2
1. Standing high jump (jumping explosive power)
82 cm
82 cm
64 cm
2. Standing triple jump (jumping explosive power)
8,50 m
8.60 m
7.80 m
3. Shuttle run (speed endurance)
25,5 s
25,3 s
27,04 s
4. Chest ball-throw (throwing explosiv power)
18 m
18,5 m
16,30 m
5. Standing 20-m sprint (strating explosive power)
2,85 s
2,86 s
3,03 s
6. Relative oxygen uptake (aerobic capacity)
65
ml/kg/min
70
ml/kg/min
74
ml/kg/min
7. Sit ups (abdominal musculature strength)
40
42
36
Top level basketball players fitness

profile (T.K.)
0 = group of top level basketball players average results (0 to 1
= model values)
Z-values
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
TRB
20VS
OSMB
TROJ
4*5B
VUK
SAR2
OSMS
4*5S
SPR
SMB
AEC
SAR1
TROS
BLG
5-7
Tests
Top level basketball players fitness

profile (A.K.)
0 = group of top level basketball players average results (0 to
1 = model values)
Z-values
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
TRB
20VS
OSMB
TROJ
4*5B
VUK
SAR2
OSMS
4*5S
SPR
SMB
AEC
SAR1
TROS
BLG
Tests
5.4. Correlation between the training

programme and fitness level
Fitness level
(effects)
Model
Athlete
sports team
Athlete X
Coach expert team
Training plan and programme

(operators)
5-8
Disrupting
variables
In sports training practice there is a

continuous correlation between the training
plan and the programme - and the training
work and the athletes fitness
The training plan and programme change
the athletes fitness level into the desired
direction according to the set goals of a
certain sports preparation cycle.
Information regarding the athletes fitness
level, during any part of the training process,
represents a basic resource of information
for defining the contents, loads and training
methods.
Training operators, implemented in the

training programmes, represent the stimuli
that produce quantitative and qualitative
fitness level changes in athletes.
The application of certain training operators
results in fitness level changes, i.e. training
effects. Those effects confirm the
correctness and weaknesses of any prevously
applied training programme, competition
system and recovery methods during a
certain sports preparation cycle.
5-9
Correlation between training programmes and

training effects
TRAINING
PROGRAMME
Training
stimulus
Training
session
A
T
H
L
E
T
E
TRAINING
EFFECTS
Functional
reaction
Acute
effects
Microcycle
Prolonged
effects
Mesocycle phase
Cummulative
effects
Mesocycle period
Macrocycle
C
O
A
C
H
5 - 10
Peak
performance
Fitness
(trainability)
Lesson 6:
Sports training
(sports preparation)

Define the relation between sports
training and sports preparation
Define sports training
Analyse the essence of sports training
Define and describe sports training
objectives
Explain the cybernetic approach in
sports training
Define the control and the regulation of
the sports training process
6-1
6.1. Sports training sports

preparation
Training trahere (lat.)
pull, work; denotes each form of exercise,
learning and preparation
Sports training represents a pedagogical and

biological process oriented at the acquisition of
physical abilities, knowledge, skills and habits
(routines).
Sports training is a system comprised of all
procedures aimed at sports perfomance
enhancement.
6.2. Sports training definitions:

Sports training, in general, represents a longterm
process of athletic preparation for the greatest and
highest sports achievements. Specifically, it is physical,
technical, tactical, intellectual, psychical and other forms
of athletic preparation, it is achieved by practice
and activity of the highest possible physicial load on
organs and organic systems.
Therefore, in athletic circles we can often hear the
following slogan:
WITH THE CESSATION OF HEAVY PHYSICAL AND
MENTAL WORK, STARTS THE SPORTS TRAINING.
6-2
D. Harre (1982) has defined sports training as an
organized and longterm process of sports

performance enhancement that is based on
pedagogical, biological, psychological, sociological,
medical, biomechanical and methodical principles.
With a planned approach and systematic work it
affects the development of such abilities, skills and
characteristics which enable the highest sports
achievements at the most important competitions.
C. Vittori (1990) defined sport training as a

complex, pedagogical process which is manifested
in organized and scientifically based exercise - work
that is repeated with a specific load in order to
ensure the activation of the physioogical processes of
supercompensation and adaptation in the human
organism.
Consequently, a development of athletes physical,
technical and tactical capacities is achieved. These
capacities are manifested in an improvement and
stabilization of sports performance results.
6-3
Different loads cause different reactions of the

athletes organism
MA
SMA
ME
MI
Load:
MA
maximal
SMA
submaximal
ME
medium
MI
minimum
6.3. The essence of sports training

Ensues from all definitions and theoretical approaches:
1)Causes adaptational changes

Adaptation is a characteristic of every living
organism. An athletes condition is, thereby
influenced by training stimuli.
It actually represents the changes specific
to the different demands of each sport.
6-4
2) It represents a form of work:

physical and mental
There is always a relation between physical
and mental engagement in sports training.
More complexed motor tasks increase an
athletes mental abilities activation.
3) It is systematic and regular

Training should be continuous without
disruptions. Athletes should train on a
daily basis, changing only the volume and
methods of training. Any longer
disruptions in training might put the
sports development in jeopardy.
4) It is planned and programmed

A plan and a programme minimize all
coincidences. We must always be aware of the
place were at and what we want to accomplish
in order to determine the procedures which lead
to the achievement of the goals.
5) It is longterm and goal oriented

To plan perspectively a sports career. To secure
the full development of fitness (preparedness) in
each phase of a longterm sports preparation.
Premature forcing of sports talents never yields
the expected performance and
6-5
6) Repetitive
Training stimuli, training sessions and
training cycles are repetative. A stable and
automated performance is possible to
achieve only with a large number of
repetitions.
7) It is conducted by over-thethreshold loads maximal efforts
Training loads must be over-thethreshold. It is necessary to provoke very

large, but controlled physiological
reactions.
8) It is specific regarding the level of

sport fitness (preparedness)
Age, sex, health status specificity and an
athletes level must be taken into account. Every
sport is determined by a specific structure of
dimensions that influence the sports
performance and results.
6-6
9) It is oriented at maximizing motor

abilities, skills and performance
achievements necessary to
accomplish sports results.
Sport results at competitions represent an
indicator of an athletes training status,
training programme and recovery methods
quality.
6.4. Sports training tasks:

1) Formation and enhancement of athletes
specific skills and abilities for performing
movement structures which make the SPORTS
TECHNIQUE
TECHNIQUE stands for
a biomechanically correct
and rational movement
structure performance.
6-7
2) Formation and enhancement of athletes

skills and abilities for the realization of
situational structures which makes SPORTS
TACTICS.
TACTICS represents optimal
movements modes
of one or more athletes in
situational training or competitive
conditions.
It is actually an efficient
situational problem solving
3) Improvement and stabilization of primary

and specific functional/energetic
capacities and motor abilities which
comprise the athletes STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING.
STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING

stands for an optimal state of the
athletesfunctional/energetic capacities
and motor abilities.
6-8
4) Development and maintenance of athletes

MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES. Each sport
demands specific anthropometric measures
and somatotypes.
5) To influence an ATHLETES PERSONALITY
development. It includes self-evaluation and auto
regulation, and also self-confidence and selfrespect.
6) Improving the level of mental, COGNITIVE
processes functioning which are specific for
different ways and levels of technical and tactical
behavior in sport.
7) Improving the ability of MICROSOCIAL

ADAPTATION. It is actually an adjustment to the
rules of conduct in a sports team and a quality
emotional and functional positioning of an
individual in a group.
8) Positive athletes'
ATTITUDES, INTERESTS,
SYSTEM OF VALUES and
MOTIVATIONAL
orientation.
6-9
9) Preserving and enhancing

athletes HEALTH. A sport in
which professional knowledge is
implemented, and which is led by
qualified coaches, preserves and
enhances athletes health. An
athlete cannot participate in
training and competition if a
medical team has determined a
health disability or danger of
deterioration in the health status.
10) Formation of INTEGRAL ACTION

EFFICIENCY, always with regard to an
interaction between each of the sports
success determinants.
For an athlete to be motivated and successful in training
and competition, he/she must be healthy and have optimally
developed physical abilities, morphological features and
motor skills of a certain sport.
While participating in sports activities, an athlete must
find himself/herself in situations in which he/she will achieve
success, and cognitively asses his/her abilities and features
so high that participation in a certain sport represents a
challenge even during the most difficult training periods and
competitions.
6 - 10
6.5. Cybernetic approach to sports

training
Cybernetics is a
science of management
and regulation of
interdependent processes
occurring in complex
systems (Wiener, 1948).
BRANCHES of cybernetics:
System theory
Information theory
Management and regulation theory
Communication theory
Games theory
Algorithms theory
Sports training is a manageable process. All
processes that can be managed may be simply
described by the cybernetic approach.
6 - 11
Management
Is a group of momentary actions or actions in time
by which a satisfying system functioning is trying
to be achieved. (Achievement reaching peak
performance during preparatory period)
100
80
60
1. Phase of entering peak 2. Phase of maintaining
3. Phase of temporary
performance
peak performance
loss of peak performance
Preparatory/control
competitions
Official competitions
Other competitions
(tournaments, meetings)
Preparatory period
Competition period
Transitional period
Mesocycles (phases)
Mesocycles
(competiotion seasons)
Mesocycles (phases)
Microcycles
Microcycles
Microcycles
Regulation
Is a group of momentary actions or actions in time by
which a satisfying system functioning is trying to be
achieved within demanded or given boundaries. (Peak
performance maintenance during a competition period)
100
80
60
1. Phase
of ulaska
entering
of maintaining 3. 3.
Phase
of temporary
1. Faza
u peak 2.
2.Phase
Faza odravanja
Faza
privremenog
performance
peak performance
loss ofsportske
peak performance
sportsku
formu
sportske
forme
gubitka
forme
Preparatory/control
Pripremno-kontrolna
competitions
natjecanja
Preparatory
period
Pripremni period
Mesocycles (phases)
Mezociklusi(etape)
Microcycles
Mikrociklusi
Official competitions
Slubena
natjecanja
Competitionperiod
period
Natjecateljski
Othernatjecanja
competitions
Ostala
(turniri, mitinzi)
(tournaments,
meetings)
Transitional
period
Prijelazni
period
Mesocycles (phases)
Mesocycles
Mezociklusi
(sezone
Mezociklusi(etape)
(competiotion
seasons)
natjecanja)
Microcycles
Mikrociklusi
6 - 12
Microcycles
Mikrociklusi
Cybernetics enables a simplified approach in

analyzing complex systems and processes, and
represents a special operational method.
Cybernetics in training theory brings
mathematics and statistics as operational
methods. Sports training science becomes an
exact, scientific and teaching discipline.
System approach
System: A group of elements with clearly
determined characteristics and interrelations
A system is a specification of relations
between input, condition and output
System condition is determined by output
variables
Change of input variables causes a change in
output variables
Input variables represent causes, and output
variables represent the consequences of the
system processes.
6 - 13
A simple cybernetic model of sports training

(modified according to Mrakovi, 1994)
disruptions
INPUT
I
ATHLETE
OUTPUT
O
Achieved condition
TRAINING
PLAN AND
PROGRAM
Coach
expert team
Analysis of training
effects
(management and
regulation)
Expected condition
Cybernetic model of information exchange

between coach and athlete
Training model
given by a coach
Disruptions
F
I
L
T
E
R
Athletes/teams
condition model
seen and understood
by a coach
Almost no
entropy.
Athlete
Sports team
Coach
Almost no
entropy.
Training model
understood by an
athlete - team
F
I
L
T
E
R
Disruptions
6 - 14
Athletes/teams
real condition
model = training
effects
Lesson 7:
Sports Training
A Short History

Describe the beginning of sport development
Explain the developmental stages of sport
and define the development indicators
Discuss the new technologies in sports
preparation
Define the implicit and the explicit phase of
sport development
Talk about the beginning of academic
research and the application of research
findings in sport
7-1
7.1. A short overview of sport

development in the world
Data on horse training were found on a clay
plate from the 14th century B.C. and data
on athletes training on a clay plate from the
7th century B.C.
Ancient Greece: Advanced physical activity in
the education of youth. Special attention
was given to the preparation for the Olympic
Games.
Sport in the Middle Ages

The cult of the spirit
prevails over the cult of
the body the influence
of medieval Christianity
Physical activity and sport
played one of the key
roles only in a knights
education - military
training
Knights tournaments
a central social event
7-2
Renaissance
Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606)
The Art of Gymnastics the book that
summarises all knowledge on sport in ancient
Greece - in the next three centuries it would have
a significant impact on the development of sport
in Europe
Age of Enlightenment
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Physical activity is an integral part of education
Swimming, jumping, running, throwing, and
games
Gymnastics systems
BEGINNING OF SYSTEMATIC PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY IN EUROPE - 19th century
(German, Swedish, French, Czech)
Gymnastics systems can be perceived as the

precursors of sport, which started to
develop rapidly in those countries
7-3
Since its beginning (19th century)

training was under the influence
of gymnastics and physical activity
systems from Germany, Sweden, the
Czech Republic and England.
In England, contours of modern sport
start to appear - the concept of
training is adapted - to exercise, to
train or to repeat mechanically an
exercise with the goal of performance
improvement - J. Walsh, 1856.
First research into the

correlation between physical
exercises and morphological
characteristics (Sargent, 1879)
Strength training prevails in the
conditioning of motor abilities basic training principles and
methods are defined (Blaikie,
1879; Anderson, 1883; E. Sandow
1894)
1888 - Legrange gives the definition of training:

Training refers to the activities whose
purpose is to prepare a man or an animal for
a certain type of work.
7-4
Modern sport
Developed in England in the
second half of the 19th
century
The Olympic Games

Pierre de Coubertin
(1863 1937)
1. The Olympics in Athens in

1896 played a key role in the
development and popularisation
of sport in Europe and the
world
Gradually,the first serious

analyses of sports training
are published, which
enrich the training
methodology (E.
Sandow 1897,
Murphy, 1913, B. Kotov
1916/1917)
After the second and the

third Olympics it became
clear that results can be
obtained only by the
employment of
multilateral and
balanced exercise
7-5
The American scientist M. Murphy publishes

"athletic preparation" and recommends that
preparatory training should last 8 to 10 weeks,
and that it should be based on specific and
"aiding/helping" exercises.
The Russian scientist B. Kotov (1916/1917)

clearly formulates the ideas on continuity and
different stages (periodisation) of the training
process he also distinguishes between three
periods: general training, basic training, and
specific training.
In Finland the interval training method is used

for the first time (L. Pikhala, 1930), which
gives excellent results in long-distance and
middle-distance running
The first serious articles on training are
published - V. Gorinevski Scientific foundations of
training, 1922; G. Birsin Training essence from
1925.
The rapid development of sport in the period

between the two World Wars is accompanied
by the development of sports training
technology.
7-6
From 1932 to 1936 the participation of other

academic and study disciplines can be
observed: sports medicine, physiology,
psychology, pedagogy. Eventually, the profile of
sports specialists is developed.
Interval sports preparation starts to be employed
(coach - W. Gerschler, runner R. Harbig
800m)
By World War II the level of 400 to 500
training hours in the annual cycle of sports
preparation is reached and there is a tendency for
the employment of two training sessions per
day.
The idea of peak performance and its tapering
for important competitions is considered.
After World War II (1948 to 1952), especially

at the Olympics in Helsinki, first top sports
results are achieved by the athletes from the
Eastern block"
The experts are aware of/come to realize" the
structure of the success factors in different
sports disciplines and study the
methodological problems connected to each of
the sports preparation segments
There is a shift from the level of a general
approach to the level of an individual approach
7-7
The first big athletic stars are P. Nurmi, J.

Owens and E. Zatopek - track and field, J.
Weismuller - swimming
The importance of physical conditioning in
the training structure constantly increases
E. Mller and T. Hettinger introduce new
strength training methods (isometrics) in 1953
In 1959, R. Morgan i G. Adamson propose

the circuit training method, which is improved by
M. Schlich in the 1960s.
The annual number of training hours is
around 800.
Sports preparation systems for important
competitions (the Olympics, World
Championships and European
Championships) are designed
Special attention is given to the functional
preparedness and training methods for the
development of motor abilities. Interest for
strength training in basketball, swimming, and
track and field is increasing
7-8
In the training of Australian (coach P. Cerutty

runner H. Elliot 1500m) and New Zealand (coach
A. Lydiard runner P. Snell 800m and 1500m)
(1960 1968) track and field athletes, new
training methodology is applied (e.g. "complex
training") leading to the highest sports results in
the world.
Increasing body of published academic

research in all areas of sports training leads to
a qualitative leap.
Important research in the field of sports

training periodisation is conducted (S. Letunov,
1959, L. Matveev 1962)
After the Olympic Games in Mexico in 1968
the interest for "altitude training" increases
among the coaches and sports scientists, and
the first specialised centres for altitude sports
preparation are built
7-9
The desire to speed up the recovery process

results in the use of prohibited
pharmacological substances by the end of
the 1970s.
Conditions for sports preparation are

significantly improved and an improved
means of recovery are developed
Science becomes the leading generator of

positive change in sport
Commercialisation of sport during the 1990s
gives sport its cosmopolitan character and
creates conditions for athletes to become
professionals
At the beginning of the 21st century sports
training becomes an academic system led by
specialised teams of experts. This ensures
the further development of sports preparation on
the basis of the most recent academic findings
and technologies
7 - 10
The intuitive and empirical approach

prevails until the end of the 1960s, when the
high-quality sports preparation systems are
defined, drawing on the experience of the
leading world coaches (implicit stage)
The year 1966 marked the beginning of

the dominance of the academic approach.
Academic research results are applied in the
selection, methodology, programming, and
control of the sports preparation process (the
explicit stage)
7.2. A short overview of sport

development in Croatia
Shooting - the first sport
Popularisation of sports
and the establishment of
sports clubs - second
half of the 19th century
Cycling - most popular in
the 19th/20th century
Franjo Buar 1866-1946
Football in Croatia since
1903
7 - 11
Between two World Wars:
Basketball
Handball
Volleyball
Water polo
Track and field
Boxing
Golf
Ice hockey
Kayaking/canoeing
Table tennis
Tennis
Croatian Falcon
was a well-organised physical
activity system
The members cherished
proper education
(discipline, friendship,
devotion) and physical
preparedness for serving the
nation
At that time, physical
education teachers were
advocates of the positive role
of sport and physical
exercise in the education of
youth
7 - 12
Croatian sport after World War II

A successful period for sport
development in Croatia
The 1948 Olympic Games in
London, the first international
success of Croatian athletes
the Yugoslavian national
football team won the silver
medal
While performing for the former
Yugoslavia, Croatian athletes
accomplished significant results
in team sports, tennis,
rowing, boxing, swimming,
wrestling etc.
Medals won by Croatian athletes at the

Olympic Games since 1992
G
Athletics
Handball
Basketball
Water polo
Tennis
Rowing
Weightlifting
Taekwondo
Swimming
Alpine Skiing
Biathlon
Shooting
Gymnastics
Total
11
27
7 - 13
Significant features of the contemporary

Croatian sport are:
Croatian athletes achieve significant
results at important competitions. This is
the result of great talent and motivation
A strategy and a national programme for the
development of sport do not exist
Croatia hosts important competitions in
various sports disciplines
There is a lot of room for improvement
regarding the education of coaches, the
structure, international cooperation, material
and technical conditions and academic research
7 - 14
Lesson 8:
Analysis of sport activities

Distinguish between the movement structures and
the situation structures, i.e. technique and tactics

elements
Define a structural analysis and explain the
structural properties of a sports activity
Define the biomechanical analysis and explain the
biomechanical properties of a sports activity
Explain muscle contraction types
Define an anatomical analysis and explain the
anatomical properties of a motor activity
Define a functional analysis and explain the energy
processes in sports activities
Describe the criteria for a sports activity
classification
8-1
8.1. Structural analysis of a

sport activity
Two components define a sport activity:
Movement structures
Sport technique
Situation structures
Sport tactics
Sports are differentiated by the number and

complexity of movement structures and situations:
that is, the technical and tactical elements.
a)Phases
b) Subphases
c) Structural elements
There is a definite number of structural elements

in each sport.
Success in sport is dependant on a correct
performance.
A motor learning process enables constant
learning and improvement of technical and tactical
knowledge.
8-2
Typical sport activities in which technical and

tactical actions appear
A - approaching, B - jump, C flying and kicking the ball in a dual action
A structural analysis of a sport activity

implies four steps:
1) Identification of typical structures of
movement and structures of situations
2) Registration of structures of movement and
structures of situations during a competition
3) Determining the frequencies (successful,
unsuccessful) of structures of movement and
structures of situations during a competition
4) Determining the value of structures of movement
and structures of situations for sport results
8-3
Distances covered by soccer players from

different positions
(Verheijen, 1997)
Level
/ Posit
ions
Country
Study
Distance in meters
Walk
Jogging
Side
movement
Sprint
2100
300
Bangsbo
al.
et 1st
league/
Denmark
14 3600
5200
Knowles
Booke
& 1st
league/
England
40 1703
2610
Mohr et al.
1st
league/
Italy
D
W
L
A
9
11
13
9
Reilly T.
1st
league/E
ngland
D
W
L
A
8
7
11
14
2292
1777
2029
2309
2902
2910
4040
2771
Backward
movement
250
2460
1690
2230
2280
650
640
440
440
1583
1898
2159
1755
783
830
1059
1066
668
651
510
495
Legend: D- defence; W-wing; L-line; A-attack
8.2. Biomehanical analysis of

sport activities
Biomehanical analysis enables an evaluation of
the movement structure qualities.

Gives us numerical values of movements
In motor teaching coaches must use
understandable biomechanical terms
Based on the biomechanical parameters during
the performance of athletes and a model,
motor errors can be determined
8-4
Kinematic
parameters:
spatial (path,
trajectory, angle
relations)
time (duration) and
space - time (speed,
acceleration)
Dynamic
parameters:
muscle forces,
the forces of resistance,
reactive power
Electromyographic
parameters
Speed curves of sprinters of different quality

compared to the model
(according to Letzelter and Letzelter, 2002)
Running velocity
Model
Top level sprinter
Medium quality sprinter
Lower quality sprinter
Distance
8-5
Speed curves of body parts of a young football player

while kicking the ball
(Kollath, 1990 according to Milanovi, 1997)
Velocity m/s
Ball contact
Top of foot
Ankle
Knee
Hip
Top level basketball players results in a modified

Sargent test from a tensiometric platform
(Milanovi et al., 1999)
Kinematics
Subjects
V.S.
K.T.
D.V.
P..
Z.J.
.Z.
C.D.
R.Z.
R.Z.
Maximu
m reach
in jump
(cm)
352
341
334
321
318
314
310
306
305
Kinetics
Measured
Maximum
reach (cm)
Take-off
force
(N)
75
75
70
56
70
60
59
69
66
3580
2685
3246
2320
2762
2570
2682
2856
2608
8-6
Calculated
Duration
Force/body
of takeweight
off (ms)
220
240
250
200
200
220
190
210
170
3,1
3,1
2,9
2,3
3,2
2,7
2,9
3,3
3,2
m. ext. carpi
m. flex. carpi
m. biceps brachii
Electromyographic
activity during a
jump shot in
handball
m. triceps brachii
m. deltoideus
(Muller et al., 1992)
m. trapezius
m. pectoralis
major
Types of muscle contractions
1.
2.
1.
3.
1. ISOMETRIC placing feet on the ground

2. ECCENTRIC amortization
3. CONCENTRIC take-off
8-7
3.
8.3. Anatomical analysis

The performance of motor actions involves
different:
topological regions of the body (arms and shoulder
girdle)
muscle group (flexor muscles / flexor forearm)
muscles (flexor / flexor forearm m. biceps brachii)
Analysis of muscle strain in

abdominal crunch
(Delavier, 2001)
8-8
Analysis of muscle
strain in the forearm
flexion (Delavier, 2001)
Dominant muscle groups in various sports

disciplines
muscles and
muscle groups
- extensors
muscles and
muscle groups
- flexors
8-9
The order of activation of leg muscles during

cycling
1. m. quadriceps femoris
2. m. triceps surae
5. m. biceps femoris
3. m. flexor digitorum
6. m. tensor fasciae latae
4. m. gluteus maximus
7. m. tibialis anterior
8.4. Functional (energy) analysis

In different sports activities various energy processes
are activated :
Aerobic (O2)
mixed (aerobic - anaerobic)
Anaerobic - glycolitic (LA)
Anaerobic - phosphate (ATP / CP)
These energy processes can be measured by a number of

physiological - biochemical parameters in a laboratory and
in the field
heart rate
body temperature
lactate concentrations
8 - 10
The involvement of energy processes in different

sports in % (by Bompa, 1994)
SPORT
Kayak: K1 1000m
Rowing
Rugby
Archery
ATP/CP
LA
O2
20
50
30
15
83
30-40
10-20
30-50
100
Skiing: alpine
slalom
40
50
10
giant slalom 70-90
45-50
30
50
20
super G 80-120
15
45
40
downhill 90-150
10
45
45
Skiing: nordic
95
Soccer
60-80
20
0-10
Swimming 100m
23.95
51.10
24.95
10
20
70
Tennis
1500m
70
20
10
Volleyball
40
10
50
Waterpolo
30
40
30
Wrestling
90
10
Heart rate during a football match (a) the

relationship between HR and VO2 in the treadmill
run test (b)(Bangsbo, 1994)
At the mean HR of 171 and 164 r / min in the first and second half the
achieved VO2 is: 51.1 ml / mol / kg (78% VO2 max) and in the second
46.2 ml / mol / kg (72% VO2 max)
VO2 max = 65,3 ml/min/kg
8 - 11
8.5. The criteria for the

classification of sports activities
8.5.1. The structural complexity
Monostructural sport activities
Activities in which there are one or more
movement structures of a cyclic or
acyclic character, which are successively
repeated. Defined as standard forms of
motion with the lowest variability of
biomechanical parameters.
Monostructural cyclic sports activities

In their basis are simple structures of
movement: closed or semi-open type. It is a
repetition of the same movement, or cycles,
such as a step in walking, running,a stroke in
swimming or rowing, a cycle in cycling
8 - 12
Monostructural acyclic sports activities

More complex structures of movement, and
semi-open and open type, consisting of several
phases. Activities are performed in the
standard forms with respect to
biomechanical principles for overcoming one's
own body space, missile, or with the help of an
external force (athletic jumps and throws, alpine
skiing, weightlifting, sailing ...)
Polystructural sport activities

Semi-open and open movement structures that
are performed in variable conditions. They are
dominated by the complex structure of an
acyclic movement character in which there is a
direct, - wrestling opponents (wrestling, judo),
or indirect - kicking, countering the opponent
(boxing, karate, taekwondo, fencing)
8 - 13
Complex sports activities

Characterized by simple and complex movements in
terms of cooperation, cooperation between members
of sports teams during the game.
The aim of this cooperation is to achieve supremacy
over opponents - individuals or teams. It may vary
from one-subject (tennis, table tennis) to multisubjects (team sports games).
In these activities maximum demands on the type of
tactical decision-making and action are set.
Conventional - aesthetic sports

activities
Contain aesthetically designed and
choreographed sets of movement
structures which are performed
under standard conditions. There
are obligatory and free competition
programmes, with a subjectively
assessed value of technical and
artistic interest (diving, figure
skating, gymnastics ...). Ski
jumping is evaluated in jump
distance and quality of
performance.
8 - 14
8.5.2. The complexity of the

biomechanical parameters
Control of kinematic and dynamic
parameters (sports, gymnastics, figure
skating, synchronized swimming)
Control of dynamic parameters (track and
field, rowing and swimming)
Sports with a high variability of
biomechanical parameters (martial arts and
sports games)
8.5.3. The dominance of energy

processes - physiological
classification
Aerobic sports (long-distance running, cross
country skiing)
Mixed sports (athletic decathlon, triathlon)
Lactate - glycolytic anaerobic sports (martial
arts, running the middle distance, sports
gymnastics)
Phosphate anaerobic sports (sports games,
sprint running, diving)
8 - 15
8.5.4. The dominance of motor physical abilities
Sports
Sports
Sports
Sports
Sports
Sports
dominated
dominated
dominated
dominated
dominated
dominated
by
by
by
by
by
by
power
speed and agility
endurance
balance
coordination
precision
8 - 16
Lesson 9:
Analysis of
athletes
dimensions
(components of
preparedness)
After attending the class and mastering

this lesson students will be able to:
Explain the hierarchical structure of the factors of
athletes fitness;
Define and describe basic anthropological
characteristics of athletes;
Define and describe athletes specific abilities,
characteristics, knowledge and skills;
Define and describe situation-related efficiency
(performance) indicators of athletes;
Define and explain competition results
(achievements) in sports
9-1
9.1. Abilities, characteristics,

skills and knowledge of athletes
IV. Competition result
Indicators of
performance in
the phase of
defense
Indicators of
performance in
the phase of
offense/attack
Other
performance
indicators
III. Performance efficiency of athletes

Specific physical
conditioning
fitness
Specific abilities,
skills and
knowledge
technical
preparedness
Specific abilities,
skills and
knowledge
tactical
preparedness
Specific
theoretical
knowledge
II. Specific abilities, characteristics, knowledge and skills

Health
status
Morphological Work capacities

characteristics (Functional
abilities)
Motor
(physical)
abilities
Cognitive
abilities
Personality
traits
(innate)
I. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes
9.1.1. Basic anthropological

characteristics of athletes
Health
status
Morphological
characteristics
Work
capacities
(functional
abilities)
Motor
(physical)
abilities
Cognitive
abilities
Personality
traits
(innate)
I. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes
Health status
Sports and sport training should never jeopardize
health of athletes.
To fight against substance abuse in sport is an
obligation of each and every participant.
9-2
Morphological
characteristics of
athletes
- These are body composition
indicators, somatotype
characteristics of athletes
important sport performance
factors.
- Variuos sports require
various somatotypes
(ectomorph, mesomorph, and
endomorph)
- For high achievements in
certain sports morphological
characteristics are crucial,
decisive.
Skinfold measurements
(Beachle & Earle, 2009)
Anthropometric characteristics of athletes:

body height, body mass, somatotype of
basketball players (Milanovi et al., 1989)
(M - Mean, SD - standard deviation)
Player
Test
01
02
03
04
05*
06
07
08
09
10*
11
12
M
SD
Height (cm)
Mass (kg)
Somatotype
198.3
204.9
212.9
187.0
207.6
205.5
206.5
190.7
187.6
208.5
217.7
194.4
201.7
10.03
91.3
97.0
110.3
81.8
85.7
101.0
97.6
81.0
85.7
110.8
117.4
86.0
95.5
12.31
4.5/2.6/4.5
2.5/2.9/4.0
3.0/4.0/4.0
3.5/4.5/3.0
2.0/1.0/6.0
3.0/3.4/3.0
3.0/2.9/4.5
1.5/4.0/3.5
2.5/4.1/2.5
4.5/4.4/3.0
2.0/3.9/4.0
2.5/3.8/3.5
2.9/3.5/3.8
0.93/0.98/0.94
9-3
Work capacities / functional (energy

supply) abilities of athletes
Related with the efficiency of the oxygen transport
system (aerobic ability) and anaerobic energy
supply capacities (phosphogenic and glycolitic
metabolic processes).
Athletes may significantly differ among themselves
by the aerobic abilities as well as by anaerobic
capacities.
In certain sports the anaerobic glycolitic energy
production process prevails, whereas in others
theaerobic metabolic process is predominant.
Characteristic metabolic processes in various

performance time intervals of high intensity sport
activity (Bompa, 1994)
Energy intensity
of the activity
100%
anabolic (A)
phosphogenic (P)
gliycolitic (G)
50%
aerobic
seconds
30
60
90
9-4
120
150
Each sport event can be described in terms

of particular energy supply mechanisms:
anabolic (A), - phosphogenic (P), glycolitic
(G) and aerobic (oxydative; O).
Aerobic and anaerobic energetic processes in sports

events of various duration (Bompa, 1994)
Anaerobic
Energy supply
system
Alactic
Basic energy
sources
Phosphate system
(ATP and CP from
muscles)
Duration
0s
Sports events
10s
Aerobic
Lactic
Lactic system
(glycogen lactic
acid)
40s
70s
Glycogen (completely
burns outin presence
of O2)
2 min
6min
25min
Fats
1h
Proteins
2h
200-400m
800 m
Medium distance
(running, speed
skating,
swimming)
Long distance (running,

swimming, speed
skating, kayak-canoe)
Throwing
events
500m
speed
skating
100 m
swimming
1000m kayakcanoeing
Cross-country skiing
Jumping
events
Artistic
gymnastics
500m
canoeing
Boxing
Triathlon
Weight
lifting
50m
swimming
1000m
speed
skating
Wrestling /
Combat sports
Cycling, road race
Ski
jumping
Floor routine
(artistic
gymnastics)
Figure skating
Diving
Alpine skiing
Rowing
Vault (art.
gymn.)
Sports games, individual (net&wall) games, sailing
Activity
3h
100m
track
sprinting
Acyclic
Acyclic and cyclic
9-5
Cyclic
The differences between test results in rest and

parameters obtained under competition loads
are frequently analysed to determine specific
work (functional) responds/capacities of
athletes.
Functional indicators of elite rowers in rest and in
competition
(Krner & Schwanitz, 1985, according to Milanovi, 1997)
FUNCTIONAL (WORK
CAPACITY) PARAMETER
VALUES IN
REST
VALUES IN
COMPETITION
HR (heart rate)
40
200.0
Respiratory volume (l/min)
8.0
200.0
Oxygen consumption (O2l/min)
0.5
6.5
Lactate (mmol/l)
1.0
20.0
Average values of maximal oxygen uptake

in athletes of various sports
(Bangsbo, 1994)
mlO2/min/kg
soccer
team handball
80
medium distance
running
untrained
individuals
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
women
men
9-6
Values of absolute and relative oxygen uptake

(VO2) of Australian athletes
(Pyke, 2001)
Average
absolute
VO2max L/min)
Range
Average
relative VO2max
(ml/kg/min)
Range
4.9
3.9-5.7
75
65-80
3.5
2.9-4.2
65
55-70
4.8
4.3-5.1
65
55-70
3.4
3.1-3.8
52
45-60
5.8
4.8-6.4
80
65-85
3.7
3.0-4.0
63
55-70
4.8
4.4-5.2
60
55-65
3.1
2.8-3.5
50
45-55
4.6
4.0-5.2
60
55-65
3.1
2.8-3.5
50
45-55
Sport
Running
Rowing
Cycling
Canoeing
Soccer
Motor abilities of athletes

Represent efficiency of
the neuro-muscular
system responsible for
intensity, duration and
regulation of movements.
They enable either
powerful, quick, longlasting, accurate,
coordinated, or combined
performance of various
motor tasks.
9-7
Motor abilities are the aspects of intensity and extensity

(volume) of any motor activity that can be described with
the same parameter system and measured with the
identical group of measuring instruments; onset of
analoguous physiological, biochemical, morphological and
biomechanical mechanisms is typical for each of them.
McCloy (1886-1959) defines
motor, i.e. physical
potential of athletes as the
maximum limit of
physical work ability
which an individual reaches,
or realizes his/her potential
with sports training.
According to Meinel (1977, in

Milanovi, 1997), it is a
complex structure of
quantitative
(STRENGTH/POWER, SPEED,
ENDURANCE and FLEXIBILITY)
and
qualitative (COORDINATION,
AGILITY, BALANCE and
ACCURACY) motor abilities.
9-8
The quantitative motor abilities enable

a high level of work intensity and extensity,
whereas the qualitative motor abilities
enable an athlete to perform work of high
structural and biomechanical complexity of
any sports activity.
Bompa (2006) defines the structure of

motor abilities as consisting of BASIC
BIOMOTOR CAPACITIES, like
strength/power, speed, endurance,
coordination and flexibility.
The derived motor abilities are also important
to sport performance. They are a result of the
correlation of the basic motor abilities.
Therefore, there are POWER/EXPLOSIVE
STRENGTH (interaction of strength and speed),
SPEED ENDURANCE (interaction of speed and
endurance), and SPEED COORDINATION
(interaction of speed and coordination).
9-9
Interdependence among biomotor abilities

(modified according to Bompa, 2006)
Strength/Power
Endurance
Repetitive
strength
Speed
Speed
endurance
Coordination
Agility
Flexibility
Dexterity
Power
Maximal
strength
Anaerobic
endurance
Aerobic
endurance
Speed
strength
Speed
coordination
Dynamic
mobility
Results of soccer players of different

standards in tests of motor abilities
Tests
Standard levels of soccer players

A
30m dash from the

standing start (s)
3.85
3.85-3.98
3.99-4.12
4.13-4.26
4.26 >
30 m dash from the

flying start (s)
3.15
3.15-3.27
3.28-3.40
3.42-3.53
3.53 >
SAR vertical jump

(cm)
43.0
40.0-43.0
36.0-39.0
32.0-35.0
35 <
COOPER test (km)
3.35
3.26-3.35
3.16-3.25
3.06-3.15
3.06 <
10m dash from the

standing start (s)
1.66-1.70
1.69-1.73
1.71-1.77
1.75-1.78
1.78 >
9 - 10
Cognitive abilities of athletes

Enable reception, processing, retention and
utilization of motor information resulting in quick
and correct decision making during training and
competition activities.
Their influence is higher in the more complex sports
activities.
Conative characteristics/ personality

traits
Crucial for the efficient adaptation to strenuous
work conditions of sports and sport training.
Personality traits are responsible for athletes
behaviour and their engagement level/ commitment
and drive during training and competition.
9.1.2. Specific abilities, characteristics,

skills and knowledge of athletes
Specific and
situational
physical
condition/fitness
Specific abilities,
Specific abilities,
Specific
skills and knowledge skills and knowledge
theoretical
technical
tactical
knowledge
preparedness
preparedness
II. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge
9 - 11
Specific and situational physical

condition/fitness
It is manifested within specific movement
patterns and game situation patterns of a
particular sport.
Integration of physical condition/fitness and
technical (specific) preparedness as well as of
physical condition/fitness and tactical
preparedness (situational).
Considerable influence of physical fitness
abilities on performance of technical elements and
correlation of physical fitness and technical skills
with the quality of tactical performance
Indicators of basic and specific physical fitness

of elite basketball cadets (C) and juniors (J)
(Milanovi et al., 1997)
Mean - C S.D. - C
Mean - J S.D. - J
SAR cm
70.02
7.57
74.08
6.55
TRO cm
754.60
40.80
764.42
53.44
BLG cm*
1513.30
135.10
1560.70
119.52
CAT rps.
27.87
2.53
32.06
2.27
VS20 s*
3.23
1.83
3.06
0.18
DO30 rps.*
22.73
0.15
24.42
2.53
S45 s*
5.26
0.50
5.34
0.51
OSMS s*
9.09
0.44
8.93
0.63
KUS s
7.69
0.35
6.82
0.32
SMB s*
29.46
1.52
27.56
1.54
TRB rps.
29.60
2.44
31.23
3.91
Mean arithmetic mean, S.D. standard deviation

* - tests of specific physical condition/fitness
9 - 12
Technical, tactical and theoretical

preparedness
A high level and integrated utilization of
technical-tactical skills and knowledge by athletes
provide successfull situational problem
solving during sports training and competition.
It is a consequence of a correct, adequate longlasting TE-TA training with a myriad of
repetitions
Efficiency levels of TE-TA activity

programs
Sports technique and
tactics consist of a
repertoire of motor
programs embracing clusters
of edited and hierarchically
arranged motor information.
Performance efficiency
depends the number and
quality level of the stored
motor information and on
the athletes ability to
harvest and apply them
timely.
9 - 13
Motor programs can be at various

efficiency levels:
Level one:
Inicitial information are adopted,
Fragmetary knowledge,
Rough performance,
Poor movement control,
Constant interventions of a trainer are
needed,
The program often needs to be reconstructed,
Consciuos control over all movement phases,
A high activity level of cortical part of the
central nervous system,
A good basis for further learning.
Level two:
The motor program has not been
completed yet,
Additional information are constantly
needed,
The trainer must control performance
strictly,
The program needs to be upgraded
constantly,
Fine movement coordination is
required,
Athletes active mental participation is
needed
9 - 14
Level three:
Stabile performance is resistance to
hindering environmental influences,
Movement parameters selfcontrol,
Kinestetic sense,
High achievement,
Individual style specific performance is
tolerated (conditioned by individual
features of athletes),
Subcortical movement regulation
Level four:
athletes reflex reactions in movement
performance and in game situations solving,
movement automatization,
any kind of a signal is enough (from outside, or
from any part of the CNS) to activate the motor
program,
almost nothing can impede quality performance,
unconscious movement performance control
(athletes do not think about the action, they
feel it)
9 - 15
9.1.3. Performance of athletes /

situation-related efficiency
Indicators of
Indicators of
performance in the
performance in the
phase of
phase of defense
offense/attack
Other
performance
indicators
III. Performance of athletes
Registration and analysis of situationrelated efficiency indicators in sports

In contemporary sports the structure of competition
activity parameters is the basis to a comparative
analyses of performance of athletes and teams. It is
especially important for the efficient programming of
sports preparation.
One of the research directions in the kinesiology of
sport is oriented towards the analysis of standard
indicators of competition situation-related efficiency.
During observation (monitoring) in the real time of sports
combat their frequency and effects can be noted (notation
analysis) or registered
The influence of these indicators on the final sport result in
competitions can be investigated
9 - 16
Parameters of situation
efficiency of athletes in certain
sports branches (standard and derived)
Each competition/game offers
information about types, amount
and quality of activities performed by
individual players and teams (e. g. In
basketball: the number of assists,
rebounds, 3-point throws made )
They are the basis for the
performance comparison
analyses of individual athletes and
teams, quality selection of tactical
behaviour in relation to the
opponent strength, and for the
sports preparation efficacious
programming
Every bout in combat sports is an opportunity

for the registration of many efficiency indicators.
The following can be noted and evaluated: diverse
types of holds, throws, punches, kicks, evasions,
defensive blocks, counterattacks, etc., which
award certain points to a fighter and so
determine the final outcome of the bout.
9 - 17
In sports games every match offers a lot of data

on types, amount and quality of competition
activities of individual players and teams (e.g. in
volleyball: the number of serves made, serve
receptions, blocks and spikes, evaluated on a
scale of +2 to -2)
Performance indicators/parameters in the

phase of defense and the phase of
offense/attack can be separately analysed, as
well other parameters pertaining to the fields
of tactical responsibility, drive, commitment and
behaviour.
Registration and analyses of situation
parameters can result in the model values of
team efficiency / performance and in model
patterns of individual performance of individual
players in the phases of defense and
offense/attack
9 - 18
Basic indicators of situation efficiency of the

Croatian water polo team at the 1996 OG
Opponent
FSTBRK
BP
CP
UU/PG
POWER PLAY
RESULT/
SCORE
Team A
20/8
40
4/3
75
8:5
Team B
21/11
52
12/7
58
11:6
Team C
23/8
35
16/8
50
8:10
Team D
37/16
43
9/8
89
16:8
Team E
21/10
48
10/3
30
8:10
Team F
21/8
38
9/5
56
8:6
Team G
19/7
37
10/5+2 4m
50
7:6
Team H
24/5
21
9/2
22
5:7
Total
17
202/71
35
79/41+2 4m
52
The Croatian water polo national team at the 96

OG won the silver medal
The team was most efficient in scoring from the
back/perimeter positions 17, whereas from
the hole set (central position) only 7 goals were
scored
Too few goals were scored from fastbreaks
4
The realization of the attacks with man-up
was satisfying (41 goals scored + 2 penalties)
over 50% of the total number of the goals
scored
9 - 19
Basic indicators of competition activity in

basketball
Distances covered (expressed in metres) by various kinds
of ambulatory movements during a basketball match
RESEARCH
SAMPLE OF
SUBJECTS
Gradowska
(1972)
Cohen
(1980)
Colli & Faina
(1985)
Moreno
(1988)
Janeira &
Maia (1998)
National team
(Poland)
First league
(France)
First league
(Italy)
First league
(pain)
First league
(Portugal)
TOTAL
(m)
WALKING
JOGGING
RUNNING
(MEDIUM
SPEED)
SPRINT
942
1542
991
3809
3890
3475
5763
828
3091
1577
267
4955
1838
1905
734
478

team handball
Distances players covered by running in a handball
game (Bon et al., 2002)
first half
2560
second half
2230
entire match
4790
1000
2000
3000
9 - 20
4000
5000
6000

soccer / assoc. football
Distances covered by players (Verheijen, 1997)
Walking
Jogging
Running
Sprint
Total
1st league
3.2km
2.0km
1.4km
1.4km
8.4km
3rd league
4.2km
1.7km
0.7km
0.5km
7.6km
1st league
2.6km
5.2km
1.8km
1.1km
10.9km
3rd league
3.1km
3.3km
1.0km
0.6km
9.0km
1st league
3.4km
2.0km
1.6km
1.8km
9.8km
3rd league
4.0km
1.4km
1.0km
0.9km
7.6km
Defenders
Midfielders
Attackers
Table of various activities of players

by playing positions
(Verheijen, 1997)
Slide
tackles
Jumps
Shots on
target
Duels
Total
Defenders
1st league
9x
15x
24x
34x
82
3rd league
19x
23x
19x
37x
98
1st league
6x
11x
37x
56x
110
3rd league
19x
9x
32x
42x
102
1st league
6x
17x
32x
36x
91
3rd league
7x
22x
19x
24x
72
Midfielders
Attackers
9 - 21
Lactic acid concentration in blood of

top-level soccer players during game
Country
Research
study
Agnevik
Sweden
10
Bangsbo
Denmark
14
Brower &
Davis
Sweden
Ekblom
Sweden
Gerish et al.
Germany
Smaros
Smith et al.
Lactates in the
first half-time
(mmol/L)
Lactates in the
second halftime(mmol/L)
During
During
Post
Post
10.0
4.9
3.7
4.4
5.1
4.6
9.5
7.2
59
5.6
4.7
Finland
5.1
3.9
England
4.9
4.1
Basic statistic indicators of shots taken by the

winning (WIN) and the defeated (DEF) teams at the
2000 European Handball Championship for Men
(Vuleta et al., 2003)
VARIABLES
MEAN
WIN
S.D.
WIN
MEAN
DEF
S.D.
DEF
SHO7MMADE
3.26
1.62
3.40
1.88
SHO7MMISSED
1.00
0.91
1.77
1.50
SHOT6MMADE
4.91
2.20
4.00
2.44
1.47
SHOT6MMISSED
1.63
1.77
1.71
SHOTWINGMADE
4.11
1.95
3.20
2.11
SHOTWINGMISSED
3.40
1.50
3.49
2.01
SHOT9MMADE
8.26
3.64
6.94
2.63
SHOT9MMISSED
10.86
3.45
14.4
4.83
SHOTFASTBRMADE
3.66
2.38
3.31
2.23
SHOTFASTBRMISSED
1.29
1.56
1.26
1.38
SHOTPRMADE
2.09
1.72
2.09
1.34
SHOTPRMISSED
0.69
0.87
0.63
0.94
9 - 22
Game statistics of the elite NBA basketball

player (D.P.)(absolute and relative)
5
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
ZFG
2p
ZFT
1p
-3
ZFG3 ZREB ZAST ZSTL ZVTD ZPTS ZBLK RANG
3p rebound assists
turnovers points screens
steals
0 = NBA average in particular variables
Comparison of average values of male and

female 100m runners
Speed of running (m/s)
(according to Letzelter & Letzelter, 2002)
Male sprinters
Female sprinters
Distance (m)
9 - 23
Z- scores relative
Z- scores absolute
(absolute total; relative total through minutes in play)
Experts in sports practice ask frequently why is so

much attention paid to these indicators of
competition activity and efficiency?
There are several answers among which are the
following:
The determination of the criteria of successful
competition performance,
The determination of the standards of sports training,
The possibility to obtain / create the model of
competition activity of the opponent,
An objective, unbiased evaluation of actual
performance (quality) of individuals and teams.
9.1.4. Competition result /

achievement (the final outcome of
sports activities)
Situated at the top of the pyramid of
athletes abilities, characteristics, skills and
knowledge is competition result /
achievement
It depends on both the level and
structure of all the factors situated at the
lower pyramid levels
9 - 24
In competition result the entire system of

sports preparatin is reflected and work
effects of trainers and members of the
professional coaching team
Within a sports career there is a peak, a
period when an athlete achieves his/her best
results.
Within an annual cycle sport shape/form
should be taperred and peaked for the best
achievements at the biggest competitions
Since the beginning of modern sports, Olympic

games in particular, a constant progress in
achievements is obviouse as well as in
performance quality in most sports disciplines and
events.
Development trend of abilities and results of
world class elite track-and-field athletes has such
a progressive character which is considerably
higher than the same trend in general population.
9 - 25
Development trend of
abilities in population vs. elite athletes
Level of
physical
abilities
abilities of the top-level
track-and-field athletes
d3
d2
d1
abilities of population
Time
Trend of results in discus throwing (Harasin, 2002)

Model: dis1=b0+b1*v1+b2*v1**2
y=(-6134.747)+(6.0039726)*x+(-0.0014508)*x**2
75
SYD2000
SEO1988ATL1996
MON1976
MOS1980
ANG1984
BAR1992
MEX1968
MUN1972
65
TOK1964
ROM1960
MEL1956
HEL1952
LON1948
55
DIS1
BER1936
ANG1932
AMS1928
PAR1924
STO1912ANT1920
45
LON1908
LOU1904
PAR1900
35
ATH1896
ATH1896
PAR1900
LOU1904
LON1908
STO1912
ANT1920
PAR1924
AMS1928
ANG1932
BER1936
LON1948
PREDICTED
VALUES
33,48
35,46
37,41
39,3
41,15
44,7
46,41
48,08
49,69
51,26
55,69
HEL1952
MEL1956
ROM1960
TOK1964
57,07
58,41
59,7
60,95
MEX1968
MUN1972
MON1976
MOS1980
ANG1984
SEO1988
BAR1992
62,14
63,3
64,4
65,46
66,47
67,44
68,36
ATL1996
SYD2000
ATH2004
69,23
70,06
70,77
25
1896 1904 1912 1920 1928 1936 1944 1952 1960 1968 1976 1984 1992 2000 2008
GOD
9 - 26
Lesson 10:
DIAGNOSTICS IN SPORT
Measurement, assessment and

evaluation of abilities, features and
knowledge of athletes
After attending the class and mastering this lesson

students will be able to:
Define the position and relevance of
diagnostic/assessment procedures in the process of sports
preparation;
Define Mllers model of sports preparation process
optimization;
Specify the stages of a diagnostic procedure and explain
them;
Understand the potential of the abilities and characteristics
of the athletes to be tested;
Talk about the possibilities of test results application to the
planning and programming of training;
Graphically present the test results of an athlete x and compare
them to a top-level athlete model.
10 - 1

The primary goal of any sports training is the
improvement of competition efficiency,
performance and achievements.
Therefore, it is important to have an insight into
the state of fitness / readiness of athletes:
what is the developmental level of performance
relevant abilities, characteristics and skills in any
stage of long-term sports preparation?
Based on the diagnosed

values, i.e. the determined
fitness, as in the strong
and weak sides of one
athlete or a sport group, it
is feasible to set goals and
assignments of a training
procedure and design training
programmes for particular
cycles through which sports
preparation is realized.
10 - 2
Training effects are unbiasedly detectable

only by testing, i.e. by the measurement of
the dimensions and their changes, that have
been the targets of the influence of training.
The efficacy of an executed training
procedure is determined with the application
of the objective diagnostic procedures (testing,
measurement) and with subjective
assessments.
Model of the sports preparation process

optimization
(modified according to Mller, 1999)
Planning
(goals and
periodization)
Programming
Training
of training
implementation
(procedures)
Interpretation
(application)
of the results
of sports
diagnostics
10 - 3
Training
efffects
Sports
diagnostics
Training optimization requires the knowledge

of fitness relevant characteristics actual,
current state
Assessment of fitness/preparedness is
realized through the measurements in
laboratories and in the field.
Specified dimensions are tested or
measured according to the determined
methodological rules (kinesiometry)
Diagnostic procedures in sport are a part of
everyday practice and routine
Levels of motor abilities of an elite ATP tennis player

(Mller, 1999)
3
2
1
0
-1
(12 min running)
Endurance
(shuttle running)
Endurance
Strength
(left leg)
Strength
(right leg)
Strength
(fist grip)
Agility
(side steps)
(shuttle running)
Power
(jump)
norm x
sd
2.98
42.75 23.85 13.02 32.80 47.95 81.75 81.75 72.25
0.12
2.50
2.30
0.83
2.00
5.90
8.50
8.50
4.50
190
1996
1995
2.98
42.80
24.80
12.03
34.90
49.00
90.40
83.70
73.96
3420
3.01
36.10
23.80
13.60
35.20
53.00
91.30
87.60
74.50
3350
Agility
Sprint
Power
(throwing)
-2
10 - 4
3105
10.2. Fitness model characteristics

of top-level athletes
The application of
measurement procedures
makes it feasible to
establish the features due
to which elite athletes,
who accomplish the highest
results, stand out and
distinguish themselves
A model of a top-level athlete is, in fact, a

reproduction of the selected main relevant
characteristics of a contemporary extra class
quality athlete in a particular sports discipline.
Model characteristics are test results, scores
achieved by elite athletes in the primary and
secondary anthropological variables and indicators
of situational efficacy/performance.
10 - 5
Results of a top-quality basketball player in the tests

aimed at assessing motor and functional/ cardiorespiratory and metabolic abilities (Milanovi, 1997)
TEST
SCORE
(actual value)
MODEL
(required values)
1. SAR
79 cm
82 cm
2. DSM
260 cm
280 cm
3. 20M
2.99 s
2.85 s
4. 20Y
4.57 s
4.30 s
14 throws scored
15 throws scored
59.04 s
52.00 s
75 kg
100 kg
8. NAB
82.5 kg
120 kg
9. TRB
38 rep
60 rep
5. 3L
6. 300Y
7. BP
10. SKL
11. 2400
15 rep
40 rep
10.02 min
8.30 min
Model results in the test 20m sprint, registered

at the Australian Sport Institute
(Pyke, 2001)
Sport
Basketball
Cricket
Softball
Soccer
Group
5m sprint (s)
10m sprint (s)
20m sprint (s)
Adult (w)
1.04
1.95
3.38
Adult (m)
1.05
1.81
3.12
Adult (w)
2.07
3.52
Adult (m)
1.76
2.99
M - U-19
1.04
1.79
3.09
W - U-19
1.16
1.98
3.43
M - U-18
1.08
1.79
3.02
W - U-18
1.16
1.96
3.32
10 - 6
In the everyday life of sports, coaches and

expert teams continuously measure and
evaluate the condition of the components of
fitness/preparedness and performance and
sport achievements of athletes participating
in the process of training.
The focus of preparation should be
directed primarily on the components most
responsible for competition
efficiency/performance and on the
characteristics of the athlete most distant
from the model values.
(10 stages of diagnostic procedure)

1. Defining and using the
equation of success in
sport specification
(based on either an
expert assessment or/and
research findings). The
hierarchical structure of
the performance factors
in a particular sport
should be respected.
10 - 7
Soccer
Strength
/power
20%
Endurance
30%
Coordination
15%
Flexibility
10%
Speed
25%
2. Selection (choice) of
athletes a sports
group
3. Selection of abilities,
characteristics and
knowledge/ skills to
be diagnosed
4. Selection of measuring
instruments/ tests
aimed at assessing the
abilities, features and
skills/knowledge of
athletes
10 - 8
5. Procedure of
measurement/ testing
(in either a laboratory or in
field conditions)
6. Procedure of processing
the collected data
7. Presentation of the
obtained results and
their interpretation
Points
70
60
50
8. Presentation of the
results to the coach
and members of the
expert team
40
30
20
10
11
12
Abilities
10 - 9
13
Model anthropological characteristics and test

results of two handball players (X & Y)
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
VARIABLES
1. Body height
2. Body mass
MODEL
VALUES
BACKCOURT
PLAYER X,
RESULTS
LINE
PLAYER Y,
RESULTS
192.0
192.8
184.5
83.6
90.0
89.0
3. Shoulder width
44.30
43.0
44.5
4. Arm span
195.0
200.0
183.5
5. Palm span
6. Throwing the ball
(800gr)
7. MSD
25.2
25.4
24
32.59
38.07
32.53
262.42
259.67
269.33
8. Two-legged
vertical jump
59.42
62.33
68.33
9. One-legged
vertical jump
65.71
62.33
73
7.57
7.22
6.35
6.6
6.17
5.82
10. Sit-ups
29.17
26.33
36.33
11. Bench-press
88.13
85
85
12. Suicide-running
(shuttle running)
30.78
30.45
29.05
13. 30 m running
from a standing start
4.82
4.85
4.51
9. Side steps
11. Two-triangle
defensive stance
movement
-1
-2
-3
PLAYER X
9. Results application to
the planning and
programming of training
10. Control of the sports
preparation process
effects (diagnostics of
fitness or final readiness
state)
10 - 10
PLAYER Y
10 stages of diagnostic procedure

1) Defining and using the equation of success in sport specification
2) Selection (choice) of athletes a sports group
3) Selection of abilities, characteristics and knowledge/ skills to
be diagnosed
4) Selection of measuring instruments/ tests
5) Procedure of measurement/ testing (in either a laboratory or in
field conditions)
6) Procedure of processing the collected data
7) Presentation of the obtained results and their interpretation
8) Presentation of the results to the coach and members of the
expert team
9) Results application to the planning and programming of training
10)Control of the sports preparation process effects (diagnostics of
fitness or final readiness state)
10 - 11
Lesson 11:
Selection in sport
(orientation to sports and
choice of sports branch)

Talk about the importance of the selection of future athletes
Define and describe the system of orientation to sports
Define and describe the system of orientation to a group of
sport branches
Define and describe the system of selection of a sport branch
Differentiate among the criteria (model characteristics) for the
selection of a particular sport branch
List the orientation age terms for the beginning of a
systematic training of selected young athletes
Determine the importance of both the chronological and
biological age in the process of selection
Talk about all phases in the process of selecting future elite
athletes
11 - 1
A quality system of sports training for children

and the young consists, in most countries, of
a well defined procedure of potential toplevel athletes selection.
Sports schools should be places of a high
concentration of those talented for sports.
In countries where sports are well developed
their advantage is in their well organized
sports schools, centres or camps, where
high quality training programmes are executed
with selected groups of athletes.
11.1. System of orientation to

sports - first selection
It is a procedure of selecting children generally
talented for sports.
The orientation system should be applied as soon
as it is possible to establish the existence of the
most important abilities and characteristics of
potential athletes as well as their interest to be
involved in sport.
This is a time when neither the group of sports
nor sports branch is known, in which a child
might have the greatest opportunities to be
successful.
11 - 2
Within the programmes

of a universal sports
school a child
participates in diverse
motor/ sporting
activities, i.e. he/she
gains elementary
experiences in various
motor activities and
sports.
11.2. Orientation to a group of

sports branches second selection
As a selection interphase it is useful to execute
orientation to a group of sports branches
(combat sports school, or team games sports
school, or water sports school)
This phase is a substantial one because in young
athletes-to-be it is sometimes hard to establish with
certainty their potential for a particular sports
event/discipline. It is much easier to determine
this for a group of sports
branches/events/disciplines.
11 - 3
Orientation terms for the beginning of a

systematic training programme in particular
sports disciplines (modified by Martin, 1982)
Age
Sports disciplines
6-7
artistic gymnastics (w), figure skating
7-8
rhythmic gymnastics, swimming, tennis
8-9
artistic gymnastics (m), alpine skiing, diving, table tennis
9-10
football/soccer, basketball, volleyball, karate
10-11
athletics (running - sprint, jumps), kayaking canoeing,

handball, rowing, judo, wrestling, taekwondo, equestrian
events, rugby, luge tobogganing, speed skating, badminton
11-12
athletics (throwing), ice hockey, field hockey, water polo,

cycling, fencing, shooting, nordic skiing
12-13
weight lifting, athletic heptathlon & decathlon, athletics (middistances running), boxing, boccie, golf, baseball
13-14
athletics (long-distance running, walking), bowling crosscountry skiing
11.3. System of selection of a

sports branch - third selection
It is the procedure to select talented individuals for
the highest sports achievements in a particular
sports branch or discipline.
The selection of children is based on the similarity
of the childs anthropological profile with dimensions
from the structure of the specification equation of the
sports discipline in question.
An expected trend must be predicted of the sports
results the individual would most probably be able to
achieve in the future.
11 - 4
Normative scores in basic and specific exercises

of boys and girls in handball (Milanovi, 2006)
Age
Exercise / motor test
Boys
30m running (s)
Girls
10
12
13
10
11
5.4
5.0
4.9
5.8
5.6
5.4
530m average time (s)
5.3
5.2
5.0
5.4
5.3
5.2
2 running in a triangle (s)
18.5
18.3
18.0
21.0
19.0
18.5
60m running (s)
10.1
9.4
9.0
10.9
10.5
9.5
30m slalom with the ball (s)
11.0
9.4
8.7
12.3
11.4
10.7
Long jump (m)
3.30
3.80
4.05
2.90
3.10
3.40
Vertical jumping ability SAR (cm)
27
40
47
Small ball throwing (m)
24
37
43
Handball throwing (m)
21
27
12 min running (m)
25
30
21
23
26
13
16
19.5
2100 2300 2400
2000
Results in running 12 minutes (Coopers test)

of children and young people of various ages
(according to Hahn, 1982)
Girls young women

Age
7/8
9/10
11/12
13/14
15/16
17/18/19/20
Low limit
score
1500m
1700m
1900m
2100m
2300m
2500m
Good
score
1800m
2000m
2200m
2400m
2600m
2800m
Boys young men

Age
7/8
9/10
11/12
13/14
15/16
17/18/19/20
Low limit
score
1700m
1900m
2100m
2300m
2600m
2800m
Good
score
2000m
2200m
2400m
2600m
2900m
3100m
11 - 5
11.4. Procedure of selection

To provide a high certainty of selection it is crucial
to determine the tempo of the biological
development of potential elite athletes.
A certain lagging of motor preparedness/ fitness of
individual athletes at any time point does not
necessarily mean a resulting lower level of
fitness in the later stages of sports progression.
Developmental dynamics of motor abilities

according to different tempos of biological
development of potential elite athletes
(Hofmann & Schneider, 1985)
Motor ability (m)

Normal biological development
Early biological development
Late biological development
A time point of
selection
Chronological age (d)
11 - 6
Both age indicators of the chronological and

of the biological age should be always taken
into account in the execution of selection.
Namely, late developers are sometimes, with no
substantial reason, negatively selected,
although their chances of being successful are
bigger than the chances of their peer counterparts
exhibiting a higher level of abilities in the
earlier stages of the training process.
Fitness development tempo in two athletes:

although in the beginning (t1) the b athlete may be
weaker than the a athlete, the latter catches up with
the athlete b (t2) and later becomes even better (t3)
Fitness
indicators
t1
t2
11 - 7
t3
Developmental
phases
System of sports selection repeated activity with a

constant monitoring of the development of childrenfuture athletes
Selection
Sports selection
Natural selection
Positive
prognosis
Tendencies to the
positive prognosis
As regards
elite sports
As a rule, lost
for sports
Negative
prognosis
Monitoring of
athletes
development
Mass sport, recreation sport,

leisure-time sport
Elite sports
In order to understand better the selection

system and to implement it successfully the
following is necesssary:
To identify the abilities and characteristics of athletes

that are under a high influence of genetic
factors, thus being training-influence-resistant.
To identify the abilities and characteristics that are
under a smaller influence of genetic factors,
thus being training-influence-sensitive.
To recognise the level of interest and willingness
to become involved in the systematic and demanding
programme of long-lasting sports preparation
11 - 8
Algorithm of the process of selecting potential

top-level athletes (the defined criteria should be
satisfied prior to a positive selection)
Is there an adequate
level of
transformation-resistant
abilities ?
yes
Is there an adequate
level of
transformation-sensitive
abilities?
yes
no
yes
Is there adequate
motivation to be
subjected to elite
sports training?
no
no
yes
Any compensation
possibility?
Any possibilities to correct

or compensate for
sport-related drawbacks?
no
Any possibility to
correct drawbacks?
no
no
Positive selection
To be oriented to any other

sporting activity/branch
yes
yes
Prognosis of max. potential

Target of long-term preparation stages
Prospective training plan
11 - 9
Lesson 12:
Sport and
sports
training of
children
and the
young
After attending the class and mastering this lesson

students will be able to:
Define and analyse a pyramid-like system of long-term
sports preparation
Talk about the aims and characteristics of a universal sports
school
Talk about the aims and characteristics of an elementary
sports school
Talk about the aims and characteristics of a specialised
sports school
Analyse the association of biological factors of sports
development and training effects
List and describe the fundamental rules of sports training for
children and the young
List and describe the performance factors a of sports career
(social environment, family, school, sports club, trainer)
12 - 1
Pyramid-like system of long-term sports preparation

(according to Hoffmann & Schneider, 1985)
Area of elite selective sports
High
performance
training
SPORTSRECREATION
GROUPS
SCHOOL
SPORTS
CLUBS
(SECTIONS)
Final sports
11-12 god
perfection
Specialisation
sports schools
15-16 Specialised training 7-8 god
C) CRITERIA FOR
Commence of sports
SPORTS EVENT
13-14
specialisation
AND TEAM
Elementary
POSITION
sports schools
SELECTION
11-12
Directed sports preparation 3-4 god
B) SPORTS BRANCH
D) SELECTION CRITERIA
FOR APPEARANCE AT
THE MAIN WORLD
COMPETITIONS
SELECTION
CRITERIA
9-10
A) ORIENTATION
TO SPORTS
7-8
CRITERIA
Versatile-basic
sports priprema
Universal sports schools
Preliminary sports preparation
Population of non-trained girls and boys
12.1. Sports schools

Children of superior motor abilities,
positively evaluated in the process of
orientation, join a universal children sports
school that most commonly embraces age
categories from 6-7 to 10 yrs.
The duration of this school is shorter
for future gymnasts and rhythmic
gymnasts since the selection for these
sports commences earlier.
12 - 2
ADOLESCENTS
TRAINING
17-18
CHILDRENS
TRAINING
SPORTS CLUBS
OF LOWER
QUALITY
RANKING
(maximum
19-20 realisation, effects)
ADULTS TRAINING
Area of mass sports
Suitable age of children and the young when

starting with training in certain stages of sports
improvement (modified according to Martin, 1982)
Start of the systematic
training in the chosen
sport (years)
Start of the elite adult

athletic training principles
application (years)
Figure skating
6-7
15
Artistic gymnastics (w)
7-8
14
Swimming
7-9
15-16
14-15
Sports discipline
Rhythmic gymnastics
Diving
8-9
16
Tennis
8-9
16-17
Skiing
17
Artistic gymanstics (m)
9-10
15-16
Football / Soccer
10-11
17-18
Basketball
10-11
18
Athletics (jumps and throws)
10-12
20-21
Volleyball
11-12
18-19
Ice hockey
11-13
19-20
Endurance sports disciplines
12-14
20-21

From the fifth primary school grade at the latest,
i.e. for the children of 10 or 11 yrs of age, which
have satisfied the selection criteria for the
inclusion in the systematic sports training process
of most sports disciplines, elementary sports
school starts.
12 - 3
For stage one (age

group 10-12 yrs) the
beginning is
characteristic of the
directed sports
preparation, whereas
for stage two (age
group 13-14 yrs) the
beginning of sports
specialisation is
characteristic.
12.1.3. Specialized sports schools

After primary school
(age 14 yrs), young
quality athletes start
their involvement in
the systematic club
training, first as
cadets (14-16 yrs), and
afterwards as juniors
(17-18 yrs).
12 - 4
12.2. Fundamental rules of

training for children and the young
Detection and development of children
talented for sports is performed by their
constant selection in the universal and
elementary sports schools.
For each child the right sport should be
found, i.e. the one in which his/her chances
for success are greatest.
The process of sports preparation of children

and the young is executed, in accordance with
the chronological and biological
characteristics of their age, through several
developmental stages (stages of long-term
sports training).
It is indispensable to provoke children and

young athletes into action and to insist on their
need habit to learn and exercise regularly,
persistently and hard
12 - 5
There is no doubt that nowadays premature

specialisation in many sports and forced
participation in competition starts at an early
age.
However, lively discussion is going on about
which age is suitable, beneficial to start with a
pronounced/ enhanced sports
specialisation.
The forcing of sports talents too early
does not have the wanted effects. Parents,
trainers and sports scientists are unanimous in
this opinion.
Every exercise must be repeated many times. Yet,

any repetition with an error must not be allowed.
An already acquired erroneous performance is very
hard to correct later.
The development of abilities and the
teaching/learning of motor skills/knowledge is
executed by means of adequate contents, loads
and variable training methods.
In the first years of the training process the
sports development of children is predominantly
influenced by biological determinants, whereas the
later progressive influence of training effects
becomes obvious.
12 - 6
FITNESS LEVEL (SIZE OF CAPABILITIES)
Fitness development of children and the young is

influenced by both biological determinants and
the training process (Hoffmann & Schneider, 1985)
DETERMINANTS AND FACTORS OF
BIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
INTEGRAL TRAINING
EFFECTS
AGE TRAINING EXPERIENCE OF ATHLETES
Prior to the systematic training a young athlete

should be subjected to a detailed and
comprehensive orthopaedic and medical
check-up.
With as high certainty as possible the
following should be excluded: any possible
negative findings and degenerative changes
in the active and passive parts of the
locomotor system and cardio-pulmonary
system, which can present a danger for a
young athlete.
12 - 7
When working with children and young athletes a

trainer must invest his/her maximum effort and
engage his/her entire body of knowledge and all
his/her abilities.
One must be extremely careful not to
jeopardize the health and entire
development of young athletes due to
his/her insufficient or obsolete/out-ofdate knowledge.
A coach should contact, refer to professionals
and scientists to find help from those who
have renown expertise in the interdisciplinary area
of sports preparation.
12.3. Performance factors of a

sports career
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
(community, peers,
neighbourhood)
SCHOOL
CHILD ATHLETE
sports talent
health status
basic and specific abilities
knowledge, skills, habits
personal strategies of problem solving
personality traits
emotional states (moods)
TRAINING
12 - 8
SPORTS CLUB /
SPORTS FEDERATION
FAMILY
12.3.1. Social environment (community,

peers, neighbourhood)
It respects and acknowledges a childs
involvement in sports and evaluates
positively his/her abilities and characteristics;
A milieu in which a child can satisfy his/her
need for belonging and respect despite
his/her differences;
Where a child can satisfy his/her interests
and needs he/she cannot satisfy in a
sports club.
12.3.2. Family
family members, by their attitude towards a
child-athlete, encourage his/her talent
and support his/her participation in the
process of sports training and competition by
providing:
- adequate living conditions
(accommodation, nutrition, rest,
etc.)
- adequate psychological (emotional)
support
- material and other conditions necessary
for training and competition.
12 - 9
12.3.3. School
should provide childrens successful involvement
in sports by the following:
- adequate system of schooling;
- adequate academic work loads;
- support when the missed parts of the school
programme due to training and competition have be
caught up with
- to provide in general a positive class and school
atmosphere supporting the expression of special
qualities
12.3.4. Sports club sports federation

is organised and financed in a way so as to be
able to offer to every athlete the following:
- material and humane support in training and
competition;
- stability as regards the engagement of a coach and
other working conditions in training and competitions
- correct reviewing and evaluation of an athletes sports
achievements
12 - 10
12.3.5. A training program

should be designed and executed so as to
ensure:
- the correctness of work work adequate to
the trainees individual and age
features/characteristics;
- adequate training loads (stimuli duration and
intensity);
- adequacy of sports achievements
(correspondence of aims and results).
In the training process for

children special care should be
devoted to the following:
working conditions of sports
preparation (arriving at and leaving
the training premises, time between
two training sessions);
expert competency of trainers and
other members of the expert
coaching team guarantees the
security of young athletes in the
training process, during competition
and recovery;
trainers relationship with his/her
trainee in which they both strive to
achieve the same aims.
12 - 11
Lesson 13:
Training for fitness and sport

preparedness

Define and analyse training fitness levels
Understand and describe the condition of sport shape
Define the characteristics of conditions of sport shape
Talk about the developmental phases of sport shape
Define the regularities of sport shape management
and be able to analyse its characteristics in relation to
sport-specific characteristics, to the athlete and to its
dynamic of development and maintainance
Determine the specificities of the prolonged (delayed)
training effects in a preparation period
13 - 1
13.1. Fitness of athletes

Sports training fitness is a very complex category. It denotes
the optimal condition and functioning of an athlete in the
process of training and competition.
It implies:
a superb health status
the highest level of physiological functions (energy
supply capacities) and motor abilities (physical condition)
technical and tactical effectiveness
adequate mental stability of an athlete
high motivation/drive
the best structure of morphological characteristics.
The optimal state of an athlete means his/her

ever possible functioning in relation to
his/her individual characteristics and the
working conditions of the process of training
and competition.
Fitness determines the level of the specific
work potential of an athlete, his/her potential,
capability and actual quality to accomplish high
sports achievements/results.
Sports fitness is a product of diverse (all) sports
preparation programmes and traits of any (living)
organism to change/ transform and improve
(adaptation) under the influence of certain
environmental stimuli, incitements.
13 - 2
13.2. Sport shape / preparedness

Sport shape is the heighest level of sportspecific fitness; it enables the athlete to perform
at his/her best, to accomplish the best results at
the most important, main competitions.
Sport shape is a period of athletes heighest

sports achievements in their sport within the
perennial (lifetime sport shape) and the annual
(targeted sport shape) training cycle.
General attributes of an athlete in a

high-achievement sport shape:
the sense of being healthy is pronounced,
expresses an urge, a need to work out,
the drive to perform his/her best at a
competition is clearly manifested,
quick adaptation to
all training and
competition
demands.
13 - 3
Biomotor indicators of a good sport shape:

Biochemical state of the organism (blood lactate
and urea concentration, status of glykogen and
catecholamine)
Physiological state of the organism (heart
frequency, spiroergometric indicators, body
temperature, blood pressure)
Motor condition of the athlete (motor abilities tests)
Economical functioning of all the organ systems
is manifested as a lower energy consumption in a work
unit; it facilitates and accelerates the process
of restoration and recovery.
Psychological indicators of a good sport

shape:
High level of mental stability under stressful
competition conditions
Pronounced maximal mobility of mental
processes
Enhanced range of motivation responses
which provides excessive physical loads tolerance
Optimism
Achievement drive
13 - 4
13.3. Sport shape development

phases
In the dynamic process of developing high
achievements sport shape within one macrocycle
three typical phases can be recognised:
Phase 1: entry into the high achievement
sport shape (preparedness for high results)
Phase 2: stabilization and maintenance of
peaks (peaking of sport shape for the main
competitions)
Phase 3: temporary underperformance / loss

of sport shape (temporary loss of sport shape at
the end of one macrocycle, detraining).
Development phases of sport shape

%
100
90
80
70
Phase 1: level of sport
shape gained
Phase 2: sport shape

maintenance
Phase 3: sport shape

loss; detraining
Preparation-control
competitions
Main official
competitions
Other competitions
(meetings)
Preparation period
Competition / Inseason period
Transition period
Mesocycles (stages)
Mesocycles
(competition season(s))
Mesocycles (stages)
Microcycles
Microcycles
Microcycles
13 - 5
For sports practice it is of the outmost importance

that the so defined phase-like form of high
achievement sport shape can be manifested in a
curve-like form with one, two or more peaks,
depending on the following:
(prolonged) duration of competition period or
specific distribution of competitions in the
competition period,
multicycle training periodization of the
annual cycle.
Development curve of high achievements sport

shape (prolonged competition period duration in
an annual
cycle) (according to Platonov, 1997)
%
100
90
80
70
60
A
Preparation
period
Competition
period
Transition
period
Competition
period
Transition
period
%
100
90
80
70
60
A
Preparation
period
13 - 6
Development curve of high achievements sport

shape (multicycle annual training periodization)
%
100
(according to Platonov, 1997)
90
80
70
60
PP
CP
TP
PP
CP
TP
%
100
90
80
70
60
XI
PP
CP
XII I
II
TP
III
IV
PP
CP
VI
TP
VII
PP
CP
VIII
TP
IX
13.4. Sport shape management

Sport shape should be managed because an
athlete does not always need to perform
his/her best (and he/she cannot), but when it is
most important
The determination of orientation curves of
training loads is a crucial part of sport shape
management
Extensity (volume) (stimulus duration, number
of repetitions, work duration)
Intensity (stimulus potency, force magnitude,
strength/power, tempo, speed)
13 - 7
In the first part of the preparation period the

volume of training work prevails, to which
intensity is added in the second part.
Intensity of workouts is the component of
physical training loads that, together with the
application of situation-like exercises and
competition-like models of loads, provides a quick
and safe gain of high achievements in sport
shape.
Orientation curve of training loads and sport shape

dynamics within the annual training periodization of
soccer players (according to Bauer, in Grosser et al, 1986)
100
90
80
Last round
First
round
70
Sp. shape
Volume
Intensity
60
1
VI
High results
sport shape
Periods
2
VII
3
VIII
4
IX
5
X
6
XI
7
XII
8
I
9
II
III
11 Mesocycles
10
IV
Sp. shape
building
1st wave of high sport

shape
Shape 2nd wave of high

loss
sport shape
Shape
loss
Preparation
period
1st competition period
Transition
period
Transition
period
13 - 8
2nd competition
period
Months
In small cycles sport shape (peaking) follows the

competition participation rhythm (7-day or threeday rhythm)
According to the competition
participation rhythm work ability
of the CNS varies like the ebb
and flow of the tide.
In the moments of flow,
high tide the athlete is
able to accomplish the
greatest sports results.
13.5. Dynamic attributes of sport

shape
The FIRST attribute of sport shape is: every
sports branch has its specific model of high
sport shape gain and maintenance.
Diverse competition calendars various
training periodizations
Specific structures of competition activities of
various sports branches and the respective
anthropological characteristics of preparedness
of athletes
13 - 9
Development curve of sport shape within an

annual training cycle (a one cycle, b two cycle)
100%
70%
a
XI XII
II III IV
Preparation period
VI
VII VIII IX
Competition
period
Transition
period
100%
70%
b
VI
VII VIII IX
PP
CP
XI XII
PP
II III IV
CP
TP
The SECOND attribute of sport shape is: its

individual character as regards the abilities and
traits of individual athletes.
Individual characteristics determine the
development dynamics of sport shape
Some athletes gain their high achevements
sport shape earlier, others later
heterochronicity.
Some athletes are able to maintain a high level
of their sport shape longer than others.
General condition of training fitness is in the
function of sport shape development dynamics.
13 - 10
The THIRD attribute of sport shape is its

dynamic character.
Sport shape may vary within acceptable
boundaries.
%
100
5%
90
80
70
60
However, if performance crosses the boundaries of

the oscillation-allowed space and becomes lower
than the wanted one (underperformance), the
coach/trainer must apply managing actions in
order to restore performance to the wanted level
as soon as possible.
%
100
?!?
90
Alarming
condition
80
70
60
13 - 11
The FOURTH attribute of sport shape is the

occurrence of the delayed - prolonged
transformation (training) effects.
Training effects can be manifested either
simultaneously with an increase of training loads
(A), or later (B and C).
The phenomenon of the delayed - prolonged
training effects is not a negative, unwanted one in
the training process; it is associated with peaking.
If after the application of input (training stimulus) the

resulting changes (trainees responses) are analysed
in certain parts of the system or in the entire system,
then the following becomes obvious:
1. Responses are simultaneous with the training itself, or they
occur immediately after the training application
%
30
20
10
1
5
months
%
140
120
1
100
5
months
80
13 - 12
According to Siff and Verkhoshansky (1999), in

sports practice training effects can occur
later, i.e. some time after the period in which
the training with high and overlaping loads has
been applied during a preparation period (PTE).
Occurrence of the prolonged transformation

effects (Siff & Verkhoshansky, 1999)
%
30
20
10
1
5
months
Competition period starts
140
120
100
5
months
80
13 - 13
Onset of the prolonged transformation effects in

certain sports branches
Specific takeoff abilities
%
130
120
110
100
90
HIGH JUMP
Absolute
strength
months
Power/
explosive
strength
%
130
120
110
100
90
VOLLEYBALL
Absolute
strength
10
weeks
Power /
explosive
strength
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
11
Absolute
strength
TENNIS
XI
XII
13 - 14
II
III
months
Lesson 14:
Sports training as a
transformation process

Define and describe a general model of the
transformation process in sports;
Talk about and compare the diverse types of
trajectories of fitness/preparedness condition
during a training process;
Describe the vectors of fitness condition of
athletes
Talk about the deterministic and the stochastic
process
Define and discuss the importance of the
process of sports training management and
regulation
14 - 1
14.1. Definitions
Sports training is a programmed
transformation process by means of which
the initial condition, described with a set of
fitness/preparedness indicators, transforms
into the new desired condition in line with
training periodization, the competition
calendar and acceptable recovery measures
The transformation process is a change of input,

condition and/or output of any system over a
period of time. The change is a result of
material, energy and information communication
with the environment or among system parts.
14 - 2
14.2. General model of

transformation process in sport
So Tf = Sf
So the condition of an athlete at the beginning of
the training process (starting, opening, or initial)
Tf the training operator which produces
transformation (which changes) the known condition

of the athlete described with the So vector
Sf the condition of the athlete at the end of the

training process (finishing, closing, or final)
SoT1= St1
(initial state x 1st training operator = 1st transition

statue)
St1T2= St2
(1st transition state x 2nd training operator

= 2nd transition state)
(2nd transition state x last but one training operator =
last but one transition state)
St2Tf-1= Sf-1
Sf-1Tf= Sf
(last but one transition state x final training operator

= final state of fitness /preparedness)
T = Tt
t=1
f
S = Ss
s=1(i)
T = T1,T2,T3,Tf-1,Tf
Training operators
S = Si,St1,St2,St3,Sf-1,Sf
States of preparedness
14 - 3
Conditions of athletes are

interdependent (correlated):
S1
S3
S2
S2
S3
S1
The condition of athletes at any point of

the transformation process depends on
his/her condition at previous points,
and the final condition of athletes
depends on all the previous ones
(the Markov chain, i.e. process)
Response of an athletes organism

to the training operators
Response is a timely function (response time)
(t). It is obtained as the output value of the
system (training effects) if its input
(training programme) has been any standard
function U(t)
U(t)
Input
S
Condition
14 - 4
I(t) = f((u(t))
Output
It practically means that, if the chracteristics of an

athlete are known at the beginning of the training
process (So) and if a set of management actions
is also known (from To to T1), the characteristics
of the future condition (St1) can be determined
with a high level of certainty
P Si p Sf = MAX
The aim of training is to maximize the
distance between the measured initial
condition and the achieved final condition of
an athlete within the specified time interval
P Sf o Sf = MIN
The aim of training is also to minimize the
difference between the achieved final
condition and the desired final condition of an
athlete
14 - 5
Vectors of athletic conditions
(to assess particular conditions the same sets of

measuring instruments should be used)
Zi1
Zi2
Zi3
Zi4
Si = Zi5
Zi6
Zi7
Zin-1
Zin
Zf1
Zf2
Zf3
Zf4
Sf =
Zf5
Zf6
Zf7
Zfn-1
Zfn
Zf1
Zf2
Zf3
Zf4
Zi1
Zi2
Zi3
Zi4
Sf Si = Zf5 Zi5
Zf6 Zi6
Zf7 Zi7
Zfn-1 Zin-1
Zfn - Zin
14.3. Types of trajectories of

preparedness conditions
Progressive type of preparedness condition trajectory

Fitness indicators
Si
T1
(Si to Sf) (Milanovi, 2010)

Reinforcing environmental influences
St2
Sf-1
Tf-1
Tf
Sf
St1
T2
Tf+1
Cycles of sports
preparation
14 - 6
Prolonged type (prolonged transformation) of

preparedness condition trajectory (Si to Sf)
(Milanovi, 2010)
Fitness indicators
Sf
Si
T1
Sf-1
St1
St2
T2
Tf-1
Tf
Tf+1
Cycles of sports
preparation
Unfavourable type (alarming condition) of

preparedness development trajectory (Si to Sf)
(Milanovi, 2010)
Fitness indicators
Sf
St1
?!
Sf-1
St2
T2
Tf-1
Tf
T1
14 - 7
Tf+1
Cycles of sports
preparation
14.4. Types of transformation

processes
Deterministic process
The process is a deterministc one if the programmed
management actions transform the known athletic
condition into the only one possible condition.
Stochastic process
The process is a stochastic one if the programmed
management action transform the known athletic
condition into one out of many from a set of
potential conditions.
When any input or management action (training)

has an influence on a system (status of an
athlete), then changes in its function, i.e.
his/her sports performance are caused.
14 - 8
Lesson 15:
Sports competitions

Define sports competition as a component of
sports preparation;
Talk about the fundamental characteristics of
sports competitions;
Describe and compare particular types of
competition;
Talk about the process of planning and carrying
out a competition
Discuss the set standards, i.e.qualification criteria
for participation in big competitions
15 - 1
15.1. Definition and

characteristics of competitions
Thiess (1978), eljaskov (2004) and Bompa (2006)
define a competition as the process of comparing
sports condition between individuals and teams
according to the defined rules and norms. They define
it as a social phenomenon.
Sports competitions are sports performances or events.
They are crucial components of the sports
condition and sports form management.
In competitions there are always two individuals or
two teams in a state of opposition to each other.
One of the opponents tries, by their actions, to destroy
the actions of the opponents, that is, to overpower the
rivals.
A competiton presumes civilized behaviour of all

the participants: athletes, referees, trainers and
spectators.
The foundation of every competition is the equality
principle of all the participants, meaning also that
opportunities should be the same for every sports
contestant in order to enable an unbiased
comparison of an individual and/or team sports
condition.
15 - 2
However, equal
opportunities objectively
do not exist due to
diverse training
programmes, work and
material conditions, but,
unfortunately, also due to
manipulations (doping,
etc.).
Even the impact of
referees and a different
interpretation of the rules
contribute to a bias in
competition conditions.
The competition system must be in the

function of the development of the sports
branch in question.
Competition experience induces ideas to
introduce changes of competition rules
which then in turn incite changes in the sports
training of individuals and teams (e.g. a quick
throw-off in team handball, a point counting
change in volleyball, etc.)
15 - 3
Much more intensive stimuli occur in a

competition than in a training session, which is
caused by environmental, extrinsic factors
(limited time, sports adversary, spectators,
referees, behaviour limiting factors, etc.)
15.2. Classification of
competitions
Sports competitions can be classified
according to various criteria.
There are, for example, cup competitions,
then control preparation competitions, or
doubles competitions.
In every sports branch there are competition
systems developed in line with the sports
characteristics, age categories and historical
factors.
15 - 4
INTRODUCTORY/
PRELIMINARY
C
L
A
S
S
I
F
I
C
A
T
I
O
N
C
O
M
P
E
T
I
T
I
O
N
BY
COMPETITION
CALENDAR
PREPARATION
CONTROL
OFFICIAL
MAIN
ROUND-ROBIN SYSTEM
BY
COMPETITION
SYSTEM
CUP SYSTEM
TOURNAMENT SYSTEM
MEETINGS
OCCASIONAL
REVIVAL COMPETITIONS
COMBINED SYSTEM
BY
COMPETITION
TYPES
INDIVIDUAL, SINGLES
PAIRS, DOUBLES
TEAM
SELECTIONS
15.3. Planning and conducting

a competition
An athlete should
perform, participate in a
competition only if he/she
can satisfy the set
standards with his/her
physical, TE-TA abilities
and personality features.
Only athletes who have
met the participation
standards can appear at
big competitions.
15 - 5
There are norms, i.e. participation criteria,

determined in advance, for every big
competition (ECs, WCs & OG).
A definite number of participating

countries (national teams) is usually defined
for any big competition (in the basketball
Olympic Games tournament 12 teams
participate from every continent).
In the world competitions in track-and-field and
swimming only athletes who have met the
result norms (e.g. for men, 20m in shot put or
5.50m pole vault) can participate.
The plan and programme of sports preparation

should be defined with the optimal ratio of
training and competition activities.
It is one of the crucial preconditions for sports
preparation effects to be accomplished and for
the full expression of an athletes potential
(abilities and skills) at qualification and main
competitions.
15 - 6
Competition days and appearances of top-level

athletes in an annual cycle
(Platonov, 1997)
NUMBER OF
COMPETITION DAYS
SPORTS
NUMBER OF STARTS
(appearances)
Adult
athletes
Young
athletes
Adult
athletes
Young
athletes
ARTISTIC
GYMNASTICS
25-35
20-25
210-250
180-210
DIVING
25-35
20-25
275-360
250-275
FENCING
30-40
25-30
415-480
350-400
SOCCER
70-85
60-70
70-85
60-70
TABLE TENNIS
75-80
60-75
380-420
300-360
WATERPOLO
60-65
50-60
60-65
50-60
Event programs should ensure the atmosphere

of strong competition to participants, thus
enabling the complete mobilization of athletes
biological and mental reserves as well as TE-TA
skills and knowledge.
That will further enable athletes to perform at
their best, and therefore to accomplish their
best records.
Each competition is a demonstration to both the
trainer and athlete of the extent of
improvement in performance (results) and how
efficient the sports preparation done for the
target competition has been.
15 - 7
Lesson 16:
Recovery of
athletes:
supplemental
factors of
sports
preparation

Define the recovery of athletes as a component of
sports preparation.
Describe and represent graphically the importance of
recovery in sports.
Compare the time line of a training programme with
and withot recovery measures.
List all the recovery methods and means.
Talk about some of the forbidden pharmacological
substances as the greatest danger for sports and
athletes.
16 - 1
16.1. Definition and significance

of recovery for athletes
An enhanced volume of work, especially a high
intensity of workloads in training and competitions
require adequate recovery during rest time.
Recovery implies the application of diverse
procedures that can enable the quick regeneration
of athletes and the re-establishment of
homeostatis which the previous exertion has
disturbed.
Simultaneously with the development of training
methods recovery methods have also been
developed. By the application of these methods one
can prevent the onset of overload and
overtraining.
Application of efficacious recovery methods

contributes considerably to the enlargement of
the number of training sessions within a time unit
(Platonov, 1997)
16 - 2
Main functions of recovery are:

Normalization of biological functions in an athletes
organism
Normalization of the homeostatic balance
Restoration of energy supply reserves with the
establishment of temporary supercompensation
Reconstructional effects in relation to cell structures
and enzymic systems
The first and the second function are realized
within several minutes, rarely several hours (quick
recovery), whereas the third and fourth are
realized over a longer period of time, up to 72 hours
after the work-out.
fatigue
The next work-out a

is the most efficient
if it comes at the
moment of the reestablished, or, even b
better, enhanced
work capability.
Recovery methods
c
considerably
contribute to that.
recovery
time
time
fatigue
recovery
time
time
16 - 3
Correct training programming with adequate means,

methods and workloads should provide a proper
recovery of an athletes organism, which is
manifested in the readiness of the athlete to
perform well in training and competition on a
day to day basis:
I dont care at all whether Ani performs poorly in the next
tournament, whether he will lose or win. I am only

interested in his capability to train normally the next
day. If he were not be able to do so, if he needed much
more for his recovery, then we would have done nothing.
(Freddy Rossengren, SN, 2007)
In practice special recovery measures are applied

prior to a work-out aimed at the development of
a particular ability (e.g. anticatabolic agents)
(Platonov, 1997)
1
AN
B
2
16 - 4
Gambetta (1989) asserts that 20% of

training contents and 30-35% of
workload must be automatically reduced
when training is conducted without a
pharmacological means aid.
These substances atheletes can use
under the strict supervision of a
physician.
16.2. Classification of recovery

methods and means
Recovery level control

-tests-
16 - 5
Pedagogical means
Motivational methods
Suggestive techniques
Psycho-pedagogical
methods
Autogenic training
Pharmacological
means
Technical means
Bio-medical
methods
Physical means
Nutrition
Social status
Life style/regime
Primary
methods
Types of means aimed at the recovery

of athletes
1. Pharmacological means
Energetic substances
Anabolic substances
Catalysers and regulators of metabolism:
metabolites, enzymes, minerals
Pharmacological doping: hormonal
preparations !?!
2. Physiotherapeutical
means
Massage
Sauna
Hydrotherapy: baths
Application of warmth
Cryotherapy, application
of cold
Other procedures
3. Psychological
means
Psycho-regulative
training
Autogenic training
Suggestive
techniques, hypnosis
Attractiveness of
programme
4. Special means
Altitude * mountain training

Hypoxia * hyperoxia
Hyperthermia * hypothermia
Electro-stimulation * stretching
16 - 6
16.3. Illicit pharmacological

means: doping
(the greatest threat to athletes and sports)

Doping is the use of the forbidden chemical and
other substances during sports preparation with
the sole intention of artificially increasing
sports or work performance and improving sports
results.
It is forbidden to give illicit substances

(doping) to athletes and persons connected to
them. They must not take any illicit
substance or they may contravene the rules of
the Croatian Olympic Committee and International
Olympic Committee.
The National Antidoping Agency in sports is
the specialized institution responsible for
monitoring and the implementation of the
Croatian antidoping legislation and international
antidoping conventions in the Republic of Croatia.
World Antidoping Agency; WADA
16 - 7
1. Stimulants
Medications, prescription drugs:
amphetamines, ephedrines increase natural
human fatigue tolerance in athletes, i.e. prolong
the onset of the sense of exhaustion
2. Opiates (narcotics, opioids)
Derivates of opium: codeine causes the
stop reflex to be switched off in the central
nervous system
3. Anabolic substances
Hormonal preparations testosterone
Anabolic steroids enhance protein synthesis
and voluminosity of muscles in power sports.
4. Corticosteroids
Hormones of the adrenal cortex improve

performance in continuous intermittent workloads
5. Blood autotransfusion
800-1200ml of blood + erythrocytes

(haemoglobin)
6. Beta-blockers (beta- adrenergic blocking agents)
Improve concentration and alertness
7. Sedatives/tranquilizers
Substances induce sedation and relaxation
8. Local anaesthetics
Increase pain tolerance
16 - 8
Lesson 17:
Biological principles of sports

training

Talk about the recruitment levels of the energy
supply reserves of athletes.
Talk about the principles of adaptation.
Discuss the principle of training continuity.
Analyse and graphically present the
supercompensation (overcompensation) occurrence.
Talk about the principle of load progression in
training and competition.
Talk about the wavy shape (undulation) of training
and competition load programming and define the
law of progressive intermittent load and the law of
contrast loads.
17 - 1
17.1. Introductory observations

In any activity that is to be successful, one has to
define and strictly respect its regularities and
principles.
Such behaviour enables a quality construction and
implementation of sports preparation programmes
and a safe accomplishment of the wanted effects.
Principles and rules are the results, findings of
scientific research studies and of the
corroborated experience of coaches and their
athletes.
Recruiting levels of athletes functional reserves

(diverse loads induce different levels of fatigue and exhaustion)
Vital protective reserves of the organism
100%
90%
Area of life-threatening
exhaustion
Area of borderline
exhaustion
Area of great
physical, mental &
emotional fatigue
Area of
considerable fatigue
Area of moderate
fatigue
80%
Life
threat
doping
fear
Training influence-action
efficiency of athletes
Mobilization
threshold
Simple recruiting levels of

functional reserves
Physiological fitness
/readiness for sport effect
17 - 2
T
R
A
I
N
I
N
G
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Strength development training (A) and strength level

maintainance with training sessions of variable frequency
%
(according to Hettinger, in Melerovi & Meler, 1975)
Daily training regime
100
No training (B1)
Strength progression
50
0
Individual training
session
100
Insufficient
frequency of
trainng
sessions (B2)
50
0
100
Optimal
frequency of
training
sessions (B3)
50
0
10
10
20
30
40
50
60
Tjedni
17.2. Adaptation in sports

Adaptation is a process of transformation,
the changing of an athletes characteristics and
abilities, relevant to his/her best, or at least,
acceptable functioning in either standard or
variable conditions of athletic work.
The nature of sports adaptation is clearly

manifested in the mechanism of homeostasis
always at a higher, i.e. more efficient level of
activity or functioning in sports.
17 - 3
By means of training athletes achieve the state of

fitness (optimal condition), which ensures high
efficiency / economy,a rationality of psychomotor
performance and the accomplishment of the
wanted competition results.
This includes structural, metabolic and
functional changes in an athletes organism.
We are dealing with the long-term
adaptation of particular organs and organic

systems to certain programmes of motor actions
and to certain types of neuro-muscular activities
and energy processes.
In sports practice adaptation finds its expression

in the specific transformations of an
athletes conditions under the influence of
training effects, competition system and
recovery measures.
17 - 4
In the area of top-level sport the basic issue is

an individual course of the process of
adaptation to the requirements of the highlevel sports activity (sports can be
differentiated one from the other by these
requirements).
For each stage of the long-term sports
specialization clearly defined levels or phases
of adaptation processes are characteristic.
17.3. Continuity of the process

of training
Sports training is a long-term

process of improvement which
should proceed
continuously, with no
interruption, through an
incessant alternation of the
intervals of work and of rest.
17 - 5
The interval of work is a stimulation part of the

process, whereas the interval of rest ensures
regeneration, recovery for a new training experience.
Work causes exhaustion, whereas rest enables the

re-establishment of work ability first and then it
elevates the work ability to a higher level. In that
way an athlete prepares for a new training
session.
The occurrence of supercompensation is a

basic acute, immediate functional response of
the organism on which effects accumulation and
the development of sports shape are based.
A correctly prescribed load causes
corresponding fatigue and exhaustion, whereas a
correct recovery produces the corresponding
course of restoration and occurrence of elevated
work ability, required for the next training
session.
17 - 6
Supercompensation in the process of training

(Milanovi, 2005, according to Weineck, 1988, and eljaskov, 2004)
TRAINING
RECOVERY
Starting
condition level
of an athletes
organism
Returning
to the
starting
level
Compensation
Exhaustion of
the organism
Supercompensation
Supercompensation can be monitored through the

changes of biochemical parameters (Grosser et al., 1986)
Load
Enlargement of energy reserves

supercompensation (glycogen is here an
ability enhancement factor)
Decrease of energy
reserves (after 1- 2 days)
Starting
level
E
Time (day,
week)
Consumption
of energy
substances
(glycogen
here)
Exhaustion
of the
organism
Time interval of recovery compensation

(during 1- 2 days) through diverse
biochemical processes
Training application time
interval (prescribed
intensity and volume of
load)
17 - 7
Physiological and biochemical reactions during

load and recovery intervals (Neumann, 1993)
%
400
Heart rate
300
Cortisol
200
100
Urea in blood
Free fat
acids
Lactates
Athetes condition
prior to the game or
training
Training or game
course
Recovery course
Weight
Insulin
Creatine kinase
Acute
protein
synthesis
Glycogen
100
150
1
4 5
min
1
h
Load training
3
h
day
Rest- recovery
The trainer must recognize the dynamics and

intensity of the particular recovery phases
separately in each athlete because it is optimal,
as a rule, to apply the next training session
simultaneously with the peak of the
supercompensation wave.
17 - 8
I. Supercompensation dynamics when the

next training session comes too late
(Milanovi, 2006, according to, Hahn, 1982, Weineck,

1988, Matvejev, 2000)
II. Supercompensation dynamics when the

next training session comes too early
(subcompensation)
(Milanovi, 2006, according to Hahn, 1982, Weineck,

1988, Matvejev, 2000)
17 - 9
III. Supercompensation dynamics when the next

training session comes at the best moment
(Milanovi, 2006, according to Hahn, 1982, Weineck, 1988,

Matvejev, 2000)
When constructing several microcycles (MC), the

dynamics of supercompensation processes should be
respected (modified according to eljaskov, 1998)
3 MC
2 MC
1 MC
There is a possibility that the next few work-outs may fall in the
period of subcompensation. If that is the case, an extended rest
should be planned to induce the occurrence of supercompensation.
17 - 10
Training sessions of diverse goal orientation

produce very specific dynamics of exhaustion
and recovery (supercompensation).
After a work-out aimed at, e.g. speed development,
three compensation waves are manifested for:
1. the repeated speed training
2. the repeated anaerobic training
3. the repeated aerobic training.
Dynamics of supercompensation waves after the training sessions

aimed at the development of speed (B), anaerobic (AN) and aerobic
abilities (A) (Platonov, 1997)
Speed training
Aerobic training
Anaerobic training
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 hours
AN
hours
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 hours
17 - 11
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
Known data about the total load and time needed

for a complete recovery (induced occurrence of
supercompensation) after various types of
physical conditioning training sessions.
Load
MA
SMA
ME
Motor
abilities
Coordination
Speed
Strength/
power
Recovery (h)
6
12
24
48
72
The influence of the next

training session is based
upon traces of the
previous training session
(training effects).
This postulate is valid for
the selection of training
contents, loads and
training methods evenly.
17 - 12
Endurance
Strength
endurance
Speed
endurance
17.4. Load progression of training

and competition
During a long-term process of sports preparation

loads constantly grow and become ever
greater.
In one developmental stage loads are at the

highest border of absolute total load
(volume+intensity) and at the upper limit of
an athletes cardio-respiratory, motor and
psychological capacities.
Increment dynamics of training load indicators in

sports preparation of athletes of diverse age
categories
Stages of perennial sports
preparation in sports games
Indicators of absolute training

load volume (%)
6-10 years
Universal sports preparation
30 45 %
11-14 years
Oriented sports preparation
45 60 %
15-17 years
Sports specialization
60 75 %
18-19 years
Highly specialized sports preparation
executed by the rules of the training for
adult top-level athletes
75 90 %
20 and more years

Stage of high performance/high sports
achievements (training of adult top-level
athletes)
90 100 %
17 - 13
Requirements of a training process are

continuously increased; every load
stagnation causes a stagnation in the
fitness/training condition and top
performance/sports achievements
In every new stage of sports development

an athletes organism is subjected to the
requirements that are close to his/her
upper functional capacity limits.
Load level is a relative category.
The same volume/intensiy load will over some

time produce ever smaller functional
changes due to the adaptation responses
of the organism and the athlete will
subjectively experience them as lower loads.
Further increments of certain components

of total load are expected in the future.
17 - 14
Standards of weekly and annual work volume

within certain stages of long-term sports
preparation (modified according to Platonov, 1997)
23-26
18-22
1200-1400
14-16
Weekly training
volume (hours)
Annual training
volume (hours)
900 - 1100
8-12
600 - 800
3-6
350 - 500
100 - 250
E1
E2
E3
E4
Stage of the
Stage of
Stage of
Stage of
first max.
initial
basic
special
individual
preparation preparation preparation performance
E5
Stage of the
max. individ.
performance
maintenance
Stages of
sports
perfection
Progressiveness is realized in a perennial

cycle through:
increases of the total annual volume of work
from 250-400 hours to 1300-1500 hours and
more;
increases in the number of training hours within a
weekly microcycle from 3-6 to 14-20 and more;
increases in the number of individual training
sessions from one to three within one training
day with high load;
increases in the number of high impact training
sessions within a microcycle up to 5 or 6 or more
increases in the number of competitions.
17 - 15
In a perennial cycle a constant progression of
the relative total load is obvious.

In any following macrocycle the load is bigger than
it was in the previous one the preparation,
competition and transition/ closing period.
Each year, we should start with a greater load.
The maximum load level is in any following year
higher than it has been ever before.
These postulates are distinctively valid

for young athletes preparation
programmes
17.5. Undulation of training and

competition loads
The process of sports

training is characterized
by the permanent wavy
dynamics of loading and
unloading.
There are periods of
enhanced and periods
of decreased total
load.
17 - 16
Periods of high total load volume and

their components in mesocycles and
microcycles alternate constantly with the
cycles of lower training load.
Thus, favourable conditions are created
for recovery and the efficacious flow of
adaptation changes in the function of
producing accumulation effects.
Wavy shape curve of load intensity (A) and

volume (B) in an annual cycle
A
load
intensity
General preparation
exercises
Competition-like
exercises
Specific exercises
B
load volume
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
MONTHS
II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

Precomp.
STAGES
PERIODS
PREPARATION
17 - 17
1st comp.
OP 2nd comp.
COMPETITION
TRANSITIONI
The distribution of loads and relaxation is a

very important component of sports training
programming.
The distribution of loads follows the curve of a
progressive intermittent character
The expression 3:1 means that after 3 training
sessions of enhanced load, a reduced load follows
in the fourth training session, or after 3 days of a
high-impact work, on the fourth days work-out
the intensity should be reduced.
Wavy shape of load (Matvejev, 1999)

opt
minutes
opt
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
30
45
15
45
30
T
Mon
Training unit
T
Tue
T
T
T
Wed Thu Fri
Microcycle
opt
4
3
2
1
1st week
2nd week
Mesocycle
17 - 18
3rd week
T
Sat
O
Sun
After a period in which the load has been enhanced,

it must be reduced all of a sudden.
The law of contrast in load distribution.
An athlete is not able to sustain continuously
high and the highest loads.
After a few training
sessions or microcycles
of large load, the
controlled reduction of
training work volume
and intensity follows.
17 - 19
Lesson 18:
Didactical principles
of sports training

Talk about the goal orientation principle.
Talk about the sensitive phases specific attributes
of certain dimensions constituting the
fitness/preparedness of athletes.
Analyse and present graphically the association
among sports preparation programmes in
perennial and annual cycles.
Describe the principle of the cyclic nature of
training and present graphically the distribution of
sports preparation cycles.
18 - 1
Didactical principles are based upon scientific

research findings and inferences and upon
corroborated professional experience and
knowledge of high quality/expert coaches/trainers.
They facilitate a deeper understanding of
expert-coach work in the area of a
methodological design of training programmes and
training work
organization.
18.1. Target orientation of training

The focus orientation of the
process of sports training is
based upon the specific
associations between the
goals that are to be
accomplished, and the
training programmes that
should provide the
accomplishment of the
required set goals.
18 - 2
Criteria for goal orientation of

training:
There are certain prerequisites for encouraging the
training to the wanted goals, i.e. for setting the
goals. First, one must know:
The equation of sports performance
specification: i.e. the hierachical structure of
performance factors in a particular sport event or
discipline.
Goal orientation of training denotes a tendency for the
development and perfection of athletes abilities,
especially those significant and relevant to sports
performance and achievements in a particular sport
branch (equation of specification)
Diverse abilities (e.g. A strength/power, B endurance, C - coordination) have various influences

on performance in different sports
C
B
SPORT 2
SPORT 3
SPORT 1
A, B, C = abilities relevant to sport achievements
18 - 3
b) Individual features of athletes:

Especially those abilities and skills when an athlete
does not meet the model (required) values.
The training programme should address the
weak spots in the chain of an athletes
fitness/preparedness.
c) Age-related characteristics of
individuals and groups and the possibilities
of developing the components of athletes
preparedness/fitness in particular age periods.
Table 1. Sensitive phases for the

development of diverse physical
condition, coordination and other
dimensions. Every dimension has its
optimal development time. (Martin,
1982)
18 - 4
Ability of an athlete
Age of an athlete
(year)
Coordination abilities
10
11
12
Ability to differentiate movement

parameters
Reactibility to auditive and visual
stimulans
. : : .
Motor rhythm
. . : :
. . . .
. . . .
. .
. . . :
. . : :
. . : :
. . . :
Motor educability/trainability
Ability of space orientation
Physical
cond.abilities
. : : .
. . . : :
. . . . : :
Balance
Other
dimensions
Endurance
Strength/power
Speed
Motor learning
Cognitive functions
Emotional reactions
.
.
:
.
:
:
:
:
.
:
:
:
:
:
:
.
13
14
15
17
18
: : : : :
. . . . .
:
:
:
:
.
.
.
:
:
:
:
.
.
:
:
:
.
:
.
:
e) Sex differences
f) Quality level of athletes
g) Competition rank
h) Work conditions and material
foundation for sports preparation
18 - 5
16
: : :
: : :
.
:
.
. . .
18.2. Interaction of sports

preparation programmes
a) There is a clearly defined
correlation of global
programmes of sports
preparation:
training programme
competition programme
recovery programme
Interaction of the systems of training,

competition and supplemental factors in sports
preparation (according to Matvejev, 1999)
System of
competition
Supplemental
f
a
c
t
o
r
s
Training
system
preparation
18 - 6
o
f
s
p
o
r
t
s
There is also a clearly defined association

among the
b) fundamental programmes of sports
preparation:
Physical conditioning (functional and

motor preparation)
Information preparation (technical,
tactical and theoretical preparation)
Psychological preparation (motivation,
microsocial adaptation)
Relationship among fundamental sports

Physical
conditioning
Technical
preparation
Psychological
preparation
18 - 7
Tactical
preparation
Integral preparation of athletes:

Coordination of all elements of physical
conditioning, technical, tactical and
psychological preparation is the most
important component of the long-term sports
improvement of athletes.
A synthetic mode of training unifies the
individual factors into comprehensive and
unique competition efficiency (performance).
Therefore the method of situational
training is the best way of an integral
perfection of athletes performance.
The principle defines also the association of

c) targeted programmes of sports
preparation that are defined as follows:
Versatile or global preparation

Basic or fundamental preparation
Specific preparation
Situational preparation
The relations of the programmes are determined

by the characteristics of a perennial and annual
training cycle planning and programming.
18 - 8
Distribution of sports preparation programmes

across the stages of a perennial training cycle
(modified according to Platonov, 2004)
900-1400
600-900
25%
250-600
2
40%
100-250
2
1
15%
20%
1
15%
60%
1
20%
65%
40%
45%
35% 1
2
1400-1100
20%
40%
50% 1
1. Universal preparation programme

2. Basic preparation programme
3. Specific-situational preparation programme
10%
3
Stage of preliminary
preparation
Stage of basic
preparation
Stage of specializing
preparation
Stage
E ta
p a mofa maximal
s m a ln ih
sports
s achievements
o rt k ih
o s ig n
E ta p a
d r a v a n ja
Stage
of osports
s p o r t s k ih
achievements
maintenance
d o s tig n u a
Optimal relationship among particular sports

preparation programmes in an annual cycle
(C physical conditioning, T technical-tactical, B basic, S situational,
D supplemental, N competition)
75%
C 60%
T 40%
T 25%
D
N
T 60%
C 40%
D
C 80%
Stage 1
Stage 2
Preparation period
B
Competiton period
18 - 9
S
B
T 20%
Transition period
18.3. Cyclic nature of training
The cyclic nature of training means that the

process of training is executed thtrough defined
units as regards time and contents, which follow
and complement each other.
Training programming within various cycles
enables an efficacious systematization of training
work tasks, assignments, means and methods.
The cyclic principle of training is

manifested especially in training planning
and programming, where the starting point
should be the necessity of a systematic
repetition of particular cycles.
18 - 10
The division of sports preparation cycles

(modified according to Grosser et al., 1986)
A bigger cycle
contains
several shorter cycles
A sports career (1)
several Olympic cycles
Olympic cycle
4 annual cycles
An annual cycle macrocycle
3 mesocycles - periods
(preparation, competition, and
transition)
A mesocycle - period
2- 5 mesocycles - phases
A mesocycle - phase
3-8 microcycles
A microcycle
3-14 training days
A training day
1- 4 individual training sessions
An individual training
session
4 parts (introductory, preparation,

main and closing)
A part of an individual
training session
training operators (18)
Cyclic organization and load curves across an

annual cycle (Matvejev, 1999)
volume
intensity
MONTHS
STAGES
PERIODS
PREPARATION
18 - 11
COMPETITION
TRANSITION
QUESTIONS
1. Basic fields of training theory
2. Training theory definition
3. Training theory tasks
4. Definition of sport
5. Sports features
6. Why a special social status belongs tosport?
7. Sport participation and health
8. Characteristics of sport in the European union
9. Top level sport in european countries
10. Most important factors affecting the status and development of sport
11. Science, theory and practice of sport and sports training
12. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level
13. Sports training sports preparation
14. Sports training definitions
15. The essence of sports training
16. Sports training tasks
17. Cybernetic approach to sports training
18. Sport development in the world
19. A short overview of sport development in Croatia
20. Structural analysis of a sport activity
21. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities
22. Anatomical analysis
23. Functional (energy) analysis
24. The criteria for the classification of sports activities
25. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes
26. Diagnostics in sports
27. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes
28. Diagnostics in sports (10 stages of diagnostic procedure)
29. Selectionin sport (orientation to sports and choice of sports branch)
30. Sport and sports training of children and the young
31. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young
32. Performance factors of a sports career
33. Fitness of athletes
34. Sport shape / preparedness
35. Sport shape development phases
36. Dynamic attributes of sport shape
37. Sports training as a transformation process
38. Sports competitions
39. Classification of competitions
40. Plannin gand conducting a competition
41. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes
42. Classification of recovery methods and means
43. Illicit pharmacological means: doping
44. Adaptation in sports
45. Continuity of the process of training
46. Load progression of training and competition
47. Undulation of trainin gand competition loads
48. Target orientation of training
49. Interaction of sports preparation programmes
50. Cyclic nature oftraining
Lesson 19:
Methodology of Sports
Training

Define the methodology of sports training
Define and describe the training
(transformation) operator
Describe the methodology procedure and
answer the questions: what to train?, how
much to train? as well as how, where, by
means of what and when to train?.
Discuss a training operator to improve a
specific physical ability or acquire a certain
motor skill
19 - 1
19.1. Definition and Elements of

the Methodology of Training
The methodology of sports training is
an academic discipline that studies
the patterns of the methodological
structuring of training or
modelling of training and means of
recovery.
It deals with the selection,
organization and implementation of
training stimuli or training
operators and the management of a
training load.
A training (transformation) operator is a

stimulus that produces adequate quantitative and
qualitative changes in an athletes status.
A methodological procedure in professional sport
refers to the implementation of selected
training operators that comply with the desired,
operationally defined objectives.
It refers to a controlled process of physical
exercise (physical conditioning) and/or a
controlled process of learning-teaching
(technical-tactical training).
19 - 2
In such a methodological procedure training

operators that have the highest transformational
power in achieving the desired training outcomes
are chosen from the virtual system of potentially
useful training operators.
Methodological knowledge is the fundamental
source of information for a successful
programming of training.
In everyday practice, after

defining the objective of
training (e.g. development of
explosive power for jumping),
the coach must answer the
questions:
WHAT? HOW MUCH?
HOW? WHERE? BY MEANS
OF WHAT? WHEN?
to train, in order to achieve, in
cooperation with the athlete,
the desired outcomes in the
safest possible way.
19 - 3
WHAT
TO TRAIN?
WHERE
TO TRAIN?
HOW MUCH
TO TRAIN?
METHODOLOGY
OF SPORTS
TRAINING:
modelling of
training operators
BY MEANS OF
WHAT TO TRAIN?
HOW AND WHEN TO TRAIN?
MEANS
OF TRAINING
TRAINING
LOCATIONS
ORGANIZATIONAL
FORMS
TRAINING
LOADS
METHODOLOGY
OF SPORTS
TRAINING:
modelling of
training operators
TRAINING
METHODS
19 - 4
TRAINING
EQUIPMENT
AND DEVICES
METHODOLOGICAL
FORMS
OF TRAINING
Means of training:
motor
(competition and training
activities)
non-motor
(additional means and
activities)
Training loads:
- Components of the total training load:
ENERGY COMPONENT (intensity and
volume)
INFORMATION COMPONENT (reception,
retention and use of motor information)
Training parameters for the development of
maximum speed (Pyke, 2001)
Intensity
95-105%
Distance
20-40m
Rest
Complete(3 min.+)
Type of Start
Flying start
Reps / Sets
4/2
Session Frequency/weekly
19 - 5
Training locations:
facilities (halls, gyms, fitness
centres, swimming pools,
outdoor playing fields)
Training equipment
and devices:
Training equipment (weights,
balance boards, ropes,
medicine balls)
Apparatuses (gymnastics
apparatuses, Swedish boxes
and benches)
Exercise machines (classical
and isokinetic)
Special training devices
(electrical stimulator, vibration
platforms)
19 - 6
Organizational
forms of training:
individual
group
frontal
Training methods:
physical conditioning training
methods (energy)
technical-tactical training methods
(information)
19 - 7
Methodological forms of training:

stations
circuits
circulars
courses
Intensity:
High:
Low:
start
running
backward
running
running
running
running
sideways
slalom
19 - 8
running
Lesson 20:
The means (contents) of

sports preparation

Define training contents (means)
Classify and describe motor (training and
competition) means
Classify and describe non-motor means
Define criteria for the selection of training
exercises
List and describe exercises for the development
of each of an athletes abilities
Discuss the effects of the implementation of a
specific training exercise over a period of time
20 - 1
20.1. Classification and

characteristics of training means
The means (contents) of training or sports
preparation are systems of motor
(competition and training) exercises and
non-motor means implemented in training,
competition and recovery in accordance with
the desired outcomes of the sports
preparation and characteristics of the
expected training procedure.
MOTOR MEANS
Competitions
are an
indispensable
means of sports
preparation
BASIC
PREPARATION
EXERCISES
SPECIFIC
EXERCISES
SITUATIONAL
EXERCISES
20 - 2
TACTICAL EXERCISES
GENERAL
PREPARATION
EXERCISES
TECHNICAL EXERCISES
TRAINING MEANS
PHYSICAL CONDITIONING EXERCISES
COMPETITION MEANS
NON-MOTOR MEANS
Implemented in all stages of sports preparation, especially
when the athlete is in the rest-recovery stage
LIFESTYLE
NUTRITION
PHYSICAL MEANS
GEOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATE MEANS

TECHNICAL MEANS
PHARMACOLOGICAL MEANS
PSYCHOLOGICAL MEANS
A training means or contents are activities or

exercises implemented in the training and adjusted
to match the training objectives.
Different activities and exercises significantly

differ in transformational power (value) which
they have on the development of a specific
athletes ability, characteristic, or the
acquisition of certain motor skill.
20 - 3
It is of the utmost
importance to know which
functional and motor
structures or body systems
are stimulated by the
exercise implemented as a
part of a certain training
operator.
Weight training exercises are used for

the development of strength.
Quantitative and qualitative changes

occur in the muscular system.
Exercises involving changes of direction

and speed of movement are used for the
development of agility and speed.
The efficiency of the central nervous

system and motor programmes is
increased.
Cyclic exercises with extended duration are
used for the development of endurance.
Functions of cardiovascular and respiratory

systems (oxygen transport system) are
improved.
20 - 4
The selection of training means aimed at the

development of physical abilities or the
stabilisation of technical-tactical skills depends on
the equation of value for each exercise, since
each exercise or set of training activities triggers
precise motor reactions.
Equation of value for training or competition

activity Aj in the n-dimensional space
Aj =
F +
ij=1
i
i(n+1)
Ej
i coefficients of participation of the

psychosomatic dimensions Fi in activity Ai,
Ej efficiency estimation error in activity Ai if
dimension Fi is known
20 - 5
20.2. The effects of training

exercise implementation
Coaches very often throw in new exercises
in each training session
That is ineffective since the effects of the
implementation of a selected set of
exercises are proportional with the duration of
its implementation
A selected set of exercises must be repeated
frequently in order to generate the expected
effects
The effects of implementation for each exercise
or set of training exercises can be monitored in
four dependent stages
Effects of implementation for each training

exercise can be monitored in four dependent stages
Effects of
training exercise
implementation
(modified according to Vazny, 1978)
Peak
impact stage
Decreasing
impact stage
Significant
impact stage
Non-significant
impact stage
A Point of
significant
impact on the
development
of one of the
preparedness t0
components
Negative
impact stage
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
Training exercises implementation stages
20 - 6
The first thing is to learn how to perform the

exercise correctly. Useful effects can only be
achieved if the exercise is mastered and performed
correctly (1st stage).
The period of time during which the implementation
of a mastered exercise (maximum number of
repetitions) generates positive effects is limited
(2nd stage).
After the period of the implementation of the same
exercise or set of exercises only then is it possible
to maintain the achieved effects
(3rd stage).
In the next stage a decreased impact of the

selected exercises on the expected effects is
noticeable (4th stage).
At one point of the implementation of an
exercise or a set of exercises a negative
tendency of the effects may be noticed. The
exercise or the set has or have been worn out
(5th stage).
20 - 7
20.3. Selection and order of

training exercises application
Training methodology first defines the criteria for the
selection and then the order of using each
exercise or a set of exercises.
After the training objectives of one set of exercises

have been achieved, move on to the next one.
The order of training exercises in the
training for jumping abilities may be determined in

relation to the expected effects by age groups.
Deciding on the training means, i.e. the

selection of training exercises, relies on the
fact that only certain exercises are effective
in each stage of an athletes development and
that certain motor and non-motor means
have a maximum effect in a certain part of
the annual cycle.
This is crucial information for programming

training sessions.
20 - 8
Sequence of training exercises in technology for the development

of jumping abilities
Development of
jumping
ability
Phases of long- term development
On the basis of experience and published research,

coaches have selected a large number of
potential means, i.e. motor exercises that they
use daily.
Each coach should compile his/her own
encyclopedia of training exercises.
Depending on the set objectives, the means that
completely matches the characteristics of a trained
group or individual should be selected and used.
20 - 9
Exercises for the development of sprint

abilities
using various additional loads (vests, tyres, weights)
on a flat surface, slope, steps
Exercises for the development of jumping

abilities
using hurdles, boxes of various heights
and/or without props on a flat surface, slope, steps
20 - 10
Exercises for the development of explosive

power for throwing
Free weight exercises

for the strengthening of the upper and the lower body
20 - 11
Stretching exercises for leg muscles
Stretching exercises for leg muscles
20 - 12
Passive stretching in pairs
20 - 13
Lesson 21:
Training Load Management

lesson the students will be able to:
Understand the concept and the importance of
the training load management
Define the total training load and its components
Classify training loads and describe each type
Explain the effects of a training load on an
athletes body
Determine the training load in modelling training
operators for the development of various abilities
and motor skills
Discuss the endogenous (internal) and
exogenous (external) factors of training and
competition load tolerance
21 - 1
21.1. Training and competition

load
The management of a training load has a central
role in the technology of sports preparation of top
athletes.
In professional sports, only the athletes who
successfully absorb progressive training and
competition loads can achieve top results.
Stagnation in a training load leads to the
incomplete preparedness of the athlete.
Due to the adaptation of the body over a period of

time the same amount of load (the same
stimulus) will generate increasingly weaker
functional reactions, since the athlete will
respond as if the load has been reduced.
The total load, as well as its components
intensity and volume, must be adapted
according to:
specificities of each sport,

athletes age,
athletes individual characteristics,
level of athletes preparedness,
stage in the multi-annual sports preparation cycle,
period and stage in the annual sports preparation cycle.
21 - 2
Training load and recovery characteristics of

athletes of various levels of preparedness
(Platonov, 1997)
REACTION
LOWER-LEVEL ATHLETE
TOP ATHLETE
RECOVERY
LOAD
Reaction of athletes at various levels of

preparedness to the same total training load
(Platonov, 1997)
REACTION
2nd CATEGORY ATHLETE
1st CATEGORY ATHLETE
TOP ATHLETE
RECOVERY
LOAD
21 - 3
Load leads to fatigue exhaustion of

athletes in the training process
LOAD
LEVEL
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE OF
TRAINING LOAD
EXTERNAL FATIGUE SIGNS

ATTENTION
PRESPIRAT
ION
FACE
TECHNICAL
PERFORMANCE
Loads absorbed
effortlessly
Steady
No change
Normal
No change
Loads absorbed with effort,

without complaining
Steady
Medium
Blushe
d
No change
Loads absorbed with

difficulties, fatigue in arms
and legs
Weakened
Significant
Red
Movement rhythm
slightly altered,
minor mistakes
Loads absorbed with major

difficulties, complaining of
fatigue and body pain,
especially in the legs
Weak
Increased
Very
red
Diminished
movement quality,
mistakes in details,
poor performance
Loads barely absorbed,

tottering, refusing to
continue with the training,
general weakness
Intense
ly red
Non-coordinated
movements,
diminished
movement quality,
very poor
performance
Very weak
Heavy
21.2. Total load and its

components
TL = f (a1En+a2In+a3e)
Total load (TL) is a function
of the energy component
a1En (prevails in the
physical conditioning
training), information
component a2In (prevails
in the technical-tactical
training) and the estimation
of error a3e.
21 - 4
21.2.1. Energy component of a

training load
En = f (a1I+a2E+a3e)
The energy component of a
training load comprises two
elements:
intensity of training load a1I
(force, velocity, pace, weight of
external load) and
volume of training load a2E
(repetitions, duration, sets)
Training load intensity consists

of:
force, defined by the weight of the
external load (e.g. 90% 1RM),
and velocity, defined by the speed of
performance (e.g. 90% of the
maximum speed).
External load is crucial for the first

element (weight training) and
the maximum speed of
performance for the second one
(e.g. running down a slope).
21 - 5
Training load volume also comprises two

elements:
number of repetitions (e.g. 3 sets 10 reps, 50%
RM with a 1 rest between sets),
and duration (e.g. running 560 , rest 1 between
reps; or in stations 5 x 30 with 30 rest after each set
and 60 rest after each station).
For the development of physical condition the

total load and the ratio of its components
need to be determined.
In determining the energy load component,

all elements contribute proportionally :
F = force, V = velocity, R = number of repetitions, D =
duration
En = f (a1F+a2V+a3R+a4D+a5e)
Taking into account the interaction of all the components and
elements of a training load, the total energy training load
is defined as follows:
En= f (a1F+a2V+a3R+a4D+a1Fa2V+a1Fa3R+a1Fa4D
+a2Va3R+a2Va4D+a3Ra4D+a1Fa2Va3D)
21 - 6
21.2.2. Information component

of a training load
ITL = f (a1BI+a2DI+a3TEI+a4e)
The information component of a training load

comprises three elements :
number of emitted motor information units NI (amount of
data, messages)
amount of decoded motor information units DI (amount
of processed data)
duration of the emission of information DEI (duration of
time during which the motor information was sent and
received)
21.3. Effects of a training load

on an athletes body
21.3.1. Effects of a training load
on the muscle fibre
Use of an adequate load for the development of
strength and power over an extended period of
time leads to an adaptation which affects the
muscle fibre by causing its expansion
(hypertrophy), proliferation (hyperplasia), or
a combination of the two.
21 - 7
However, numerous studies

have shown that muscle
fibre reacts to the training
and competition load with
hypertrophy only. The
occurrence of proliferation
(hyperplasia) as a result of
adaptation to training has
not yet been proven.
21.3.2. Effects of a training load

on the nervous system
Exertion of maximum voluntary force of contraction
depends on the qualitative and quantitative
characteristics of the agonist muscles as well as
the level of the ability of the nervous system to
innervate those muscles. This refers to the
number of active motor units.
21 - 8
A training load affects the functioning of the

nervous system by causing specific
adaptation changes. The nerve conduction
velocity and its synchronization are improved.
The specificity of adaptation changes
relates to the characteristics and the mastery
of the movements being trained.
21.3.3. Effects of a training load on

the oxygen transport system
A well-balanced training activity forces the

body to a range of functional and
regulation adjustments in order to ensure:
Proportional amount of energy and

energy for the elimination of the excess of
metabolites and heat.
21 - 9
In order for the oxygen

transport system to meet
the increased energy
demand during a vigorous
sports activity, an
immediate adjustment
of a range of its functions proportional to the energy
demand of the given
activity - to a higher level of
activity must occur.
21.4. Classification
(characteristics) of training loads
SPECIALISATION
SPECIFIC
LOAD
NON-SPECIFIC
LOAD
ENERGY
FOCUS
AEROBIC
MIXED
ANAEROBIC
GLYCOLYTIC
COORDINATION
COMPLEXITY
LEVEL
BODY
INVOLVEMENT
HIGH
MAXIMUM
90-100
GLOBAL
(multiple joints)
MEDIUM
SUBMAXIMUM
75-90
LOW
REGIONAL
(two joints)
MEDIUM
60-75
LOCAL
(one joint)
ANAEROBIC
CREATIN PHOSPHATE
MINIMUM
30-60
ANABOLIC
21 - 10
Relation between intensity and volume in

the total load
LOAD INTENSITY
% (force,
velocity)
Maximum total load may

be achieved by stressing
the intensity, volume or
both components of a
training load
100
90
75
60
45
30
LOAD VOLUME
(repetitions, duration)
20
10
<30%
<30%
<45%
<45%
<60%
<60%
<75%
<75%
<90% <100%
21.5. Training load

management -dosage
The safest way to achieve
preparedness is to use a
training load which is welladjusted to the biological and
psychological characteristics
of the athlete.
Training load levels in sports

have reached extremely high
values, which are very close to
the maximum values of
the total load and its

components.
21 - 11
Mistakes in load management can

lead to many undesired consequences:
injuries that may prevent the athlete
from continuing with the training
programme,
overtraining,
insufficient preparedness,
discontentment of the athlete.
Maximum testing is the basis for determining

the training load (Jger and Oelschlgel, 1982)
1. Maximum
ability test
(1RM)
2. Calculation
determining
training loads
(percentage of
1RM)
???
21 - 12
3. Training
load
Parameters of training operators for the

development of start speed, maximum speed
and speed endurance (Pyke, 2001)
Maximum speed
Start speed,
acceleration
Speed endurance
Intensity
95-105%
95-100%
90-95%
Distance
10-20m
5-30m
20-30m / 120300m
Full (3min+)
Full (3min+)
30-90s / 5-8 min
Flying
Standing or slow
walking
start
Standing or slow
walking start
Speed/
Speed strength
Explosive power
Speed/ Anaerobic
capacity
phosphagen
2-3
2-3
Recovery between
repetitions
Start
Basic abilities
Frequency (training
sessions per week)
Training load dosage for the development

of muscular endurance
No.
TRAINING PARAMETRES
SYMBOL
TRAINING CHARACTERISTICS
External load
weight
EL
40-80% 1 RM
Repetitions
NR
12 - 4 repetitions
Number of sets
NS
2 - 4 sets with each weight

10 - 20 sets total
Rest interval
RI
1 - 2 minutes between sets

2 - 3 minutes between weights
3 - 4 minutes between exercises
Rest activity
RA
Stretching and relaxation

exercises
Performance pace
PP
Medium
Means (exercises)
ME
Weight training exercises
Exercises per training

period
NE
2 - 6 exercises
Training frequency (per

week)
TF
2 - 3 week
10
Overcompensation period
OP
48 hours
21 - 13
Endogenous factors of training of load

tolerance:
Body type
Sex
Age
Pharmachological
means
Nutrition
Structure and distribution
of training load
Warm-up Cool-down
Injuries of the locomotor system

Recovery process
Speed of adaptation processes
Exogenous factors of
training of load tolerance:
Training and competition distribution
Movement technique
Sports gear (footwear)
Orthopedic supports and braces

Training location (surface)
Exercise machines
Altitude
Temperature
Humidity
Time difference
21 - 14
A further increase in the training and

competition loads may be expected in the
future.
Athletes will be able to tolerate those loads due
to:
- modern diagnostics procedures,
- improved recovery methods,
- supplementary stimulation of athletes,
- improved preparation conditions.
A highly coordinated and professional team
approach is required to prevent
overtraining.
A training load should be programmed very

carefully.
It should be neither too high nor too low.
Well-balanced loads applied at the right
time can lead to the success and
satisfaction of both the coach and the
athlete.
21 - 15
Lesson 22:
Sports Training Methods

Define and describe the concept of training methods
Classify and describe basic training methods
Define and describe physical conditioning methods
with respect to load type, training mode, muscle
contraction type and load level
Define and describe the use of pyramid training with
external loads
Define and describe methods for teaching motor
skills
Describe the criteria for the selection of training
methods
22 - 1
22.1. Classification and

description of training methods
Training methods are specific forms of work in
sport.
Training methods fall into two basic groups:
Exercise methods used in developing and
maintaining various anthropological dimensions
(primarily physical abilities) and
Teaching methods used in acquiring and improving
technical-tactical skills.
The selection of methods depends on:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
specificities of the given sport or sports discipline,

developmental characteristics of each age group,
level of preparedness and peak performance,
setting sports preparation goals and objectives and
conditions for the implementation of the training
process.
22 - 2
Standard loads
Variable loads
Combined method
Combined method
22 - 3
With respect to muscle
contraction type
Combined method
Maximum training method
COMBINED
Intensive training method
COURSES- CORSE TRAINING
CIRCULARS- CIRCULAR TRAINING
CIRCUITS- CIRCUIT TRAINING
STATIONS- STATION TRAINING
TEACHING
METHODS
Extensive training method
With respect to
training mode
Eccentric muscle contraction method
VARIATIONS
With respect to motor task

mastering mode
With respect to motor

Information transfer mode
With respect to load level
With respect to muscle contraction type
EXERCISE
METHODS
Isometric muscle contraction method
Concentric muscle contraction method
With respect to
load type
Static method
VARIATIONS
With respect to training mode
With respect to load type
Frontal
Group
ORGANIZATIONAL
FORMS
Dynamic method
Interval method
Continuous method
Individual
(modified according to eljaskov, 1998)
TRAINING METHODS
METHODOLOGICAL
FORMS OF TRAINING
VARIATIONS
22.2. Exercise methods
With respect
to load level
Combined method
22.2.1. Exercise method with

respect to load type
Continuous method activity
continues without interruption
continuous standard method the training
load level remains unchanged from the beginning
to the end of the training activity
continuous variable method the load
intensity changes during the training activity
Interval method
Continuous method
With respect to
load type
Interval method exchange of work

and rest intervals
Standard
loads
standard interval method all load variables

should be maintained on the same level.
variable interval method load variables
change. Variable load is achieved as soon as one
of the variables is changed.
Variable loads
Combined method
Training
intensity % 120
R
Competition results
(intensity)
100
Load intensity in
continuous training
mode
80
60
40
Load intensity in
interval training mode
20
Duration
Interval training logic:

400m=48s; 100m in 12 s
4100m (P=3min)=411s=44s
100m in 11 s
5000m=15min; 1000m in 3 min
51000m (P=4min)=5000m=52:45=13.45;
1000m in 2:45.
22 - 4
Continuous and interval methods may be

implemented with standard and variable loads:
Standard load
Variable load
Continuous
training
mode
Interval
training
mode
Continuous standard
Continuous variable
training mode
training mode
Interval standard training mode

DRITA (distance, reps/sets, rest
interval, time (duration), rest
activities) all parameters remain
the same
Interval variable training

mode
DRITA - load parameters
change
Examples of training operators for each method

Standard load
Variable load
Continuous
training
mode
Running 4km at the same
pace (80% of the maximum
pace)
Interval
training
mode
Running 2x3x400m, 90% 1RM,

4 min rests between reps and 6
min between sets
22 - 5
Running 4km at a variable

pace (200m 60%, 200m
90% of the maximum pace)
Running 400m, 300m, 200m,

100m, 200m, 300m, 400m at
a variable pace (70-90%)
rests between reps (5-2 min)
Interval variable loads lead to variable

effort. Distance, duration, number of
repetitions, number of sets, rest intervals
and rest activities change (D R I T A).
In interval weight training, D stands for
the mass of the weight .
Training methods for the development of

explosive power with high and low training loads
(Pyke, 2001)
High training loads
Low training loads
Sets
3-4
3-4
Repetitions
5-2
8-5
5-2RM
60% of 1RM
Full recovery
Full recovery
Pace
Explosive concentric
Explosive concentric
Selection of exercises
Explosive exercises
Explosive exercises
2-3
2-3
Improvement of muscle
activation via improved
neural control
Improvement of
explosive power
Load
Rest between sets
Frequency (training
sessions per week)
Physiological
objective
22 - 6
22.2.2. Exercise methods with respect

to the training mode
Dynamic method
Static method
Dynamic method
With respect to
training mode
Static method
Combined method

to the muscle contraction type
Eccentric contraction method
Isometric contraction method
Concentric contraction method
With respect to
muscle contraction type
Concentric
contraction method
muscle force >

external force
Eccentric contraction
method
muscle force <

external force
Combined method
Isometric contraction
method
muscle force =
external force
22 - 7

to load level
Interval
training
methods
Extensive
interval
method
Maximum training method
Intensive training method
Extensive training method
With respect to
load level
Intensive
interval
method
Maximum
interval
method
Combined method
Distance
(volume)
Rest interval
duration
Pace
(intensity)
12200m
2min
75%
8200m
4min
85%
4200m
6min
95%
22.2.5. Pyramid training

Involves the inversely proportional relation
between volume (number of repetitions) and
intensity (external load level)
VOLUME
INTENSITY
1x n1
X5=100%
5*
X4=95%
4*
X3=90%
3*
X2=85%
2*
X1=80%
1*
P4
2x n2
P3
3x n3
P2
4x n4
P1
5x n5
22 - 8
Three typical pyramids are used in sports practice; They

are defined by the number of repetitions (12-1) and the
level of external load (40-100% of 1RM)
100
90
80
MA
2-3
SMA/MA
SMA
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
25
MAXIMUM PYRAMID
80
SMA
70
MED/SMA
60
MED
INTENSIVE PYRAMID
60
MED
50
SMED
10
40
12
MIN
EXTENSIVE PYRAMID
100% 1 RM
95
90
85
80
The number of
75
repetitions of
70
various
65
external loads
60
is strictly
55
50
individualized.
45
It can vary
40
dramatically.
35
30
22.3. Teaching and

learning methods in sport
Ideomotor
Situational
Synthetic
Combined method
Analytic

task performance mode
Problem-based
Motor (demonstration)
Visual
Verbal

information transfer mode
Combined method
22 - 9
22.3.1. Teaching methods with respect to

the mode of motor information transfer
and motor task assignment
There are four fundamental teaching methods:
a) verbal method (orally describing a motor
task),
b) visual method (using images: kinematic
models, photographs, videos),
c) motor method (showing how a motor task is
performed),and
d) problem-based method (requesting the
performance of a motor task).
22.3.2. Teaching methods with respect

to motor task perfomance mode
1) Analytic teaching method
refers to the procedure whereby the global
movement structure is divided into several
phases, i.e. elements, each of which is taught
and mastered separately. After each
phase/element has been mastered, they are
integrated, i.e. linked together into one
whole.
22 - 10
Analytic method is
recommended in
teaching very complex
and demanding activities
or activities consisting of
many elements
(structural units), where
the performance of the
whole activity causes
discomfort and contains
the risk of injury.
2) Synthetic teaching
method
refers to learning and
mastering a methodical
task as a whole. The
athlete performs the
task as a whole,
placing maximum
focus on the most
important phase of the
global motor activity.
22 - 11
3) Situational method
refers to learning and perfecting techniques and
tactics in the conditions that match those at
competitions. Basic information may be
taught using the synthetic method, but the final
stabilization of the acquired knowledge must
take place on the situational level.
4) Ideomotor method
refers to the cognitive
processing of a motor task.
Cognitive activities become
prominent in the improvement
of the performance of a motor
task, because they enable us
to make connections between
the perceived and the
performed movements. It
means that the athlete
repeats in his/her head
what he/she has learned at
the training session after the
training has finished.
22 - 12
5) Combined teaching method
Teaching methods may be combined in

several ways:
- synthetic-analytic (the analytic approach
is used for correcting mistakes),
- situational- synthetic-analytic and
- ideomotor-analytic (the ideomotor
method may be combined with any other
method).
22 - 13
Lesson 23:
Organisational forms
and Methodological Forms of
Training

Define and explain organisational training forms
Discuss the conditions in which individual, group and
frontal forms of training are used
Define and explain methodological forms of training
Describe the specificities of station, circuit, circular
and course methodological training forms
Design customized programmes for specific age
groups and abilities that need to be improved using
each of the methodological forms
Describe the role of locations, training equipment
and training gear in training.
23 - 1
23.1. Organisational training forms
Frontal
Group
Individual
Organisational
forms
VARIATIONS
23.1.1. Individual training

in this organisational form only one athlete trains
throughout the training session or one of its parts
under the supervision of a coach. This form is
closely tied with the principle of
individualization.
it is well known that the equal treatment of nonequals in training is the biggest inequality and a
big mistake.
An individualised approach in sport is based on
the tested abilities and skills of each athlete.
23 - 2
23.1.2. Group training

Aimed at groups of athletes that have a
similar level of abilities and skills. This form is
closely tied with the principle of
homogenisation.
By forming homogenised groups
training is rationalised.
Homogenised groups are formed on the
basis of test results analyzed using the
appropriate statistical procedures.
23.1.3. Frontal training

In this organisational form the whole team is
involved in performing the set task at the same
time.
It is best used for improving good team reactions
in the area of physical conditioning and especially
in the area of technical-tactical skills.
23 - 3
23.2. Methodological forms of training
Courses course training
Circulars circular training
Circuits circuit training
Stations station training
Methodological
forms of training
VARIATIONS
Modern training technology

clearly defines the concept of methodological
forms.
The rule is that the athlete should perform
several training exercises with the appropriate
load.
Each exercise should target a different body
region or a different muscle group.
The duration of work and rest periods
between sets, tasks and rounds is defined for
each task.
23 - 4
A training exercise system that can be

used in methodological training forms
(circuit training according to Schlich, 1979)
LEG MUSCLES
ARM AND
SHOULDER
MUSCLES
BACK
MUSCLES
ABDOMINAL
MUSCLES
23.2.1. Station methodological form

(station training)
The basic rule is that several sets with a
defined number of repetitions are performed
at each station and that there is only one
round.
There are rest periods between the sets and
tasks.
This methodological form is best used for the
analytical development of each motor
ability and for teaching technical-tactical skills.
23 - 5
23.2.2. Circuit methodological

form (circuit training)
Only one set of each task is performed, but there
are several rounds, so the training comprises
several circuits.
There are periods of rest planned after each task
and longer periods of rest planned after each
round of all set tasks or one circuit after which a
new circuit starts.
Circuit training comprises several circuits with
one set of each task.
23.2.3. Circular training form

(circular training)
Implies continuous work, meaning
no rest periods in one or several rounds.
Circular training can be performed using a
continuous load till exhaustion when the
athlete reaches complete fatigue, doing as
many rounds as possible without rest.
development of all the factors of endurance
or each of the motor abilities combined with
endurance.
23 - 6
23.2.4. Course training form

(course form)
The specific feature of this method is that the athlete
is working on all tasks without stopping, utilizing
a greater or lower speed while performing various
activities like running, lateral movements, crawling,
vaulting, creeping, dribbling, carrying, etc.

development of various motor abilities that are in
most cases integrated as a general or specific
physical ability depending on the type of exercises
used.
Combined methodological training

forms are frequently used in practice:
circuit and station training (several sets of
each task and several circuits),
circular and circuit (after several rounds
without rest, a period of rest can be planned
after certain rounds),
it is possible to combine all methodological
training forms.
23 - 7
Training exercises that can be used in various

methodological forms
MF 1:
MF 2:
Station training
Circuit training
work 330s
work 30s
work 30s
rest(s) 30s
Rest(t) 30s
rest(t)
3 circuits
Rest(c)
rest(c) 60s
till exhaustion
rest(t) 60s
23 - 8
MF 3:
Circular training
23.3. Methodological aspects of

the location, training equipment
and training gear use
Locations, equipment and training gear ensure a
high-quality implementation of the methodological
procedures in physical conditioning training and
technical-tactical training.
The last decade has seen very dynamic progress

in the development of training conditions.
Countries striving to make progress in the area of
sport invest substantial funds to meet the high
standards of training technology as well as that of
competitions and recovery means.
23.3.1. Training facilities

Training locations are various venues and
facilities for the implementation of various
training types.
Training objectives and effects may be achieved
in various locations.
23 - 9
Aerobic training can be performed on a track

and field stadium, in a sports hall, on a
levee/river embankment, in the woods, in a
swimming pool or by riding a bicycle on the
road.
High-quality locations that meets the
economical training criteria should be used.
23.3.2. Training equipment and gear

Training equipment comprises apparatuses,
devices and exercise machines used in training.
Weights, medicine balls, ropes, sticks, dumbbells,
Swedish boxes, Swedish benches and different
gymnastics apparatuses are frequently used.
Exercise machines with a special
construction are very frequently used.
23 - 10
Lesson 24:
Basics of Physical
Conditioning Methodology

this lesson the students will be able to:
Define physical conditioning
Analyze the structure and characteristics of physical
conditioning
Explain the effects of physical conditioning
on an athletes body
Explain the types of physical preparation
Define and describe the general or multilateral
physical preparation
Define and describe the fundamental or basic
Define and describe the specific physical preparation
Define and describe the situational physical
preparation
24 - 1
24.1. Definition, structure and

characteristics of physical
conditioning
Physical conditioning is a set
of programmes and
procedures for the
development and
maintenance of functional
and motor abilities and
morphological
characteristics that
correspond to the level of
preparedness of an athlete,
the characteristics of a sport
and the conditions in which it
is implemented.
The physical preparedness of an athlete includes

his or her functional abilities (which can be
improved by the activation of the cardiovascular
and respiratory systems), motor abilities
(which can be improved by the activation of the
neural and muscular systems), and
morphological characteristics (which can be
changed by the activation of the oxygen
transport system and the muscular system).
24 - 2
Physical conditioning structure

(Fox, 1979)
PHYSICAL CONDITIONING
(physical preparation)
NEUROMUSCULAR TRAINING
Development of motor
(quantitative) abilities
CARDIORESPIRATORY TRAINING
Development of functional abilities
Aerobic
training
A
Anaerobic
training
G+P
Mixed aerobic and

anaerobic training
M
Endurance
training
Strength
training
Speed
training
Muscle
endurance
training
Explosive
power
training
Speed
endurance
training
Speed power
training
Flexibility
training
24.2. The effects of physical

conditioning on an athletes body
To understand completely the effects of

physical conditioning on various abilities, one
must:
Be familiar with the effects of conditioning
training. Different physical conditioning
programmes activate individual organs and
organ systems (oxygen transport and
vegetative or neuromuscular system) in
different ways.
24 - 3
Have the information on the recovery or

compensation period after training targeting a
specific physical ability,
Have the information on the total load that
the implementation of a specific physical
conditioning programme generates. The
development of certain abilities results in an
increased total exhaustion because body
reserves that enabled previous training are
activated over an extended period of time.
Organ systems load level, recovery period,

and total load in physical conditioning
Oxygen tarnsport
and vegetative
Neuromuscular
Period of
recovery compensation
(hours)
Moderate
High
12-24
Medium
60-75%
Medium
Maximum
24-36
High
75-90%
MAXIMUM POWER
High
Maximum
36-48
Maximum
90-100%
SPEED ENDURANCE
Maximum
High
48-72
Maximum
90-100%
High
Medium
48
High
75-90%
Maximum
Moderate
48-60
High
75-90%
ELASTICITY
FLEXIBILITY
Low
Moderate
Moderate
45-60%
DEXTERITY
AGILITY
Moderate
High
12
Medium
60-75%
COORDINATION
Moderate
Maximum
6-12
Medium
60-75%
PRECISION
Moderate
High
High
75-90%
Organ system load level

Training focus (motor ability)
SPEED
SPEED POWER EXPLOSIVE
POWER
STRENGTH ENDURANCE
GENERAL ENDURANCE
24 - 4
Total load
24.3. Physical preparation types

General or versatile physical preparation,
Fundamental or basic physical preparation,
Specific physical preparation,
Situational physical preparation.
24.3.1. General or versatile physical

preparation
General or versatile physical preparation refers
to the process of a harmonious multilateral
development of the functional and motor
abilities and morphological characteristics.
It leads to an improvement of the functional
and motor abilities and morphological
characteristics, which can not be directly
applied in a given sport, but which contribute
to the development of the basic and specific
abilities of an athlete.
24 - 5
We should make sure to

prevent any excessive
increase of e.g. maximum
muscle strength which does
not contribute to the function
of adaptability to specific
loads, since it will result in
the deterioration of technical
skills and the reduction of
the effects achieved by other
programmes.
It is directed towards:
improvement of physical
preparedness of all body
regions,
improvement of the efficiency of
all organs and organ systems,
and
improvement of all functional
and motor abilities, taking into
consideration sensible
developmental phases
Strengthening the weak links
of the athletes locomotor system.
24 - 6
According to Gabrijeli (1984), general

physical preparation utilizes diverse
exercises for:
harmonised conditioning of all the
segments of the locomotor system,
development of basic strength,
development of elasticity or flexibility,
development of coordination abilities,
development of speed abilities and
development of aerobic endurance.
Selected exercises for general physical

preparation in pairs exercises
24 - 7

preparation stretching exercises (a)

preparation stretching exercises (b)
24 - 8

preparation injury prevention exercises
Selected exercises for general

physical preparation stick exercises
24 - 9
This type of physical preparation must ensure

an adequate strength of all body regions in
the sense of the formation of a natural corset,
which prevents injuries to joints, muscles,
ligaments and tendons.
Cervical and
thoracic spine
In 1981
Jonath
(Milanovi,
1997) defined
the critical
zones of the
locomotor
system of
Upper leg
adductors
football
Achilles
players,
which absorb tendon
most of the
load and are
thus most
prone to
injury.
Lumbar spine
groin
Lower leg extensors
(quads)
Lower leg flexors

(hams)
knee
ankle
Extensors (quads)
Flexors (hams)
24 - 10
Different sports and sport disciplines are

characterized by the different role of specific
extensors and flexors muscle groups.
Extensor muscles and

muscle groups
Flexor muscles and

muscle groups
General physical preparation should not be

used only in training children. It should also be
systematically implemented in the later stages
of an athletes career.
Adult athletes should not neglect the
importance of general physical preparedness.
24 - 11
24.3.2. Fundamental or basic

It utilizes exercises, loads and methods
(operators) targeting physical abilities that are
essential in achieving good results in the given
sports discipline.
Also, it utilizes operators for the development of
those abilities and characteristics that are
insufficiently developed, i.e. in which the
athlete significantly falls behind the expected
values. Exercises from other sports are used if
they stimulate the development of the dominant
abilities (weight training, hurdle jumps)
Selected exercises for basic physical preparation weight

training for the development of different types of strength
24 - 12
Selected exercises for basic physical preparation weight

training for the development of different types of strength
Coaches must be familiar with a large number of

basic physical conditioning exercises, which
can be classified according to the expected
effects and other criteria.
Fundamental (basic) physical preparation
presents a functional basis for the successful
development of specific physical abilities.
24 - 13
24.3.3. Specific physical preparation

It ensures the adaptation of
energy and neuromuscular
systems to the specific
requirements of a sport utilizing
a set of exercises similar to
movement structures, i.e.
sports discipline technique.
It integrates physical and
technical training leading to a
specific physical preparedness.
The higher the level of

preparedness the more
utilized specific physical
preparation exercises
become.
General and basic
preparation prevails in
training children, and
specific physical
preparation
programmes become
dominant in training
young athletes.
24 - 14
Sports disciplines differ in terms of

specific movement structures. Accordingly,
sets of specific exercises within specific
physical preparation are different in different
sports.
Each specific physical preparation exercise
reflects specific characteristics of
movement and load involved in performing
elements of a sports discipline technique.
Selected exercises for specific physical

preparation of football players
24 - 15
Selected exercises for specific physical

preparation of basketball players
24.3.4. Situational physical

preparation
It brings together physical and tactical training.
It is most similar to physical preparation in
polistructural and complex sports.
It is implemented in the constantly changing
conditions of a game or a fight, which depend on the
cooperation and confrontation of athletes on the field
or in the ring, that involve increased dynamics,
duration of the activity, or an increased
external load.
Situational physical preparation exercises involve a
load level that is the same or higher than that at the
competition.
24 - 16
Motor and energy stimuli are more demanding

than those at competitions (overloading).
It is conducted by the head coach and his/her
assistants with the help of a physical
conditioning coach who determines the energy
parameters.
It is difficult to simulate actual competition
situations, which are characterized by specific
psychological states.
Specific and situational physical preparation

of handball players (ervar et al., 2004)
C
a
A) Pressuring of two players (backcourt-backcourt
or backcourt-pivot)
B) Pressuring of the attacker and covering of the defender with a tackle (1:1, 2:2,
2:1)
C) Passing with special tasks (jump, feint etc.) with constant change of position
D) Triangle passing after passing the ball the player runs to the position of the
player who received the ball and returns to the starting position.
E) One-on-one game with a constant exchange of roles
24 - 17
Situational physical preparation of handball

players (ervar et al. 2004)
H) Shooting sets according to a determined schedule (as fast as possible)

I) Shooting sets with passing (simulation of counter attack and re-counter
attack from backcourt or pivot positions)
24 - 18
Lesson 25:
Training
Methodology
of Functional
Abilities

Describe various types of functional
ability training
Define and describe anaerobic training
Design operational programmes for the
development of phosphagen and
glycolytic anaerobic endurance
Define and explain aerobic training
Design operational programmes
(continuous and interval) for the
development of aerobic endurance
25 - 1
25.1. Methodology of development

and maintenance of functional
abilities
Physical conditioning of functional abilities is
focused on the improvement of the functioning of
the oxygen transport system (cardio-respiratory)
and an increase of the anaerobic capacities.
In 1979 Fox published a list of basic activities,
methods, and approximate loads for the
development of typical energy systems or
functional abilities.
Training methods for the development of energy systems

that constitute various functional abilities
(phosphagen-P, glycolytic-G, aerobic-O) (Fox, 1979)
TRAINING
METHODS
METHOD DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
DEVELOPMENT
OF ENERGY
SYSTEMS IN %
P
1. Sprints with
acceleration
Gradual acceleration, from jogging to sprinting, at 60-120 m

distance
90
2. Sprint training (A)
Repetitive maximum sprints, with full recovery between

repetitions
90
3. Sprint training (B)
Two sprints separated by periods of jogging and walking
85
10
4. Interval sprints
Alternating 50 m sprints and 60 m jogging at 3 km distance
30
40
30
5. Interval training (A)

intensive
Repetitive exercise periods with relatively short rest periods
20
40
40
6. Interval training (B)

extensive
Interval training with extended exercise and rest periods
15
35
50
7. Fartlek
Alternating fast and slow running on natural terrain
10
30
60
8. Continuous fast
running
Long-distance fast-pace running
10
85
93
9. Continuous running
Long-distance moderate-pace running
at a moderate speed
25 - 2
Selection of methods depends on:

1. specificity of the sport or sport discipline,
2. developmental characteristics of the age
group,
3. preparedness level and peak performance,
4. set goals and objectives of sports preparation,
5. Training conditions.
25.2. Aerobic training

methodology
A) Goals:
Improving the functioning
of the oxygen transport
system
Increasing the utilization
of oxygen in extended
training or competition
Improving a fast recovery
after a high-intensity motor
activity
25 - 3
B) The most important physiological effects

of aerobic training:
The blood volume and the heart size and
strength are increased, resulting in an
improved ability of the heart to pump blood
Oxygen transport is thus improved,
leading to an increase in the generation of
aerobic energy
Oxygen utilization and fat oxidation in the
muscles are enhanced. Consequently, less
carbohydrate (glycogene) is used to sustain
the given load
C) Aerobic training benefits include:
An increased percentage of aerobic energy

generation allows a higher intensity and
longer duration of training and competition
General and specific endurance is
improved, which contributes to a high intensity
of performance throughout the competition
25 - 4
The recovery period after a

high-intensity interval is
reduced. Consequently, the
periods between the application
of maximum load during and
between competitions and
trainings are shortened
Most importantly, a high level of
aerobic preparedness reduces
the number of technical or
technical-tactical mistakes
that occur by the end of a
competition as a result of
exhaustion
D) Types of aerobic training:

1) Low-intensity aerobic training: goal
ensuring a fast recovery after a strenuous
training session or a competition. Load
estimated via heart rate is 40 60% of
max HR (cca. 120-130 b/min).
2) Medium-intensity aerobic training: goal
achieving a general endurance in the early stages
of the preparatory period. The fundamental
endurance is ensured as measured by the
distance run during a match. The load used in
training is 60-75% of the maximum pace. The
load estimated via heart rate is 60-80% of
max HR (cca. 150 b/min).
25 - 5
3) High-intensity aerobic
training: it ensures adaptation
to energy requirements in
activities of high intensity and
extended duration and it
increases the ability of fast
recovery after a high-intensity
activity. The load is 75-90% of
the maximum pace. The load
measured via heart rate is 80
90% of max HR (cca 170
b/min).
4) A continuous aerobic training

method: the development of general
endurance.
A training activity continues without
interruption at the intensity of 60-70%.
The heart rate is 150-160 beats per
minute, which is determined by the
aerobic-anaerobic threshold. This
information is obtained using
spiroergometric testing.
25 - 6
5) The interval aerobic training method: the

repetition of a high-intensity training load of various
duration.
It creates conditions for the improvement of
systolic heart efficiency, which is closely
connected to aerobic productivity.
Adequate training activities: running various
distances, running with changes of pace and specific
and situational exercises of appropriate intensity.
Intensity of 60-90% with

heart rate 150-180
beats/minute.
Rest interval is relatively short,
1-2 minutes between
repetitions and 2-3 minutes
between sets.
Number of repetitions and sets
is determined on the basis of
the athletes abilities (e.g. 4
repetitions in 5 sets).
25 - 7
Various training types for the development of

aerobic endurance (modified according to Pyke, 2001)
Training
type
Heart rate Duration Lactates Perception

(b/min)
(mmol/L)
of load
Typical exercise
Running
Maximum
aerobic
190-200
2-5min
6-10
difficult
stressful
3x1200m, max. speed in the

final 600m, rest period
between repetitions 5-7 min
Anaerobic
threshold
170-180
15-30min
3-5
unpleasant
difficult
3x10min max. speed, rest

period between repetitions
1min
Aerobic of
low and
medium
intensity
120-150
5min-1h
1-3
Strenuous
Slow or medium pace for

10km
Examples of interval training for the

development of aerobic endurance
a) Standard
b) Variable
400m
D 1000m
4 reps 4 sets
1 min (reps) 3 min (sets)
I 2-3-4 min
70% of 1RM
T 70-65-60 % of 1RM
Active rest
A Active rest
25 - 8
2000m
1
3000m
1
25.3. Anaerobic training

methodology
A) Goals
Improvement of functional abilities of
phosphagen energy capacity
Improvement of glycolytic energy mechanism
for the performance of high-intensity motor
activities with extended duration
Improvement of efficiency of the
neuromuscular activity in the specific conditions
of oxygen debt and increased
concentration of lactates
B) Most important functional effects of

anaerobic training:
Increase of phosphagen anaerobic reserves

Increase of glycolytic anaerobic reserves
Increase of muscle enzymes that catalyze
anaerobic energy processes
Improved synchronization of the nervous,
muscular and energy systems
25 - 9
Increased tolerance and

removal of lactates lactic
acid
High-intensity activities
during competitions can be
performed with increased
frequency
Most importantly, high-quality
anaerobic training will ensure a
high-quality supply of
anaerobic energy sources
over an extended period of
high-intensity training and
competition motor activities
C) Types of anaerobic training:

1) Phosphagen anaerobic training
The alactate - phosphagen component of
anaerobic endurance is determined by the duration

of the creatine phosphate reaction.
25 - 10
Types of training for the development of

phosphagen endurance
(modified according to Pyke, 2001)
Training type
Heart rate
(b/min)
Duration
Lactates
(mmol/L)
Perception
of load
Typical exercise
Maximum
anaerobic
phosphagen
(alactate)
160-180
5-20s
3-5
Fast,
forced,
unpleasant
12x100m or 6x200m
max. speed, 60-120s
rest, jogging
between repetitions
Running
Examples of interval training for the development of

phosphagen anaerobic endurance
a) Standard
b) Variable
D 150m
R 4 (3) or 4 reps. 3 sets.
I 2 (4) or 2 min between reps,

4 min between sets.
100m
4 reps.
150m
200m
3 reps.
2 reps.
2-3 minutes between repetitions,

4-5 min between distances
T 90% of 1RM
90%-85% of 1RM
A AKT
AKT
25 - 11
2) Glycolytic anaerobic training

The lactate glycolytic component of
anaerobic endurance: causing strong
glycolytic reaction and the use of energy
from anaerobic glycolytic compounds
(glycogen break-down).
Interval method of training with a duration of 2

minutes and 80-90% of maximum intensity causes
the strongest physiological reactions (heart rate is
above 200 beats per minute).
Several sets with 2-4 repetitions and an extended
passive rest (up to 10 minutes) are used in order to
develop tolerance to an increased concentration
of lactate, i.e. lactic acid in the blood and muscles
after a repeated application of the load.
Various types of training for the development

of lactate-glycolytic endurance
(modified according to Pyke, 2001)
Training type
Heart rate
(b/min)
Duration
Lactates
(mmol/L)
Perception
of load
Typical exercise
Maximum
anaerobic lactate
180-190
20-75s
15-20
Very
difficult
6x400m or 10x200m
max. speed, rests
between reps 45min
Circuit training
Tolerance to
the lactate
level A
190-200
75-120s
8-12
Painful,
stressful
6x600m or 8x400m,
max. speed, rests
between reps 46min
Tolerance to
the lactate
level B
190-200
40-60s
6-8
Painful,
stressful
4x300m or 6x200m,
max. speed, rests
between reps 3060s
Circuit training
25 - 12
Running
Circuit training
Examples of interval training for the

development of glycolytic anaerobic endurance
a) Standard
b) Variable
400m
3 reps (2 sets)
4 min between reps (6min

between sets)
85% of 1RM
T
A
combination of passive* and

active rest
T
A
200m
4 reps
400m
3 reps
2 reps
3 min between reps, 5-7 min

between distances
90%-85%-80% of 1RM
combination of passive* and
active rest
* in the case of lactate tolerance development
25 - 13
600m
Lesson 26:
Training Methodology of
Quantitative Motor Ability

Define and describe strength/power training
methodology
Define and describe speed training methodology
Define and describe repetitive training
methodology
Define and describe flexibility training
methodology
Talk about the general training programmes for
the development of each quantitative motor ability
Draft and explain the executive programmes
for the development of each quantitative motor
ability.
26 - 1
Quantitative motor ability training methodology

must ensure an optimal development and
maintenance of the basic and specific abilities
that are essential for achieving success in a
certain sport.
To understand fully the training methodology for
each of the motor abilities it is necessary to learn
its definition, classification, importance for
the specific sport and all of the potential
means, loads, methods and procedures for
its measurement.
To understand fully the training methodology

for each of the motor abilities in sport it is
necessary to learn its definition,
neuromuscular regulation basics and
protocol for its measurement.
In their study programme and in the
training theory basics students have already
acquired a majority of this information.
26 - 2
26.1. Strength training

methodology
Maximum effort method (intensity is 80-100%,
number of repetitions is 4-1)
Pyramid method (number of repetitions constantly
decreases, while the mass of weight constantly
increases)
100
EXTERNAL
LOAD
% OF 1RM
90
80
70
60
50
40
1
2-3
MAXIMUM
PYRAMID
4
6
8
10
12
INTENSIVE
PYRAMID
EXTENSIVE
PYRAMID
NUMBER OF REPETITIONS
Dynamic effort method fast repetitions with

50-60-70% of external load
Isometric effort method
Yielding effort method muscles perform an
eccentric contraction with the muscle force lower
than the external force
Plyometric (eccentric concentric) effort
method
26 - 3
26.1.1. Characteristics, application

areas and strength training methods
(Ehlenz et al. 1983)
TRAINING
FORM
MUSCLE VOLUME
BUILDING
TRAINING
COMBINED
TRAINING
INTRAMUSCULAR
COORDINATION TRAINING
Training
effects
characterist
ics
Increase of
muscular fibre
volume
(hypertrophy)
Hypertrophy and Synchronized activation of

synchronized
motor units
activity of motor
units
Application
area
General and basic

strength training
for all sports
Primarily in
professional
sport for adult
athletes
Professional sport for adult

athletes
Training
and load
methods
Methods with an
increased number
of repetitions (1015) and moderate
intensity (40-75%)
Pyramid method
with varied load
(40-100%)
1. High and maximum

intensity methods (75-100%)
with a low number of
repetitions (1-5)
2. Reactive plyometric effort
methods (100% +)
Activation of various muscle groups

in lower leg extension exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
m. quadriceps femoris
(vastus intermedius)
(vastus lateralis)
(rectus)
(vastus medialis)
26 - 4
Activation of various muscle groups

in forearm flexion exercises (barbell curl)
Hypertrophy training methodology utilizes local (1 muscle) and
regional (several muscle groups) exercises.
1.
2.
3.
m. brachioradialis
m. biceps brachii
m. brachialis
C
A
In achieving the effect of hypertrophy, first the

number of active muscle fibres is increased (B) and
then their volume (C).
26 - 5
26.1.2. Strength training methods

(Watson, 1984)
TRAINING MODE
CHARACTERISTICS
SECOND NAME FOR

THE METHOD
1. DYNAMIC
EFFORT METHOD
- use of low, medium and high

external load
- throwing
- body weight as a load in dynamic
conditions
Isotonic training
2. WEIGHT
TRAINING
EXERCISES
- concentric muscle contraction

dominates, mass of the weights
varies
Pyramid training
- constant external load
during the whole range
of motion
3. TRAINING WITH
ELASTIC BANDS SPRINGS
- load is achieved and increased by

stretching the elastic band
4. ISOMETRIC
EFFORT METHOD
- no movement
- attempted movement
- static object load
Static training
TRAINING MODE
CHARACTERISTICS
SECOND NAME FOR

THE METHOD
5. ECCENTRIC
EFFORT WEIGHT
TRAINING METHOD
- external load is greater than the

muscle force, the muscle is forced
to stretch and elongate
distension
Yielding effort method
6. ECCENTRICCONCENTRIC
EFFORT METHOD
- elastic strength exercises

- after absorption, the concentric
phase is performed
Plyometric training
7. VARIOUS
RESISTANCE
TRAINING METHOD
- resistance of the shell varies

throughout the range of motion
Nautilus training
8. ADJUSTED
RESISTANCE
TRAINING METHOD
- angle speed is given (30, 60, 90,

180/s). The athlete produces a
maximum force throughout the
range of motion
Isokineic training
26 - 6
Repetitive effort
method
Some advantages of training

on exercise machines:
safety there is a lower risk of falling, tripping
and injury,
movement diversity exercise machines provide
resistance that cannot be achieved using free
weights (e.g. leg adduction and abduction),
simple use it does not require special
coordination skills or techniques.
Selected strength exercises

on exercise machines
26 - 7
Some advantages of
free weights training:
total body effect (in a standing position the load
affects the majority of muscles, the athlete controls
the movement and maintains his/her balance using
muscles or muscle groups without the aid of any
device)
exercise specificity (the majority of sports and
training activities involve lifting and acceleration of
an object. Free weights lifting involves natural
coordination of several muscle groups)
Selected free weights strength exercises
26 - 8
Only a correctly performed weight training

exercise can generate the full effect and prevent
an injury of the sensitive bone-joint structures
and muscles.
discus
vertebra
stretch
CORRECT WAY TO LIFT WEIGHTS
vertebra
pressure
discus
INCORRECT WAY TO LIFT WEIGHTS
General training operator programme

for the development of repetitive strength
1. Training
objective:
Development of repetitive strength
2. Sports group:
Junior athletes
3. Training methods: Extensive interval training method

3.1. Load intensity:
50-80% of individual maximum (1RM); 40%

warm-up weight
3.2. Load volume:
Number of repetitions (NR): 12-4

Number of sets (NS): 3-6 in each weight
Number of sets (NS): 9-18 per exercise
3.3. Rest period:
1-2 minutes (between sets), 2-3 minutes

(between weights)
3.4. Pace
Moderate or varied
3.5. Rest activities
Stretching and relaxation exercises
4. Training means
General, basic and specific exercises for

repetitive strength and strength endurance with
weights or on exercise machines
26 - 9
Executive training operator programme

for the development of repetitive strength
Weight
mass
(% 1RM)
Number of
repetitions
Number of
sets
Lifting
pace
Rest (sets)
Rest
(weight)
Rest
activities
40%
12
Moderate
50%
10
Moderate
Active
rest:
60%
Accelerated
70%
Moderate
stretching
and
relaxation
exercises
80%
Moderate
26.2. Speed training methodology

Repetition method
(maximum intensity, short
running distances, 4-6
repetitions, 2-3 sets with an
extended period of active rest
3-5 minutes)
Interval training method
(maximum intensity, slightly
longer running distances, 3-4
repetitions, 2-3 sets with rest
period 4-6 minutes full
recovery)
26 - 10
Running with the acceleration method

(running speed is constantly increased at 60
100 m distance)
Running with the flying start method
(acceleration phase is performed prior to
running 40-60 m with maximum speed)
Slope running method (3-5 with a flat
ending)
Fast reaction method - responding to
auditive and visual signals (latent reaction
time as short as possible)
Fastest separate movement performance

method
Fast frequency of movement performance
method
Relay forms of speed training method
Handicap-running method (a certain
advantage is given to the lower quality runner
at the start)
Speed of movement, the rest interval (pause), as
well as the techniques of the start, lane running
and finish need to be constantly controlled in
methodological procedures for the
development of basic and specific speed.
26 - 11
General training operator programme for the

development of speed and speed strength
1.Training objective:
Development of speed-speed strength-sprint

speed
2. Sports group:
Junior athletes
3. Training methods:
Repetition method, maximum interval training

method
4. Load
4.1. Intensity speed of movement:
Maximum (95-100%)
4.2. Load volume:
Duration: short (3-10 seconds)

Number of repetitions (NR): 2-6
Number of sets (NS): 4-2
4.3. Rest period:
Between repetitions: 3-4 minutes

Between sets: 4-6 minutes
4.4. Rest activities
5. Training means
Sprint exercises, flying sprints, slope running,

one-leg jumping sets, agility exercises
(direction of movement changes).
26.3. Endurance training

methodology
Information on competitive load structure and
pace in a given sport is crucial in the modelling of
endurance training
The methodological pathway for endurance:
Improvement of the effectiveness of the oxygen
transport system and anaerobic capacities
Improvement of the effectiveness of the
neuromuscular system (number and duration of
muscle contractions when the metabolic products
are accumulating and fatigue starts to manifest
itself)
26 - 12
26.3.1. Endurance training methods

Continuous training method (standard or
varied load)
Continuous training till exhaustion method
Interval training method (standard or varied
load)
Situational method
Endurance training for young athletes table

Training methodology
Load
Training method
Training objective:
Development of endurance
LONG-TERM
ENDURANCE
MEDIUM-TERM
ENDURANCE
SHORT-TERM
ENDURANCE
Volume
Intensity
Predominantly
continuous method
High, extended
continuous running
for 5-8 km
Medium, 3-4 m/s
Interval method
Extended pace
running of distances
longer than 800 m
High, 75-90% of the

best result
Continuous method
High, continuous
running for 2-3 km
Medium, 3,5-5 m/s
Interval method
Pace running of
200-600 m distances
High, 80-95% of the

best result
Predominantly
interval method
Pace running of
100-200 m distances
High, 80-95% of the

best result
Interval method
Short sprint running

20-60-120 m
Maximum, 90-100%
of the best result
26 - 13
26.4. Flexibility training

methodology
Static stretching method
(forms of passive stretching)
Dynamic stretching method
(forms of active stretching)
Maximum stretching method
stretching (this exercises
should be performed to the pain
threshold with certain mental
concentration; maximum range
of motion is sustained for a
maximum of 20 seconds)
Factors for flexibility development in sports

(Grosser, 1982)
FACTORS
FAVORABLE - POSITIVE
NON-FAVORABLE - NEGATIVE
Children athletes
(up to 14 years of age)
Adult athletes
Good elasticity and

intermuscular coordination of
agonists and antagonists
Poor elasticity and intermuscular

coordination of agonists and
antagonists
Relaxed muscles
Increased muscle tension
Slight
Strong and persisting
ANATOMIC AND
BIOMECHANICAL
FACTORS
Optimal activation of leverages

and degrees of freedom
Insufficient utilization of natural

relationships of leverages and
joint surfaces
THE TIME OF DAY
11-12 till 16 oclock
Morning hours
Above 18
Below 18
AGE
ELASTICITY OF
MUSCLES, MUSCLE
FASCIAS AND
LIGAMENTS
MUSCLE TENSION
EMOTIONAL, MENTAL
TENSION
OUTDOOR
TEMPERATURE
WARM-UP
FATIGUE EXHAUSTION
TRAINING DURATION
Full and extended
Partial and short
Restfulness of locomotor
system
Intense fatigue of locomotor

system
Up to 1 hour of training
More than 1 hour of training or

strong hard training
26 - 14
Selected exercises for the development of

flexibility (Anderson, 2001)
Selected stretching exercises in pairs
26 - 15
Selected exercises for the development

of flexibility (PNF stretching)
1a
3a
1b
3b
2a
4a
26 - 16
2b
4b
Lesson 27:
Training Methodology of
Qualitative Motor Ability

Define and describe the coordination training
methodology
Define and describe agility training methodology
Define and describe accuracy training methodology
Define and describe balance training methodology
Explain general training programmes for the
development of specific qualitative motor abilities
Draft and explain executive programmes of training
operators for the development of specific qualitative
motor abilities.
27 - 1
Qualitative motor ability training methodology must

ensure an optimum development and maintenance
of basic and specific abilities that are essential in
achieving good results in a given sport.
To understand fully the training methodology for a
specific motor ability one must know its definition,
classification, role in sports, all the potential loads and
measurement methods and procedures.
To understand the training methodology for a

qualitative motor ability one must know its
definition, neuromuscular regulation basis
and measurement protocols.
Students have
already acquired this
information in their
study programme
and in the training
theory basics.
27 - 2
27.1. Coordination training

methodology
Coordination training should be implemented in
the early stages of a sports career (sensitive
stages) when the best responses of children to
coordination exercises can be achieved.
An athletes coordination is inextricably
connected with sports technique.
Sensitive phases for the development of coordination

abilities (Hahn, 1982)
It is never too early to start developing coordination abilities
N COORDINATION ABILITIES
O
SCHOOL YEAR
1
SPACE-TIME DIFFERENTIATION ABILITY
REACTION TIME TO AN AUDITIVE AND

VISUAL SIGNAL
MOTOR RHYTHM
SPATIAL ORIENTATION ABILITY
BALANCE
SPEED COORDINATION
SPACE-TIME DIFFERENTIATION ABILITY
REACTION TIME TO AN AUDITIVE AND

VISUAL SIGNAL
MOTOR RHYTHM
SPATIAL ORIENTATION ABILITY
BALANCE
T
A
10
S
A
27 - 3
GIRLS
SPEED COORDINATION
BOYS
Complete synchronisation of the higher

regulation centres of the nervous systems with the
peripheral parts of the locomotor system is essential
for the successful performance of a coordination
task.
Coordination can be
developed in two ways:
By acquiring new and
diverse movement
structures,
By performing the acquired
movements in changed
conditions.
For the development of coordination the

repetition method is used, with rest
intervals necessary for the renewal of
mental energy, which affects
concentration, attention and
performance control.
27 - 4
Selected exercises for

the development of coordination
Selected exercises for the development of

the coordination of arms
27 - 5
27.2. Agility training methodology

Agility can be developed in the early stages of a
sports career (sensitive stages). At that stage we
can expect the best response of the child-athlete
to agility exercises. The child should not be
overloaded by an excessive number of
repetitions causing an inadequate anaerobic
load.Agility training is successfully combined with
technique and tactics training.
Agility can be improved using exercises of

rapid change of direction of movement.
Nowadays, the integrated training of speed,
agility and quickness (SAQ) is most commonly
used since it has proven to be very effective in
a large number of sports disciplines
The success of agility training depends on
the ability of acceleration, deceleration
(quickness), the mobility of the joint systems,
dynamic balance, and the correct performance
of a movement.
According to the classification of agility factors
(Juki et al., 2003), the training of this ability
may be implemented in different
variations (frontal, lateral and horizontal
vertical or with circular and angular shifts in the
direction of the movement).
27 - 6
Selected exercises for the development of agility
27.3. Methodology of accuracy

training
In the methodology of accuracy
training it is necessary first to achieve a
certain level of performance technique as
well as tactics, taking into account the
biomechanical parameters.
The best method is situational training.
Accuracy training is first implemented in
simple and standard, and later in
increasingly complex and changing
movements and situations.
27 - 7
Selected exercises for the

development of accuracy
27.4. Balance training

methodology
Various means, loads and
methods are used for the
development of balance. Balance
training requires a maximum
level of neuromuscular
system restfulness.
In determining the training pace
we must take into consideration
the load intensity and ensure
sufficient rest for a complete
recovery.
27 - 8
However, the possibility for the development

of balance without ensuring complete
recovery is not excluded in individual
training.
A frequently used technology in the
development of balance is that of
proprioceptive training on balance boards,
airbags, balls, uneven surfaces, narrow
walking surfaces and specially designed
devices.
Key stimuli in the development of

balance are:
- dynamic posturing where balance is
sustained with or without the presence
of an external force that disrupts the
balance
- and quickly assuming and sustaining
a balanced posture.
27 - 9
Selected exercises for the development

of balance
27 - 10
Lesson 28:

preparedness of athletes

Define sports technique and technical
preparedness
Analyse the phases of a motor task performance
Define sports tactics and tactical preparedness
Describe the basic categories of tactics
employment
Define and describe the phase structure of tactics
employment in sport
28 - 1
28.1. Sports technique

A biomechanically
correct and efficient
performance of sportspecific movement
structures.
Rational technique
enables the full utilization
of the biological and
psychological potentials
of an athlete.
Technical preparedness
Occurs as a result of long-term
learning and practice.
A result of these processes
is technical preparedness
that refers to a high level of
an athlete's ability to
control the motion or
movements of body parts
and the body as a whole
while performing the
technical elements of a
certain sport.
28 - 2
Kinematic data for correct the jump-shot technique

in basketball (Menzel, 1992)
H0 height of the ball release; v0 initial acceleration of the ball; 0 ball

elevation angle; e basket entrance angle of the ball; d horizontal
distance of a shot position, h difference between the height of the rim
and the height of the ball release; g gravitational force
Movement
stereotype refers
to the ability of a
controlled
repetition of a
movement
structure in
standard or
variable
conditions.
It is not an absolute category - it changes.
The changes occur within permitted limits.
28 - 3
An absolutely "fixed" stereotype becomes

a barrier for improvement of performance.
A fixation of movement stereotype or its
stabilization in one phase of development
of an athlete is as important as its
modification-adaptation to the new
psychophysical qualities of the athlete in the
next stage of development.
Teaching in sport is a very dynamic process
that tends constantly to deepen and
expand the technical and tactical skills which
become increasingly efficient.
28.2. Sports tactics

A set of all forms and modes of action by one
or more athletes in a situational training session or
competition.
A selection of certain technical-tactical elements
and the mode of their implementation with the
goal of the realization of a plan and the
achievement of the desired effects or victory
over the opponent.
Sports differ greatly in terms of the number
and complexity of tactical elements that are
employed in situational conditions. Polystructural
and complex sports are therefore characterized
by the richness of tactical actions.
28 - 4
Tactical preparedness
Tactics in team sports refers
to the joint and efficient
actions of individuals, lines of
players or groups of players in
order to solve situational
problems in the defensive,
transitional or offensive phase
of the game.
Individuals or a group of
players seek to dominate the
opponents by using their
tactical decision-making skills
and actions.
Definitions of basic categories of tactics

employment in team sports
(Gabrijeli, 1984)
Game system
(situational memory)
Basic formation of the players and their

basic actions
Tactical variations
Forms of actions of two or more players

within a certain game system
Game concept
(conceptual memory)
Depending on the quality of "our"

players, tactical variations adjusted to
their abilities are chosen
Tactical plan
Relates to a specific opponent - the match

and capacities of the opponent players
Tactical abilities of Ensures a direct execution of tactical

actions in situational conditions on the
the players
(situational reaction)
field. It refers to the adjustment of a

tactical plan to the situational conditions.
28 - 5
Game system
Basic formation of the players and their

basic actions
Team sports utilize various game systems in the

defensive and offensive phase.
- E.g. in handball, offence with one or two pivot
attackers; in basketball, 2-1-2 zone defence; in
football, formation 3-5-2 or 4-5-1.
Tactical variations Forms of actions of two or more players

within a certain game system
In each game system the

movements of the players
in their respective positions
are strictly defined.
In zone press 1-2-2,
defensive players (1 and 3) try
to block or double a team
player (1) who will start the
dribbling after he/she receives
the ball from the player (2)
28 - 6
Game concept
(conceptual memory)
Depending on the quality of "our" players

tactical variations adjusted to fit their
abilities are chosen
The quality of "our" players

enables the selection and
efficient implementation of
the zone press 1-2-2 game
system in the defence.
In this system "our" players
1 and 3 successfully block
attacker 1 while the other
players are ready for an
efficient team reaction at
any moment
Tactical plan
Relates to a specific opponent - match and

the capacities of the opponent players
The quality of "our"

players enables an
efficient implementation
of the game system in
the defence 5-1
This game system
enables a full utilization
of all the capacities of
"our" players in relation
to the "power" of the
opponents
28 - 7
Tactical abilities of Ensures a direct execution of tactical

actions in situational conditions on the
the players
(situational reaction)
field. It refers to the adjustment of a

tactical plan to the situational conditions.
The tactical plan for this

situation provides that
"our" player should shoot
at the goal but in a fraction
of a second he/she sees
the pivot attacker in an
ideal position to receive the
ball and score, so he/she
does not shoot but rather
passes the ball.
Sports tactics occur as a

result of long-term tactical
preparation.
An athlete acquires a given
amount of information
related to the rules, the
course of the game and the
effects of a competition.
28 - 8
Phase structure of tactic activities in sport

(Mahlo, 1965, modified according to
Jonath & Krempel, 1991)
2. MOTOR MEMORY
Programmes of motor
activities
1. PERCEPTION
AND ANALYSIS
of motor activity
6. ANALYSIS OF COMPETITION
EFFICIENCY - results (reafference)
Confirmation or correction
of the programme
3. CONCEPTUAL
SOLUTION
Selected programme
of motor
actions
5. RESULT
of motor
activity
(+, - , =)
4. MOTOR
SOLUTION
Execution
of motor
activity
The execution of a motor activity is

performed through several phases:
It is necessary to perceive and analyse
("scan") the structure of a situation.
By searching his/her motor memory the
athlete "sees" whether the programme of the
same or a similar motor activity as a response
to a situational problem is stored there.
28 - 9
Motor programmes are sets of data defining

the execution of a certain motor activity in
standard or variable conditions.
In the next phase the athlete activates the
peripheral part of the locomotor system
using the efferent impulses and executes the
motor activity.
At an advanced level of motor command, when
the motor programmes are stable, corrections

on the basis of perceived deviations from the
expected performance are possible.
Subsequently, an athlete analyses the effect or

a result of tactics employment on the basis of
collected information from the internal and
external circle of the motor command.
Feedback allows for either the confirmation of
the adequacy of the chosen and executed motor
programme or a correction of the programme.
28 - 10
28.3. Levels of efficiency of the

programme for technical-tactical
command
Sports technique and tactics comprise an
abundance of the motor programmes containing
the sets of sorted and hierarchically organised
motor information.
Efficiency of performance depends on the
number and the level of quality of the stored
motor information and the ability to use it in a
timely manner.
Motor programmes can have different

levels of efficiency:
First level: initial information is acquired, the
information is fragmented, a rough performance,

a low level of movement parameters control, the
need for constant interventions of the coach, the
programme often needs to be reconstructed,
concious control of all movement phases, high
activity of CNS cortex, a good foundation for
further learning
28 - 11
Second level: the motor programme is not fully

formed, there is a constant need for additional
information, the coach strictly controls the
performance, the programme needs to be
constantly upgraded, "fine" coordination needs to
be achieved, the mental participation of an
athlete needs to be greater
Third level: a stable performance is resistant to
adverse external factors, there is self-control of

movement parameters with a kinesthetic feeling,
and excellent results. Specificities in style as a
result of the individual characteristics of the
athletes are tolerated. There is a subcortical
regulation of movement
28 - 12
Fourth level: reflex command of movement
performance and reflex command in situational

conditions, automated movements, for the activation
of the motor programme only an impulse (external or
from the other parts of CNS) is sufficient, minimal
possibility for any disturbance of a high-quality
performance, unconscious control of the performance
(athlete does not think about the action but rather
"feels it")
28 - 13
Technical-Tactical
Preparation
Methodology
Lesson 29:
Talk about the efficiency levels of technical
tactical programmes implementation in sport

Describe the role of motor task demonstration
in the process of motor learning
Explain motor learning phases
Describe teaching methods
Talk about the coach and athlete in the learning
process
29 - 1
29.1. Teaching and learning the

basics of technical-tactical skills
Technical-tactical preparation is an integral
part of the training process.

The teaching process establishes the
relationship between the coach and the
athlete. In this process the athlete learns.
The technique and tactics learning process
refers to the emission, reception, processing
and use of basic and additional
information.
This information helps
create an idea of the

desired performance of the
technical-tactical elements.
Rational learning in sport
refers to the identification
and correction of motor
mistakes.
In the same way, the
athlete can acquire an
incorrect motor task
command.
29 - 2
The coach must be able to
describe and
demonstrate the motor task which is the
learning goal.
The coach should not show an abstract
technique and tactics but the one that can
be perceived, performed, and acquired by
the athlete.
The coach may have once been an excellent
athlete but he or she can be a poor coach,
particularly for the young athletes, if he or
she can not adjust the demonstration to the
athlete's abilities.
Role of motor task demonstration in the

process of motor learning
(Grosser and Neumeier, 1982)
DEMONSTRATION
OF MOVEMENT
MOVEMENT
MODEL
DESIGN
(EXTERNAL
INFORMATION)
ANALYSIS
OF EXECUTED
MOVEMENT
(INTERNAL
INFORMATION)
29 - 3
MOVEMENT
EXECUTION
4
3a
3b
COACH
OR OTHER
INFORMATION
SOURCES
The number of correct
repetitions is a
prerequisite for efficient learning.

Learning can be successful if the following
indispensable prerequisites are met:
a efficient define and describe of motor task
good demonstration,
identification of mistakes,
identification of the causes and the consequences
of mistakes
correction of mistakes and
constant control of the mental participation of the
athlete who is learning the technique and the
tactics of the sport.
Teaching rational technique and tactics to

children and young people follows several
patterns:
children must acquire and master the rational
technique and tactics of the sports discipline,

this does not refer to a "child(ish)" technique but
rather to the technique that fits their abilities and
skills.
A transposition of the acquired technique and tactics
for children to the technique and tactics for "adults"
is not possible. Otherwise, the positive impact of the
long-term preparation would be lost.
29 - 4
Multilateral technical-
tactical training (multiple

player positions in team sports
or a large number of
techniques in combat sports) is
a good foundation for a later
specialization (a specific
player position in team sports
or several "favourite
techniques" in combat sports)
and an increasingly efficient
performance of technicaltactical activities in competition
conditions
The coach must create the proper
atmosphere and encourage athletes to

acquire TE-TA skills with the appropriate level
of emotional engagement.
If the athlete is emotionally engaged, the
process of acquiring TE-TA skills is faster and

more efficient.
If there is no emotional stimulus, acquiring
technique and tactics becomes boring and

unchallenging.
29 - 5
29.2. Motor learning phases

The teaching or learning process in
sport is conducted in four
interrelated phases:
ACQUISITION PHASE -
initial teaching
The basic idea of the
movement is formed
It refers to the "rough"
coordination of a movement
The movement is performed
with full concious control
The coach constantly provides additional
information regarding the performance.

The athlete, assisted by the coach, identifies,
comprehends and corrects his/her motor
mistakes.
Movement is performed in favourable,
simplified conditions
At the beginning the results are poor
The athlete does not distinguish between
a good and a poor performance
Absurd movements occur
29 - 6
MASTERING PHASE - advanced teaching

The skill expands and reaches a higher level of
quality
A fine" coordination of the movement is very
important
Success is related to the number of repetitions
Concious control of the performance still exists
The need for a verbal and cognitive reproduction
of the motor task occurs
Detailed learning (the difference between a good
and poor performance is often in details)
There are 7-8 good performances out of 10
Kinesthetic control is fully engaged
STABILIZATION PHASE - situation-level

mastering
Learning (practising) of technical-tactical skills in
variable conditions
An individual approach is permitted
Specificities in the style of performance occur
Strict control of motor engagement rhythm is
important
Subcortical regulation becomes more prominent
A good performance is expected
The athlete feels and corrects the motor mistakes
by himself/herself (autoregulation during the
performance)
The high quality of technical-tactical skills provides
for the full utilization of biological potentials
29 - 7
AUTOMATION PHASE - competition-level

mastering
This phase refers to the highest level of motor command in
sport and therefore constitutes the final goal of the

information training
Gradual automation of the performance occurs
The motor skill becomes a stereotype (automatism)
Movement programme can be activated and employed
automatically (reflexive action)
Concious control of the performance is minimal
Subcortical regulation
Maximum efficiency of the movement
A competition situation determines everything: decisionmaking and modes of engagement
What is automatic engagement

reflexive action in sport?
When I do not think about the
course of the action and a solution,
when I become emerged in the
game, I am capable of amazing
moves and scores.
And when I decided to make a
certain move, it did not work.
I cannot tell myself to assist or to
start dribbling to the right. The game
dictates it all: my reactions and my
feeling for space, time and scoring."
29 - 8
T. K., 1991
Characteristics of the teaching phases are:

constant adjustment of the relation between
the muscle force, the medium resistance and the

inertia moments,
detailed coordination of movement with the
elimination of all excessive degrees of freedom of
the locomotor
system
acquisition, mastering and stabilisation of
performance, from the basic skill level via motor
skill to technical-tactical stereotype.
Conditions for the implementation of technicaltactical training (Grosser and Neumeier, 1982)
LOAD
INTENSITY
INCREASE
TRAINING UNDER
STRESS AND
IN EXTREME
CONDITIONS
INTEGRATION
WITH PHYSICAL
CONDITIONING
TRAINING
2
STRICT
PERIODIZATION OF
TRAINING
PROCESS
INTEGRATIVE TE-TA
TRAINING FOR TOP
SPORTS RESULTS
IS IMPLEMENTED WITH:
6
INTEGRATION
WITH MENTAL
PREPARATION
1
COMPREHENSION
OF SET TE-TA
TASKS AND
THE POSSIBILITY FOR
THEIR PERFORMANCE
29 - 9
29.3. Teaching methods
Ideomotor
Situational
Analytic
Synthetic
With respect to
motor task mastering mode
Problem-based - setting
of a motor task
Motor (demonstration)
Visual - using images
Verbal - oral presentation

information transfer mode
Combined method
Combined method
Analytic teaching method

Analytic learning is justified:
if the activity is very complex and
demanding,
if the activity comprises many elements or
structural units,
when synthetic learning causes fear or a
risk of injuries, and
when the movement is performed very fast
creating inertia forces that are difficult to
control by a beginner.
29 - 10
Disadvantages of the analytic method:

The athlete cannot "perceive" the movement as a
whole and the logic of the motor task performance

Phases or structural units of complex motor activity
cannot be easily determined
The athlete can become demotivated because he or she
does not feel the connection between the separate parts of
the movement
Separately mastered parts of the complex movement
structure are difficult to integrate
While learning the separate parts of the movement the
rhythm is not taken into account. This can cause
problems for the athlete in the final stage of learning in
mastering this very important feature of correct
performance.
Synthetic teaching method

Advantages of the synthetic method:
It is easier for the athlete to create a correct
idea of the movement as a whole and to

understand the basic movement structures as
well as the links between the separate parts of
the movement.
Movements are logically linked. That
facilitates the understanding of the logic of the
movement as a whole and motivates the
learner.
Movements are performed in a logical
sequence.
29 - 11
It is easier to utilize the
effects of gravitational and

inertia force. That is crucial
for the correct performance.
Creation of a reliable
kinesthetic idea and
kinesthetic feeling as well as
the feedback information is
ensured, which is important
for the mastering of a new
movement.
The proper rhythm, which is
crucial for the final result, is
acquired from the very
beginning.
Disadvantages of the synthetic
teaching method:
it is often hard to acquire a very complex

motor task as a whole since the amount of
information that the athlete needs to absorb
is too large,
in mastering a complex motor task with
powerful inertia forces synthetic learning
can be dangerous,
mastering of certain phases and structural
units can be insufficiently accurate if the
movement or the situation structure is
complex,
there are difficulties preventing the athlete
from performing the complex movement
structure with an adequate control of
space-time parameters.
29 - 12
Situational teaching method

Refers to learning and mastering techniques
and tactics in the conditions that match

those at competitions.
Basic information may be taught using the
synthetic method, but the final stabilization of
the acquired knowledge must take place on
the situational level.
This method is best used in the final stages of
motor skills or technical-tactical elements
"acquisition".
Ideomotor method
Refers to the cognitive processing of a motor

task by the athlete. Cognitive activities become
prominent in the improvement of the
performance of a motor task, because they
enable us to make connections between the
perceived and the performed movements.
It means that the athlete for a period of time
repeats in his or her "head" what has been
the subject of the motor learning at the training
session.
29 - 13
29.4. The coach and athlete in the

process of technical-tactical
teaching-learning
The coach should:
observe the athlete in action and identify the
efficiency of the first attempts,
point out the main mistakes by comparing
the performance to the demonstration of the
coach, a video, a photograph...,
simply, precisely, clearly, and convincingly
explain the principles of the performance
while explaining the crucial actions,
analyse the repetition of
movement sequences,
demonstrate and monitor
reactions - all of this should
be done slowly, carefully and
patiently,
have a positive,
encouraging and motivating
attitude
be very patient and
positively oriented
towards the athlete, give
deserved praise
29 - 14
The learning process from the

athletes point of view demands:
comprehension of the
basic principles of the
subject of learning,
perception and
comprehension of the
movement,
an ability to visualize his
or her own performance
of the movement structure,
effort to perform the action
(movement stereotype) at
an optimum speed and with
a moderate load,
results analysis and a
remodelling of teaching
operators in cooperation with
the coach with the goal of
performance improvement.
an increase in force and
speed of performance after a

sufficient number of correct
repetitions.
an athlete must be aware from
the beginning that the

greatest responsibility for
success rests with him/her.
29 - 15
Lesson 30:
Programming of teaching
technical and tactical skills

Define and explain the principles of
programming the process of teaching
Describe the cybernetic model of programmed
teaching in sport
Describe the reasons for the occurrence of
motor mistakes and ways to correct them
Programme the teaching process in multi-annual
and annual cycles
30 - 1
30.1. Programme of teaching

technical-tactical skills
The teaching process in sport is conducted
in several consecutive phases:
1) Presenting the technical or tactical task
that is to be taught.
2) Discussing the importance and specificities
of its elements.
3) Explaining the structural, biomechanical,
physiological and other characteristics of the
motor task.
4) The coachs demonstration of the task. The task

is first demonstrated in its entirety and then section
by section. Critical phases need to be given more
attention in the demonstration. The pace and the
speed of performance must be adjusted to the
athletes abilities.
5) The athlete performs the technical-tactical elements
at a slower speed, using less strength, or with a
semi-active opponent.
30 - 2
6) Performance of the task and identification of

typical mistakes. The coach must first
identify any major mistakes. He or she must
determine the causes of the mistakes and
find adequate methods for their correction.
7) Implementation of motor exercises aimed at
correcting any motor mistakes.
8) Performance of the task at a quick pace and
with a maximally active opponent in
situational conditions.
30.2. Principles of programmed

teaching - learning
1) The hierarchy principle
Respecting the sequence of the teaching of
movement structures. Levels of performance
follow one another and each level is
conditioned by the mastering of the
previous one. This means that none of the
levels can be omitted if an adequate
command of motor knowledge, skills and
stereotypes is to be achieved.
30 - 3
2) Cyclic integration principle

It refers to the method of acquisition of motor
knowledge, skills and stereotypes involving
the organisation of the training process in
such a way that a motor task is repeated
on new functional and motor levels.
3) Individualisation principle
It requires respecting the individual
characteristics of athletes in the selection
and employment of special training means
teaching operators in the process of
acquiring and mastering TE-TA skills.
4) Intensification principle
It refers to an increase in the speed of
performance (slow, fast, maximum speed of the
performance of a motor task), and an increase
in the opponents involvement (a passive,
semi-active, very active and maximally active
opponent).
30 - 4
30.3. Cybernetic model of

programmed teaching learning
in sport
The process of learning involves the mastering
certain number (n) of motor tasks.
The number depends on the complexity of the
given sport.
The mastering of a new task follows only after
the athlete has learnt to perform successfully
and correctly the previous task.
Performance evaluation is a common element of
motor learning.
Cybernetic model of learning in sport (Stanev, 1981)
Learning tasks
(information
training)
Correct performance
of motor task
Control and selfcontrol of the level

of command of a
motor task
Incorrect
performance of
motor task
(Reasons A, B or C)
Additional training
Additional information
Learning outcome
30 - 5
Additional repetitions
Additional
development of skills
Reasons for an incorrect

performance of a motor task:
1) Insufficient information on the task.
2) Insufficient number of repetitions.
3) Insufficient level of motor abilities.
Motor mistakes
It refers to the performance of a motor task
which significantly deviates from the ideal
performance expected from the athlete based on
his or her psychological and physical abilities.
Coaches must be aware of the possible reasons

for an incorrect performance of a motor task
and develop additional training means with a
view towards eliminating the identified mistakes.
30 - 6
Classification of motor mistakes with

respect to the probability for their
occurrence (modified after Korenberg, 1979)
MOTOR MISTAKES
ATHLETES
CONDITION
INADEQUATE
PREPARATION
SPECIAL
CONDITIONS
SPECIFICITY OF
PARTNER OR
OPPONENT
PHYSICAL
PREPAREDNESS
PHYSICAL
CONDITION
TECHNICAL
PREPAREDNESS
MENTAL
CONDITION
TACTICAL
AND MENTAL
PREPAREDNESS
MOTIVATION
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS
COMPETITION
RULES
SPONTANEOUS
SITUATIONAL
SPECIFIC
COMBINATION
OF EXTERNAL
AND INTERNAL
FACTORS
Classification of motor mistakes with

respect to the cause for their occurrence
(modified after Korenberg, 1979)
MOTOR MISTAKES
MOTOR
INSUFFICIENCY
INFERIOR
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
COORDINATION
INSUFFICIENCY
INADEQUATE
TEACHING
INADEQUATE
TEACHING
OF TECHNIQUE
METHODOLOGICAL
MISTAKES
MENTAL
UNUSUAL
CONDITIONS
INSUFFICIENT
SELF-CONTROL
SPECIFICITIES
OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS
NEGATIVE
IMPACT
OF EXTERNAL
FACTORS
SPECIFICITIES OF
PARTNER OR
OPPONENT
SPECIFICITIES
OF THE BODY
TYPE
INTERFERENCE
AND NEGATIVE
TRANSFER
INSECURITY,
ANXIETY, FEAR
SMALL
RANGE OF
MOTOR
PROGRAMMES
INADEQUATE
CONTROL OF
MOTOR
REACTIONS
EMOTIONAL
TENSION
AND MENTAL
FATIGUE
30 - 7
SPECIFICITIES OF
COMPETITION
RULES
INCIDENTAL
SPONTANEOUS
CAUSED BY
EXTERNAL
INCIDENTAL
FACTORS
CAUSED BY A
COMBINATION OF
EXTERNAL AND
INTERNAL FACTORS
INABILITY TO
NON-STANDARD,
PREPARE FOR
THE PERFORMANCE MISCELLANEOUS
30.4. Programming of the teaching

process in multi-annual and
annual cycles
From an early age children learn how to
employ correctly the basic technique and
tactics in order to gain a proper idea of the
purpose of a sports activity and the types of
motor actions
The first goal is the acquisition of the
elementary technique and tactics of the
chosen sport
Multilateral technical-tactical training

(multiple player positions in team sports or a large
number of techniques in combat sports) is a good
foundation for a later specialisation (a specific
player position in team sports or several
favourite techniques in combat sports) and an
increasingly efficient performance of technicaltactical activities in competition conditions.
30 - 8
New model of long-term sports preparation

(Martin, Carl and Lehnertz, 1991)
Programme of specific
and situational
preparation
Programme of
multilateral and basic
preparation
High demands on the

systems for receiving,
processing, retaining and
using motor information as
a result of technical-tactical
training and development of
coordination.
30 - 9
High demands on the

energy processes and
development of
functional and motor
abilities as a result of
physical conditioning.
QUESTIONS
1. Definition and Elements of the Methodology of Training
2. Classification and characteristics of training means
3. Examples of training means
4. The effects of training exercise implementation
5. Selection and order of training exercises application
6. Training and competition load
7. Total load and its components
8. Effects of a training load on an athletes body
9. Classification (characteristics) of training loads
10. Training load managementdosage
11. Classification and description of training methods
12. Exercise methods
13. Teaching and learning methods in sport
14. Organisational training forms
15. Methodological forms of training
16. Definition, structure and characteristics of physical conditioning
17. The effects of physical conditioning on an athletes body
18. Physical preparation types
19. Methodology of development and maintenance of functional abilities
20. Aerobic training methodology
21. Anaerobic training methodology
22. Strength training methodology
23. Speed training methodology
24. Endurance training methodology
25. Flexibility training methodology
26. Coordination training methodology
27. Agility training methodology
28. Methodology of accuracy training
29. Balance training methodology
30. Sports technique
31. Sports tactics
32. Levels of efficiency of the programme for technical-tactical command
33. Teaching and learning the basics of technical-tactical skills
34. Motor learning phases
35. Teaching methods
36. The coach and athlete in the process of technical-tactical teaching-learning
37. Programme of teaching technical-tactical skills
38. Principles of programmed teaching learning
39. Cybernetic model of programmed teaching learning in sport
40. Programming of the teaching process in multi-annual and annual cycles
Lesson 31:
Planning and Programming

Training Courses

Define the planning and programming of training
courses
Talk about sports preparation periodisation
Describe the determinants of successful planning and
programming of training courses
Define and explain the planning and programming types
with respect to the duration of a period
Describe the differences among the various planning and
programming of training methods (serial, parallel,
stochastic, mathematical)
Define and explain the planning and programming
phases of training in sports preparation cycles
31 - 1
31.1. Planning of training

The planning of training is a complex control
action that determines the goals and the
objectives of the training process, the time
cycles for their achievement (periodisation) and
the necessary technical, material and personnel
prerequisites.
Each training plan should be based on the

quantitative (measurable) variables that
provide an objective determination of its
parameters and an evaluation of its effects
Diagnostics at the beginning of the training
process, the competition calendar and the
expected peak performance levels are the
basic sets of data for successful sports
preparation planning
31 - 2
31.2. Periodisation
Periodisation is becoming a widely recognized
and scientifically based element of planning
the training of contemporary sports
Periodisation is a procedure to determine the
typical sports preparation cycles
Periodisation simply means the
distribution/division of a longer cycle into
shorter cycles
It is defined as the time planning of training

and it encompasses the objective changes in the
means and structure of training for each cycle.
The coach and the athlete use training
periodisation for:
achievement of top results at the "right"
moment
achievement of optimum effects in each
sports preparation cycle
31 - 3
Periodisation variations for a sports

training annual cycle (Platonov, 1997)
1. Monocycle periodisation
Cycles
Periods
Months
1 macrocycle
Preparatory period (PP)
XI - III
Competitive period (CP)

IV - IX
Transition
period (TP)
2. Bi-cycle periodisation
Cycles
Periods
Months
1. macrocycle
PP
X II
CP
III IV
2. macrocycle
TP
V
PP
V - VII
CP
VIII - IX
TP
IX - X
3. Tri-cycle periodisation
Cycles
Periods
Months
1. macrocycle
PP
X,XI,XII
CP
I,II
2. macrocycle
PP
III,IV
CP
V
3. macrocycle
PP
VI,VII
CP
VIII
TP
IX
31.3. Programming of training

Programming of
training is a complex
control action that
determines the
procedures containing
the information on the
means, loads and
methods of training,
and on the recovery
and competition.
31 - 4
It refers to the selection, load management and

distribution of training operators. They are
used in all cycles of sports preparation.
They match an athlete's readiness levels and
the conditions for sports preparation
implementation.
For an efficient planning and programming of

training several prerequisites need to be
met.
1. the amount of scientific and
professional knowledge
2. the number of coaches and other
professional personnel involved in the
training process and their professional
qualifications
3. a permanent professional
development of coaches through
conferences, seminars and other forms of
lifelong learning
31 - 5
Determinants of successful planning and

programming of sports training
COMPETITIONS
(CALENDAR
AND CONDITIONS)
5
4
3
TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL

SKILLS OF THE ATHLETES
CHARACTERISTICS AND
ABILITIES OF THE
ATHLETES (PROFILE)
SOCIO-CULTURAL
IMPACTS
REALISTICALY DEFINED
TRAINING
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
AVAILABE
TRAINING METHODS
TRAINING EQUIPMENT
AND GEAR
15
ATHLETES' DEMANDS
AND NEEDS
OPERATIVE AND
PERIODIC CONTROL
14
TRAINING AND
COMPETITION CONDITIONS
SCIENTIFIC
INFORMATION
16
COMPETENCES
OF THE COACHES
FINANCIAL
OPTIONS
MOTIVATION
VALUES SYSTEM
TIME FACTOR
9
10
11
12
13
Basic characteristics of a well-designed

sports training plan and programme:
1) Goal/aim orientation - precisely defined
goals/aims
2) Internal congruence - the training plan
and programme must contain all of the
important elements and they must be
harmonised
3) Good structural layout - clear and distinct
elements
4) Flexibility - the possibility for adjustments
during the implementation of the plan
5) Economy an optimum duration of the
process with the engagement of minimum
personnel, finances and other resources
31 - 6
If the selection of top athletes has been

adequately managed, the efficiency of the
training process will depend on:
1) a precise determination of the initial state of
the abilities, characteristics and skills of the
athlete or the sports team
2) a precise definition of the desired final state in

accordance with the demands of the given sports
activity, and a realistic possibility to achieve the
optimum effects in the given time using the
available resources
3) the continuous modelling and

correction of the programme based
on the feedback regarding the achieved
transitive states. The coach and the
athlete must be aware at any given
moment "where they are" and which
path they must follow to achieve the
final goal.
31 - 7
31.4. Types of planning and

LONG-TERM TRAINING
PLANNING AND
PROGRAMMING (PROSPECTIVE)
MID-TERM TRAINING
PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
SHORT-TERM TRAINING
CURRENT TRAINING
SPORTS CAREER
BI-OLYMPIC CYCLE
OLYMPIC CYCLE
BI-ANNUAL CYCLE
ANNUAL MACROCYCLE
SEMI-ANNUAL MACROCYCLE
MESOCYCLE-PERIOD
MESOCYCLE-PHASE
MICROCYCLE
OPERATIVE TRAINING
TRAINING DAY
TRAINING UNIT
There are several types of

plans and programmes of
training for periods of
various duration.
Sports careers and biolympic cycles are managed
by long-term or
prospective planning and
programming while Olympic
and bi-annual cycles are
managed by mid-term
planning and programming.
31 - 8
Short-term plans and programmes are used for

annual and semi-annual macrocycles
For long and short mesocycles (periods and
phases) current planning and programming is
used while operative planning and
programming is used for microstructural training
(microcycle, a day of training and a training unit)
31.5. Methods of planning and

A serial or successive planning and programming
method
A parallel or simultaneous planning and

programming method
A grid modelling method
A mathematical modelling method (linear,
deterministic, stochastic...)
31 - 9
Various methods are used for planning and

programming with the goal of ensuring the
complete development of athletes in different
sports preparation cycles with various
durations. An accidental approach does not
ensure certainty in the implementation of
training and the achievement of the desired
goals.
A serial or successive planning and

programming method of training
1. TRAINING
PLAN
AND PROGRAMME
2. TRAINING
PLAN AND PROGRAMME
EXECUTION
(REALISATION)
3. ANALYSIS
OF THE TOTAL
TRAINING ACTIONS
EMPLOYED
4.A NEW TRAINING

PLAN AND
PROGRAMME
DEVELOPMENT
31 - 10
A serial planning and programming method

is based on the analysis of the total training
actions employed in the previous cycle.
Subsequently, the plan and the programme for
the next cycle is developed.
A parallel or simultaneous planning

and programming method of training
1. TRAINING
PLAN AND
PROGRAMME
2.1. TRAINING
PLAN AND PROGRAMME
EXECUTION
(REALISATION)
2.2. ELABORATION OF
A NEW TRAINING
PLAN AND PROGRAMME
DEVELOPMENT
31 - 11
3. ANALYSIS
OF THE TOTAL
TRAINING ACTIONS
EMPLOYED
4.A NEW TRAINING

PLAN AND
PROGRAMME
DEVELOPMENT
A parallel planning and programming method

of training is based on two sets of data:
an analysis of the total training actions
employed in the previous cycle,
elaborated elements of a new plan and
programme during its realisation.
This information is used in making the
necessary corrections in the next microcycle,
mesocycle or annual training cycle. This
minimizes any contingencies.
The stochastic method of training modelling

The training process is mostly stochastic because it
is conducted in time sequences where control
actions transform the established state of the athlete
into one of the states from the set of
potentially possible states.
For this reason, the training process demands a
continuous optimisation of the athlete's state
and programmed training activities as well as the
equalization of the achieved and the desired effects.
This implies the use of objective and reliable metric
systems and mathematical methods of a linear,
non-linear and dynamic modelling of the
transformation processes.
31 - 12
31.6. A plan and programme modelling

of training is conducted on five levels
1. level:
2. level:
3. level:
4. level:
5. level:
annual cycle modelling

modelling of periods and phases
microcycle modelling
modelling of days of training
modelling of units of training
The sum parameters (budget) of a longer

cycle are distributed to shorter training
cycles
Modelling of the plan and programme for an

annual training cycle (first level)
SUMP
Months
12
Periods
Phases
(SUMP=sum of annual cycle activity data)

XI
XII
II
III
IV

Multilateral
preparation
Basic
preparation
VI
VII
VIII
IX
Specificsituational
1. comp.
phase
r.p.
phas
e
X
Tr.p.
2. comp.
phase
52
Number of training sessions
524
40
50
50
48
48
48
50
40
50
40
40
20
TRAINING DURATION
998
60
100
110
110
100
96
80
70
100
70
72
30
Multilateral and basic physical

224
20
34
36
30
24
18
10
10
20

258
15
20
25
30
36
36
20
16
30
12
12
Technical-tactical preparation
programmes
396
20
40
42
47
32
32
35
28
44
34
36
Theoretical preparation
40
10
Number of competitions
20
Number of performances
40
Effects control (excluded from the

schedule)
10x
1.9
1.5
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.1
2.0
1.6
1.7
2.0
1.7
1.8
1.5
10.01
10
10
10
12
12
12
10
10
10
10
10
Number of weeks
Training unit duration

Number of training sessions per
week
31 - 13
Modelling of a training plan and programme

in a mesocycle (second level)
(SUMP=sum of monthly cycle activity data; weeks I, II, III and IV)
Weeks
SUMP
II
III
IV
48
12
12
12
12
100
26
24
26
24
Multilateral and basic physical preparation

programmes
24
Action and body regions strength factors
TRAINING DURATION
10
Action speed factors
General endurance
Specific and situational physical preparation

programmes
36
12
10
Explosive and speed power
20
Specific endurance
10
Technical-tactical preparation programmes
32
Number of performances (x2 hours)
Effects control (excluded from the schedule)
Specific speed and agility
Modelling of a training plan and programme

in a microcycle (third level)
(SUMP=sum of weekly cycle activity data)
SUMP
MO
TU
WE
TH
FR
SA
SU
12
TRAINING DURATION
26
General and basic physical

Action and body regions strength

factors
General endurance
10
Specific endurance
Specific coordination and technique

programmes
1(2)

schedule)
Weeks

31 - 14
Modelling of a training
plan and programme for a day of training
(fourth level)
Day
Tuesday
Time
Location
Goals
Means
Load(V)
Load(I)
Morning
9-11
Hall
Gym
Motor abilities
development (EP,
SE)
Weight training
exercises
Jumping
exercises
Circuit training
120
Evening
17-19
Hall
Outdoor
field
Technique
improvement
(TE)
Development of
functional
abilities (GE)
Imitation
exercises
Situational
technique
training
Continuous
aerobic training
120
4-5
EP - explosive power, SE - specific endurance, TE - technique,

GE - general endurance
A plan and programme for a unit of training

for basic strength in basketball (fifth level)
MICROCYCLE
No. 3
TRAINING
No. 3
Date: 05/02/1993
Time: 9.30 11.05
MAIN TRAINING GOAL:

Basic body strength development
Duration: 95
Organisational forms: frontal
Load intensity: 80
Training modes: interval
Number of players: 14
Training equipment: mats,

stopwatch
Number of coaches: 2
Location: Sports hall
Note:
Training parts:
Training programme
5 min.
Dribbling running - random, no shooting
10 min.
Stretching
5 min.
Track and field (running - race walk)
5 min.
Basic toning - 10 push-ups, 10 squats, 10 sit-ups, 10 back extensions

GLOBAL ACTIVATION OF THE LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM
TRAINING OPERATORS:
60 min.
Set A
15 close push-ups (elbow inside)
-20 simultaneous leg and trunk lifts (while lying on the back) - no rest
-20 sit-ups
-15 one-leg jumps (right and left)
31 - 15
Rest 60"
Set B
- 15 wide push-ups
- 20 alternating leg lifts (right and left) and trunk lifts while lying on the back
-20 alternating lifts of the right arm and the left leg and the left arm and the
right leg while lying on the belly - no rest
Rest 90"
Set C
-20 wide push-up holds
-30" of high frequency sit-ups, opposite elbow
touches the opposite knee
-30" holds while lying on the belly with lifted trunk and legs
-20 squats
-Rest 120"
This sequence is repeated 4 x with 3' rests
10 min.
31 - 16
2.07
2.03
2.03
2.01
1.96
EP
(do 23 god.)
1.95
1.93
SP
(juniori)
1.95
SP
SP
(dv.)
SP
(dv.)
2.06
OI
SP
(dv.)
2.08
2.05
SP
SKup
2.03
SP
(dv.)
SP
SK
SP
(juniori)
1.80
Lesson 32:
1.67
Long-Term Planning and

Programming:
multi-annual cycle of training

Talk about long-term sports preparation
periodisation
Define a multi-annual cycle of training and its stages
Model a long-term sports preparation process and
design a prospective plan of training
Describe the distribution of sports preparation
programmes at all stages of a sports career
List and explain the load sum parameters for
different age groups
Define and explain the physical, technical-tactical
and theoretical preparation proportions for different
age groups
32 - 1
32.1. Long-term sports

preparation periodisation
It refers to the total duration of a sports
career and the bi-Olympic cycle

Sports careers of some athletes last up to 30
years, e.g. from the age of 8 until the age of
38.
Long-term sports preparation periodisation

(Bompa, 2001)
Training periodisation
Multilateral development
age 6 14
Specialised development
age 15 and older
Initiation
Athletic formation
Specialisation
High performance
age 6 10
age 11 14
age 15 18
age 19 and older
Pre-puberty
Post-puberty and
adolescence
Puberty
32 - 2
Maturity
Long-term sports preparation periodisation

(modified after Matvejev, 1999)
Sports
discipline
selection
Universal
Athletic
sports school development
monitoring
Completion
of the basic
technicaltactical
preparation
Final
technicaltactical
specialisation
and
automation
Technicaltactical and
physical
conditioning
maintenance
training
Final
Forced
development of
physical
physical
conditioning
preparedness
training
I. STAGE
II. STAGE
III. STAGE
Basic preparation
Maximum development
of an athlete's
individual capacities
Extended
sports career
Preliminary
preparation
Narrowed
Record
Beginning
sports
achievements;
of sports
specialisation Life time peak
specialisation and actualisation performance
Maintenance
of the level
of sports
results
Maintenance
of sports
readiness
The long-term cycle, after

Matvejev (1999),
comprises three basic
stages with sub-stages:
Sports
discipline
selection
Universal
Athletic
sports school development
monitoring
I. STAGE
Basic preparation
Preliminary
preparation
Beginning
of sports
specialisation
1. The basic preparation

stage
preliminary preparation
beginning of sports
specialisation
32 - 3
2. The stage of the

maximum development of
an athlete's individual
capacities
narrowed sports
specialisation, actualisation
preparation
Completion
Technicalof the basic
tactical
technicalsubspecialisat
tactical
ion and
preparation
automation
Forced
Development
physical
of physical
conditioning
preparedness
training
II. STAGE
realisation of the best
individual achievements
(personal records)
3. Extended sports
career stage
maintenance of the
sports achievement level
maintenance of sports
readiness
Maximum development
of the athlete's
individual capacities
Narrowed
Record
sports
achievements.
Specialisation Lifetime peak
and actualisation performance
Technicaltactical and
physical
conditioning
maintenance
training
III. STAGE
Extended
sports career
Maintenance
of the level Maintenance
of sports
of sports
readiness
results
32 - 4
The stages of the long-term plan do not have
strictly fixed boundaries

They depend on the athlete's talent, the
characteristics of his or her physical and motor
development, readiness, the years of training and
the specificities of the sports specialisation

preparation modelling
(modified after Havliek, 1981 and Viru, 1995)
A) It is based on the information or data on:

historical development of sports results to
date
sports results structure (hierarchical structure
of success)
age dynamics and capacities for the
development of the dimensions and sports
achievements
technological procedures - training
methodology in the past, present and future
32 - 5
B) A multi-annual sports career
planning procedure includes:

prognosis of sports results
development in the chosen sports

discipline in the future
prognosis of the top athlete model target situations (dimensions and
model characteristics)
Prognosis of the resulting state
matrix of "our" athlete - the final state
prognosis
prognosis of the developmental
states of "our" athlete in each stage of
sports preparation
Top results of Blanka Vlai (born 08/11/1983)

from 1997 until 2011
2.072.062.08
2.05
1.93
2.03 SP
2.03
2.01
SP
(dv.)
SP
EP
1.95
(dv.)
1.96 (do 23 god.)
1.95
SP
(juniori)
1.61
SP
(juniori)
OI
SP
(dv.)
SP
SKup
2.03
SP
(dv.)
SP
SK
1.80
1.67
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
32 - 6
the morphological characteristics and motor
preparedness match the model level of the top

high jump female athletes
biomechanical analyses demonstrate a tendency
towards the optimum performance technique
it is realistic to expect that
this athlete will see further

progress in her high jump
results.
Prognosis of the development of sports

results
Various methods for an objective analysis of

the achieved results and prognosis of the
results that are expected in the future are used
Predicted results values are used in the

selection and monitoring of potential Olympic
candidates
32 - 7
The long jump results prognosis
(Milanovi, 2003, after Vazny model, 1978)

result (cm)
840
820
800
780
22
21
20
19
760
18
740
17
720
700
16
athlete's
age
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
year
rezultat (cm)
840
820
800
780
760
740
720
700
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
dob
sportaa
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
godine
Athletes of various ages and various initial
results in the long jump have almost the equal

chances of reaching the predicted level of olympic
results in the Olympic cycle. This will qualify them
for the upcoming Olympics.
32 - 8
In the years included in prospective planning four

important problems are to be solved:
Which changes or improvements of abilities,
characteristics and skills should be made?
What is the best moment or period to make
any changes or improvements?
What is the total time needed to initiate and
make those changes?
How can one model training programmes for
the development and maintenance of the
changes made in the components of the
athlete's readiness?
Long-term training plan for tennis players

Preparedness level
(modified after Mller, 1999)
2
10%
1. Tournaments
9
25%
2. Psycho-regulatory techniques
4
15%
3. General and specific physical

preparation
4. Specific technique and tactics
3
25%
5
25%
1
7 10%
30%
5
30%
8
30%
1
30%
3
25%
11
12
13
4
2
25%
10%
14 15
16 17
1
50%
2
10%
1
40%
5. Specific technique
6. Basic tactical skills
7. Simple tennis games
8. Coordination abilities
9. Training and recovery
6
3
15% 20%
10
1
65%
18
32 - 9
19
20
21
22
23 24 25 26
years
Distribution of technical and physical preparation

factors in a multi-annual training cycle for
decathlon athletes (Kunz et al., 1990)
TECHNICAL AND PHYSICAL
PREPARATION FACTORS
TECHNICAL AND PHYSICAL PREPARATION FACTORS

PROPORTIONS IN A MULTI-ANNUAL TRAINING CYCLE
Track and field

disciplines technique
Coordination abilities
Aerobic endurance
Explosive power
Speed
Maximum strength
Anaerobic endurance
Flexibility
Age of the athlete
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26

preparation planning and
programming
A determination of the functional sequence of the
goals and objectives for each stage of a sports

career. Global and partial training goals for
each age group need to be determined.
A determination of sports preparation
programmes proportions and approximate

load curves in the training of children, young
athletes and adults.
It is necessary to take into account the sensitive
phases of sports-motor development.
32 - 10
An example of a training
plan for young athletes in

team sports (Sozanski,
1984), shows a
continuous progression of
the number of training days,
training units, hours of
training and competitions as
well as the continuous
changes in the
programmes' proportions
through the stages of longterm sports preparation.
Sum of load data in the process of sports

preparation of each age group
(Milanovi, 1997, modified after Sozanski, 1984)
Training focus and

parameters
Age groups
A
10-12
years
12-14
years
14-16
years
16-18
years
18-20
years
150-200
250
280
300
320
165
115
85
65
45
Training days
Rest days
Training units
150-200
250-300
350-400
450-500
550-600
Training hours
300-400
500-600
700-800
900-1000
1100-1200
30
40
50
60
70
150
(100+50)
200
(100+100)
200
(100+100)
250
(100+150)
250
(100+150)
50
(50+0)
100
(75+25)
150
(75+75)
250
(100+150)
350
(150+200)
200
(150+50)
300
(150+150)
450
(200+250)
500
(200+300)
600
(250+350)
Multilateral and basic

preparation (hours)
Specific and situational

preparation (hours)

preparation (hours)
(excluded from the schedule)
10
20
30
40
50
10.
Diagnostics (tests)
2x
4x
6x
8x
10x
32 - 11
Numerical training load data for children aged
10 to 12 (150-200 training units, 300-400

training hours and 30 competitions) significantly
differ from the training model for the young
athletes aged 16 to 18 (300 training units, 450600 training hours and 60 competitions).
In relation to the total amount of training,
multilateral and basic sports preparation

programmes decrease while specific and
situational preparation programmes, especially the
technical-tactical training programme, constantly
increase.

(Martin, 1982)
First global goal

of the sports
trainin
Multilateral (complete)
psychosomatic development
1) Development of all coordination abilities
Partial goals:
-6
-7
2) Development of some coordination

abilities (sensitive phases)
3) Motor learning - games, elementary forms -8
of movement
4) Accumulation of movement experience
from various sports activities
5) Adaptation to rough forms of the basic
technique and motor tasks of the future
sports specialisation
32 - 12
-9
-10
Sensitive phases for the development of physical

abilities. (Martin, 1982 after Grosser et al., 1986)
Each dimension can be best developed at a certain period"
Ability
Age and sensitive phases

6
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Motor learning
Speed reaction to an
audiovisual signal
Space orientation
Rhythm
Balance
Endurance
Strength
Speed
Flexibility

(Martin, 1982)
Second global goal
of the sports
training
Initiation of specialised sports-motor

development and sports specialisation
-10
1) Basic sports specialisation technique and

tactics learning - multilateral TE-TA training
2) Further detailed motor learning in the
chosen sports discipline
Partial goals:
3) Multi-discipline training (gymnastics, track

and field), technical-tactical training for
several player positions (team sports)
-11
-12
4) Further development of functional and

motor abilities
5) Mastering of exercises for specific
training, development of specific abilities
and dynamic basics of technique and tactics
-13
6) Initial demands for the competition results

-14
at regular sports events
32 - 13
32.3.3. Specialised sports school

(Martin, 1982)
Third global goal of

the sports training
Narrowed specific training and sports

specialisation
-15
Partial goals:
1) Stabilisation of the sports technique and

tactics at the highest level
-16
2) Consequential development of primary

and specific motor abilities
-17
3) Forced increase of training load

4) Forced increase in the number of regular
competitions and demands for high
competition results
-18
-19
32.3.4. Final sports specialisation

(transfer from the junior to the adult age group)
(Martin, 1982)
Fourth global goal

of the sports
training
Final sports specialisation and

tendency towards the highest sports
results
Integrative effects of sports preparation
Partial goals:
Formation of stereotypes in technical-tactical

command
-20
-21
-22
Improvement through competitions

Accomplishment of high-quality, record
achievements
32 - 14
-23
and
more
Lesson 33:
Mid-Term Planning and

Programming (Olympic cycle)

Describe the Olympic Games as the largest
multi-sport competition
Discuss the Olympic Games results of the
competing countries
Define the Olympic cycle and basic training
characteristics for each year
Explain the organisational aspects of the
Olympic cycle planning
Describe the differential load characteristics of
the Olympic cycle
33 - 1
33.1. The significance

of the Olympic Games
To compete at the Olympics is the long-term
goal of all top athletes and often the crown of

their careers
Medals won at the big world and European
competitions are indicators of athletes' success
but a medal won at the Olympics is valued
as the most significant sports
achievement.
Despite the large number of international
competitions, in the long-term periodisation
the Olympics have a special place
Rankings of the countries by medals won

at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta
Rank
Country
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
USA
44
32
25
101
Russia
26
21
16
63
Germany
20
18
27
65
China
16
22
12
50
France
15
15
37
Italy
13
10
12
35
Australia
23
41
Cuba
25
Ukraine
12
23
10
South Korea
15
27
33 - 2
Rank Country
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
11
Hungary
10
21
12
Poland
17
13
Spain
17
14
Romania
20
15
Netherlands
10
19
16
Czech Republic
11
17
Greece
18
Switzerland
19
Denmark
20
Turkey
45
Croatia
At the last four summer Olympics Croatia won a total

of 17 medals (Barcelona 1S+2B, Atlanta 1G+1S,
Sydney 1G+1B, Athens 1G+2S+2B and Beijing 2S+3B)
33.2. Organisational and methodical

aspects of the Olympic cycle planning
For the Olympic Games,
the Mediterranean Games and
world championships,
for individual athletes
and sports teams
Main objectives
of each training year
Mass
selection of
candidates for
the national
team
Development
of a comparative
model for top
athletes
Final
selection
of the listed
candidates
33 - 3
Preparations
for the main
competition
Characteristics of the mid-term training plan and
programme in the Olympic

cycle are:
In the first year the extended multilateral
and basic preparation programme is
conducted. The training goal is to improve basic
athletes' functional and motor preparedness and
automation of the new, more rational technical
and tactical skills.
33 - 4
In the second year the shock integrative
training programme is conducted. The training

goal is to integrate physical and technical-tactical
preparedness until the level of maximum efficiency
is achieved. This year high goals are often set for
competing at e.g. the world championship.
In the third year the training structure and the
competition system predicted for the Olympic year
dominates. In this part of the Olympic cycle the
training and competitions model for the
Olympic year are tested.
In the fourth year the tested model that ensures
the highest level of sports results at the Olympic
competition, with any possible corrections, is
realised.
In the Olympic cycle we can see an
undulating curve of sports results
development and maintenance in accordance

with the periodisation and the phase dynamics
of the development of readiness and peak
performance in each annual cycle.
33 - 5
Sports results dynamics in each year

of the Olympic cycle
(as the Olympic year approaches there is less room for the
oscillation of results)
Results
(peak
performance)
4
Olympic cycle years
Sports results and test results for a top kayaker

during the Olympic cycle (eljaskov, 2004)
Basic competitions
Ranks for medals

I
1
2
3
4
5
II
III
1986 WORLD
CHAMPIONSHIP
1987 WORLD
CHAMPIONSHIP
1988 OLYMPIC
GAMES
1989 WORLD
CHAMPIONSHIP
1990 WORLD
CHAMPIONSHIP
S1 500
Testing results - WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS

AND OLYMPICS
Kg
WMax
VO2max
84.7
380
61.39
86.5
410
54.91
S1 1000
90.8
430
63.33
S4 500
88.7
390
58.06
S1 500
86.4
390
63.08
86.0
400
61.05
89.3
370
69.43
90.4
370
58.63
93.5
380
60.96
I-III ranks in 12 years

5
4
6
Testing results - WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS AND OLYMPICS
C / S
89.2 / 3.19
C / S
390 / 18.10
C / S
62.04 / 3.9
Results of all tests in 12 years (64)
89.7 / 2.70
395 / 33.41
59.95 / 4.4
S4 500
S4 1000
6
1991 WORLD
CHAMPIONSHIP
S1 500
S1 1000
S4 1000
7
8
9
1992 OLYMPIC
GAMES
1993 WORLD
CHAMPIONSHIP
1994 WORLD
CHAMPIONSHIP
S1 500
S2 1000
S1 500
S1 200
S1 1000
S1 500
33 - 6
In the multi-annual cycle there is a
continuous progression of the relative total

load.
Each next macrocycle has a higher load than
the previous macrocycle - in the preparatory,
competitive and transition periods.
Each year starts with a higher load.

The highest load level increases in each
subsequent year
This is particularly important for young
athletes preparation programmes.
33 - 7
Lesson 34:
Short-Term Planning and

Programming (annual and
semi-annual cycles)

Define an annual and the semi-annual macrocycle
Define and explain the monocycle and bi-cycle periodisation of
an annual training cycle.
Describe a model of an annual cycle plan and programme of
training (the first level)
Discuss the short-term planning and programming
steps (algorithm)
Describe an example of an annual cycle plan and programme of
training with all its elements
Describe a preparatory, competitive and transition period
Explain the importance of additional individual training in an
annual cycle
34 - 1
34.1. Annual and semi-annual

macrocycle
An annual training cycle is planned and
programmed in one or more training
macrocycles.
Each macrocycle contains three basic
periods:
preparatory,
competitive and
transition.
Modelling of an annual training cycle plan

and programme (the first level)
SUMP
Months
12
Periods
Phases
(SUMP=sum of annual cycle activity data)

XI
XII
II
III
IV

Multilateral
preparation
Basic
preparation
VI
VII
VIII
IX
Specificsituational
1. comp.
phase
r.p.
phas
e
X
Tr.p.
2. comp.
phase
52
524
40
50
50
48
48
48
50
40
50
40
40
20
998
60
100
110
110
100
96
80
70
100
70
72
30
Multilateral and basic physical

224
20
34
36
30
24
18
10
10
20

258
15
20
25
30
36
36
20
16
30
12
12
Technical-tactical preparation
programmes
396
20
40
42
47
32
32
35
28
44
34
36
40
10
20
40 (80)
10x
1.9
1.5
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.1
2.0
1.6
1.7
2.0
1.7
1.8
1.5
10.01
10
10
10
12
12
12
10
10
10
10
10
Number of weeks
TRAINING DURATION

schedule)
Training unit duration
Number of training sessions per
week
34 - 2
The internal structure of an

annual cycle is determined by
the number of competition
seasons.
One competitive period (A)
requires a monocycle
periodisation.
If the competitions extend
throughout the year (wintersummer-autumn), the annual
cycle should be structured in
three macrocycles, the so-called
tri-cycle periodisation (C).
Development and maintenance curves of annual

cycle peak performance with two peaks
(monocycle periodisation)
100%
70%
VII
PP
VIII
IX
XI
XII
II
III
Recovery - preparatory mesocycle
34 - 3
IV
VI
TP
Rational planning and programming of the

annual and semi-annual macrocycle is possible
if the objective peak performance dynamics
patterns are acknowledged.
The peak performance entrance phase

corresponds to the preparatory period,
stabilisation and the highest level phase
correspond to the competitive period and the
temporary loss phase to the transitional
period.
Peak performance
dynamics in the
monocycle
periodisation of an
annual cycle with an
extended
competitive period
(1 preparatory period,
2 competitive period,
3- transitional period)
34 - 4
34.2. Algorithm of short-term

planning and programming in an
annual training cycle
1. Define the global and the partial goals (ideal
states - achievements) of an annual training
cycle: competition results and desired rankings;
Acknowledge the previous competition results and
achievements.
2. Conduct the diagnostics of an athlete's initial
state (measurements, tests, subjective
assessment: characteristics of the individual or the
team). Diagnostics requires a selection of the
dimensions that need to be measured and tests
or measuring instruments for their assessment.
Example: test results of top

female handball players (initial state assessment)
Side
steps
Sargent1
Sargent2
Standing
long
jump
30 m,
standing
start
Bench
press
Sit-ups
Suicide
shuttle run
"Beep"
test (10
levels)
V.C.
843
42
45
210
4.88
45
31
43.48
86.52
R.D.
882
50
50
235
4.58
55
30
42.56
86.19
A.F.
818
53
59
232
4.85
55
29
43.13
84.66
A.H.
855
42
51
220
4.81
45
32
44.84
88.73
B.J.
861
48
50
219
5.37
45
30
47.79
103.13
N.K.
862
45
54
220
4.71
62.5
31
46.32
88.46
I.M.
857
43
44
225
5.18
40
30
47.94
94.68
V.M.
844
50
56
215
4.59
45
30
45.22
92.71
B.P.
798
46
51
220
4.88
55
28
43.28
80.52
S.P.
873
49
56
225
4.98
55
31
44.62
90.33
J.P.
922
37
39
202
5.16
40
30
47.5
100.43
M.R.
885
39
47
210
5.10
45
27
46.33
92.04
T..
882
45
49
225
5.09
50
29
44.52
92.03
M.T.
836
46
47
4.98
45
32
43.65
85.40
LJ.V.
849
46
58
4.87
45
31
46.84
94.35
213
34 - 5
3. Determine the realistic goals for an annual

training cycle based on the diagnostics of the
initial state (define the dynamics for the
achievement of the expected transitive states of
preparedness and readiness and dynamics for
the sports results achievement)
After the collected data have been processed, a
global assessment of the individual or the team
preparedness is carried out and followed by a
definition of the partial goals and objectives in
accordance with the observed deficits and
shortcomings of the readiness components.
4. Define the annual training cycle

periodisation (competition calendar, peak
performance dynamics, typical sports
preparation cycles)
Annual cycle periodisation for a top Croatian

football team (bi-cycle periodisation)
First macrocycle
Preparatory
period
Competitive
period
Transition
period
20/06/2001 28.07.2001.
29/07/2001 10.12.2001.
11/12/2001 09.01.2002.
34 - 6
Second macrocycle
Preparatory
period
Competitive
period
Transition
period
10/01/2002
23.02.2002.
24/02/2002 03.05.2002.
14/05/2002
15.06.2002.
In Croatian football, bi-cyclic periodisation of

an annual cycle is used (two preparatory
periods for two competition seasons)
This is due to the geographical and climatic
conditions and a relatively low standard of
facilities, which are inadequate for the winter
competition season
Cyclic structure and parameters of an annual

training cycle (Milanovi, 1993)
Preparation period
(XI - IV)
22 weeks
Competition
period
( IV - IX) 24 wks
Transition period
(IX-X)
6 weeks
Mesocycle:
3 periods
XI
XII
Stage of versatilebasic preparation

10weeks26h=260hours
IV
Precompetition stage
(introductary preparation comp.)
6weeks22h=132hours
END IX
Closing stage
4weeks10h=40hours
Mesocycle:
6 stages
34 - 7
II
III
IV
Stage of specialsituational preparation

12weeks24h=288hours
VI
VII
VIII
IX
Competition stage
(official competitions)
18weeks18h=324hours
548
training &
competition
hours
456
training &
competition
hours
END X
Active rest
2weeks4h=8hours
Microcycle:
52 weeks
48
training hours
1052 hours
of training &
competition
5. Define the available resources sports preparation prerequisites

(staff, facilities, equipment,
financial means, annual training
cycle costs)
6. Make a Model of some sports
a. Define the sets of practicable
activities or sports preparation
means
b. Define the practicable load
parameters
(number of training days, number of
training sessions, number of training
and competition hours)
c. Define the practicable training
methods
d. Select locations and choose the
training equipment
7. Define the proportions the relations of the

sports preparation programme means and
methods (for the achievement of the desired
goals), it is necessary to develop physical abilities
(%), technique (%) and tactics (%) by means of
multilateral (%), basic (%), specific (%), and
situational (%) preparation.
34 - 8
Proportions of the sports preparation

programmes in each month of an annual
training cycle
100%
90%
80%
Physical
conditioning
70%
60%
Technical
training
50%
40%
Tactical training
30%
20%
Individual
training
10%
0%
Proportions in the bi-cycle periodisation of an

annual training cycle for top basketball players
(eljaskov, 2004)
100%
90
10
30
30
80
30
40
50
70
60
70
60
40
50
40
40
30
40
30
60
30
20
20
30
10
0
20
GP
SPP
Preparatory period
Competitions
Competitive period
30
20
GP
SPP
Preparatory period
First cycle
Specific-situational
preparation
10
10
1st comp.
phase
Main
competitions
Competitive period
Second cycle
Basic preparation
34 - 9
General preparation
Proportions of different types of physical

conditioning programmes in an annual cycle
(modified after Juki, 2002)
Periods
Competitive
period (CP)

Multilateral
preparation
phase
Basic
preparation
phase
Specific
preparation
phase
Situational
preparation
phase
Preventive
physical
conditioning
programmes
40 %
25 %
20 %
10 %
20 %
Developmental
physical
conditioning
programmes
50 %
60 %
50 %
45%
25 %
Maintenance
physical
conditioning
programmes
5%
10 %
20 %
35 %
40 %
Recovery
physical
conditioning
programmes
5%
5%
10 %
10 %
15 %
Phases
8. Define the distribution - training and the

competition load distribution in different
stages of an annual sports preparation cycle
Determine the approximate curve of the total
load and its components.
34 - 10
Range and distribution of specific and nonspecific training loads in the annual cycle for
female athletes competing in discus throw
(Rachmanlijev and Harnes, 1990)
Training means
Months
Total
(annual
cycle)
XI
II
VI
VIII
Throwing exercise
(no.)
2310
1750
1830
1180
890
1100
18 700
Weight training
exercises (t)
169
325
284
94
78
102
1918
Jumping exercises
(no.)
2960
1350
1290
980
920
720
16 510
Running exercises
(km)
8,2
8,0
6,8
3,6
4,6
3,5
76,5
Complementary
sports (hours)
39
13,15
14
11,3
203
Approximate load curves in an annual cycle

MAIN
COMPETITION
TOTAL LOAD
LOAD VOLUME
LOAD INTENSITY
LOAD COORDINATION
COMPLEXITY
MENTAL TENSION
INTRODUCTORY
PREPARATION PHASE
MULTILATERAL
PREPARATION PHASE
BASIC PREPARATION
PHASE
SPECIFIC
PREPARATION PHASE
INTRODUCTORY
COMPETITIONS PHASE
BASIC COMPETITIONS
PHASE
XI XII I
1
II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

3
PREPARATORY PERIOD (PP) COMPETITIVE PERIOD (CP)
34 - 11
TRANSITION
PERIOD
9.
Define the general programme for the

training and competitions as well as the
recovery means in a preparatory period
10. Define the general programme for the
recovery means in a competitive period
11. Define the general programme for the
recovery means in a transition period
12. Define the schedule for the control of the
sports preparation effects (dimensions,
tests, state assessment criteria)
The plan and the elements of an annual

training cycle programme
(eljaskov, 1998)
Total training activity data for an annual

training cycle is provided: the number of training
days, competition days and rest days, the number
of training units and training hours
Periodisation is always the starting point for the
development of an annual training cycle plan and
programme
The competition calendar defines the duration and
the structure of the competitive period
Periodisation refers to the distribution/division of
each period to several stages or phases.
34 - 12
The duration of the preparatory period in an

annual cycle is 6 months and it comprises four
phases:
multilateral,
basic,
specific and
situational or pre-competitive preparation
The duration of each phase is one and a half

months
The duration of the competitive period is five

and a half months and it comprises three phases:
first competitive phase (two months), recovery preparatory phase (one month) and second
competitive phase (two and a half months)
The duration of the transition period at the end
of an annual cycle is two weeks
34 - 13
Load curve is defined by the volume component

of the training (the number of training hours)
Coefficients between 2.0 and 3.5 in the seventh
row represent an average training day load
duration in each training mesocycle (month)
We can see that there were 46 training units in
the second mesocycle and 38 training units in the
third mesocycle with a total number of hours 114
and 94, respectively.
This annual training cycle plan is adequate for

several sports, including rowing and track and field
(especially technical disciplines)
In one year, there were 270 training days, 15
competition days and 80 rest days.
The total number of training units (421) and the
total number of training hours (941) meet the high
training amount criteria in an annual cycle
34 - 14
The second part

shows the distribution
of sports
preparation types in
an annual training
programme.
The basic motor
preparation
dominates in the first
part of the
preparatory period,
while the specific
motor preparation
reaches its maximum
later on.
The information (technical-tactical) preparation

has the largest proportion by the end of the
preparatory period and in the competitive period.
In the recovery-preparatory phase the proportion
of the basic and specific preparation rises
In the transition period, basic exercises are
more dominant than specific physical and technical
preparation exercises.
The fact that 634 hours out of the total number of
training hours (941) were spent on various types
of physical conditioning indicates the forced
functional and motor preparation in this cycle.
34 - 15
Lesson 35:
Current Planning and

Programming:
(mesocycles: periods and phases)

Define the periods and phases of the preparatory period
Discuss training process modelling in the preparatory
period
Define load dynamics in the preparatory period
Define and explain the sum of training data for the
preparatory period
Discuss training process modelling in a competitive
period
Explain the training rules in the immediate preparation
phase for a main competition
Discuss the training process modelling in a transition
period
Define and explain all the phases in each period of an
annual cycle
35 - 1
35.1. Periods and phases

characteristics
Periods and phases planning and
programming is a crucial part of the
training process because it ensures
an efficient control of the
cumulative training effects
Periods are integral parts of a
macrocycle and they comprise
several phases
The specificities of the training means and

loads in different periods and phases need to be
taken into account when constructing mesocycles
Determining the dynamics of the total load
and its components is very important
35 - 2
Modelling of a training plan and

programme in a mesocycle (second level)
(SUMP=sum of monthly cycle activity data; weeks I, II, III i IV)
Weeks
TRAINING DURATION
SUMP
II
III
IV
48
12
12
12
12
100
26
24
26
24
Multilateral and basic physical preparation

programmes
24
Action and body regions strength factors
10
General endurance

36
12
10
20
Specific endurance
10
Technical-tactical preparation programmes
32

schedule)
35.2. Preparatory period (PP)

Build-up preparation programmes that will ensure
the achievement of a peak performance are utilised in
the preparatory period.
Preparatory periods have a different duration in
different sports. In some sports the duration is
6-8 weeks (football, tennis), while in others it
can last up to 6 months (rowing, track and field)
35 - 3
Delayed transformation effects

(Vjerhoanski, 1979)
Training effects
can occur
simultaneously
with the load
dynamics in the
second phase of the
same period or they
can be delayed.
%
30
20
10
1
months
Beginning of the competitive

period
%
140
120
100
months
80
This discrepancy (delayed transformation

effects) can ensure a high and stable level
of sports results in the competitive period.
Peak performance development curves during

the preparatory period (Bondaruk, after Tschiene, 1985)
(Diagrams B and C show the delayed transformation phenomenon)
Peak
performance
Peak
performance
A
2
8 weeks
Peak
performance
35 - 4
weeks
weeks
Load volume dynamics in the preparatory period

( Platonov, 1984)
training hours
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
ACTIVE
REST
MAIN COMPETITIVE
SEASON
PREPARATORY
PERIOD
1.0
0.5
A: Verstile preparation phase

B: Basic preparation phase
C: Specific preparation phase
D: Pre-competitive phase
duration
Load volume in the preparatory period

continuously and gradually decreases. This
controlled volume reduction does not go below
the level that ensures an adequate amount of
training.
As the competitive season approaches, training
sessions become shorter, more intense and
more specific.
35 - 5
The training duration and the structure in each

phase depend on the duration of the
preparatory period, the observed states of an
athlete and the preparation implementation
conditions.
The preparatory period can comprise two to
five phases. They are defined by the dominant
type of the sports preparation.
35.2.1. Guidelines for the programming of

training in the preparatory period phases
1. PHASE - foundation building (general preparation
phase) - 2 weeks
a. General description: Improvement of all physical and mental
factors. Fewer situational elements of the sports discipline
b. High volume - lower intensity (60-80%):a high
number of repetitions in all tasks, of longer duration
and a higher frequency of the stimuli during training
c. Long-distance running for cardio-respiratory efficiency.
General physical preparation. Fitness programmes.
d. If necessary (initial state), the proportion of technicaltactical preparation can be increased. Correction of mistakes
and stabilisation of motor skills
35 - 6
2. PHASE - build-up (basic preparation phase) - 3 weeks

a. Improvement of all factors relevant to the actual sports
activity. Moderate participation in the actual sports activity
(competition and situational training). Training models for all
athletes. Build-up programmes take into account the
individual characteristics of the athletes.
b. High total load: intensity is between 80% and 100%
of the maximum with medium number of repetitions.
Prevent overtraining.
c. Special focus on the development of the dominant physical
abilities. Focus on the weak spots.
d. Basic physical preparation. Short-distance running. Speed
power and agility, reaction speed. 12-minutes running and
interval sprints. Training on strength exercise machines.
Injury prevention.
3. PHASE - stabilisation (situational preparation phase) 3 weeks

a. Training specifically targeting the factors that affect sports
results. High frequency of participation in the actual sports
activity and at competitions / a lot of time reserved for the
sports specialisation. Situational training
b. Less volume - high intensity, a fewer number of
repetitions; abandoning additional exercises. Training
sessions frequency in the microcycle can be reduced.
c. The total load is 75-90% of the maximum. Technical-tactical
training utilises maximum intensity.
d. A regular distribution of training and rest. Injury prevention.
35 - 7
A plan and one part of a programme

for the preparatory period (Milanovi, 1985)
PREPARATORY PERIOD
TOTAL
MESOCYCLE
Mesocycle type
Introductory
Multilateral
Basic
Specific
Precompetitive
Mesocycle duration
25/07-02/08
03/08-13/08
14/08-26/08
27/08-06/09
07/09-18/09
Energy and information

training ratio
50 / 50
60 / 40
70 / 30
40 / 60
30 / 70
Number of days in the

mesocycle
11
13
11
12
56
Number of training and

competition days
12
10
48
Number of training
sessions
12
18
26
16
10
82
Number of matches
15
Number of training and

competition hours
18
36
56
30
32
172
Number of rest days
Number of energy and

information training hours
9+9
22+14
40+16
12+18
10+22
93+79
Training day load volume
2.25
4.00
4.66
3.33
3.20
3.48
Training day load intensity
70
75
80
85
90
80
Test date
03/08
25/07-18/09
05/09
The training process sum of data in this preparatory

period shows that out of 56 days, there were 48
training and competition days. Also, there were
82 training units and 15 control-preparatory
matches with a total duration of 172 hours.
The training effects were controlled twice.
35 - 8
35.3. Competitive period

Peak performance and the
highest sports results occur in
the competitive period at
official competitions.
Depending on the sport,
the duration of the competitive
period varies from several
months to several weeks.
One annual cycle can comprise
several competition seasons
(multi-cycle periodisation)
Competitive period periodisation with training

programmes distribution dynamics
COMPETITIVE PERIOD (CP)

MULTILATERAL-BASIC PREPARATION DYNAMICS
SPECIFIC-SITUATIONAL PREPARATION DYNAMICS
COMPETITIONS
35 - 9
POST-COMPETITIVE PHASE
MAIN COMPETITIONS
IMMEDIATE
PREPARATION
SECOND
COMPETITIVE
PHASE
RECOVERYPREPARATORY
PHASE
FIRST
COMPETITIVE
PHASE
INTRODUCTORY
COMPETITIONS
PHASE
(Matvejev, 1999)
POST-COMPETITIVE
PHASE
IMMEDIATE
PREPARATION
MAIN COMPETITIONS
SECOND
COMPETITIVE
PHASE
RECOVERYPREPARATORY
PHASE
FIRST
COMPETITIVE
PHASE
INTRODUCTORY
COMPETITIONS
PHASE
Construction of a
competitive period
requires three
actions:
COMPETITIVE PERIOD (CP)
SPECIFIC-SITUATIONAL PREPARATION DYNAMICS

MULTILATERAL-BASIC PREPARATION DYNAMICS
COMPETITIONS
A rational distribution of multilateral-basic and

specific-situational preparation programmes in
accordance with the dynamics of important
competitions
Planning of a short recovery-preparatory phase
in the middle of the competitive period, and
Programming a rational training and load structure
in the phase of immediate preparation for the
main competition of the season

training in competitive period phases
Seasonal maintenance of a peak performance - the competition
season
a.
The training is specific and situational. It refers to exercise selection

and load management.
b.
Less total load. Intensity 80%(90%)-100% of the

maximum load. A high number of repetitions for all TE-TA
exercises. Control the duration of rest periods between work
intervals.
c.
Peaking using exercises for agility, explosiveness and speed, and

technical-tactical training. The intensity and the proportion of
situational training increase.
d. Goal: maintain good physical preparedness achieved in the earlier

phases. Preparedness - maintaining physical conditioning training.
Injury prevention.
35 - 10
"Pendulum" principle in the phase of the immediate

preparation for a main competition
(Arosjev after Tschiene, 1985)
PENDULUM AMPLITUDE
As a main competition approaches, the total and non-specific load decreases,

while the proportion of the specific and situational training increases
100
90
LOAD (%)
80
PCC I, II, III
PCC I
PCC II
PCC III
pre-competitive
microcycles
Specific load
CC - competitive
microcycle
General load (non-specific)
CC
WEEKS
Active rest
35.4. Transition period

In the transition period peak
performance is temporarily lost.
The number of days of training
and training units significantly
decrease, as well as the load
level
The transition period has a
longer duration in some
sports, but its duration never
exceeds several weeks.
There are two phases in the
transition period: the final phase
and the active rest phase.
35 - 11

training in the transition period phases
A temporary loss of a peak performance and the
recovery of the working potentials for the following
cycle
a. At the end of the season the training activity decreases.
There is active rest for a few weeks.
b. Classic training tasks are performed in the first
phase, while complementary sports and recreational
activities are utilised in the second phase.
c. After that, new objectives are set and a new cycle begins.
d. This period should enable the employment of a load
level that is higher than the level that was utilised at
the beginning of the previous preparatory period.
35 - 12
Lesson 36:
Operative Planning and

Programming (microcycle)

Describe planning and programming of training in a
microcycle
Classify microcycles
Describe modelling of training in microcycles
Describe an example of training or competition
microcycle
36 - 1
36.1. Planning and programming

training in a microcycle
Microcycles are basic cycle structures of a
sports preparation process.
Each microcycle is a relatively closed unit
that is repeated with major or minor

corrections, which depend on the
periodisation and the achieved effects.
They provide a successful control of delayed
training effects.
Modelling of a plan and programme of

training in a microcycle (third level)
(SUMP=sum of weekly cycle activity data)
SUMP
MO
TU
WE
TH
FR
SA
SU
12
TRAINING DURATION
26
General and basic physical

Action and body regions strength

factors
General endurance
10
Specific endurance
Specific coordination and technique

programmes
1(2)

schedule)
Weeks

36 - 2
Different sports disciplines utilize microcycles
of various structures and durations.

It is necessary to define precisely: the
number of days of training, training units and
training hours as well as the means of training,
the loads and methods in each day and at each
training session.
The character of a microcycle depends on the
age of an athlete.
The load dynamics and the means distribution in
the microcycle of training for young athletes

significantly differ from the microcycle of
training programmes for adult top athletes.
36 - 3
36.2. Microcycle classification

Microcycles of training comprise only
days of training, while competitive

microcycles comprise one or more
competitions.
If the main goal of the microcycle is the

training of a technique, it can be called a
"technique microcycle". If the main goal
is strength development, this microcycle is
called a "strength microcycle".
36 - 4
When considering training and competition
load levels and distribution, the following types

of microcycles can be distinguished:
- ordinary - normal
- shock
- relaxation
Ordinary - normal microcycle

It is characterised by the classic distribution of
training sessions with a higher or lower load.

Training sessions with medium and
submaximum loads prevail. Its focus is
readiness maintenance.
36 - 5
Shock microcycle
It is characterised by a large number of
days of training and training units with

high and maximum loads. The
proportion of these training sessions is
more than 50%.
5 6
Recovery
microcycle
5 6
Recreational
microcycle
It comprises a large
number of training
days and training
units with low or
moderate loads.
It comprises fewer
training days and
training units with
complementary sports.
36 - 6
Microcycle modelling of training

The sequence of training loads and unloading
periods (rest) is defined in microcycles.

There are various types of training distribution
(1:1,2:1,3:1,1:2,2:2 etc.).
Intervals of higher or lower training loads
correspond to the stimulation or relaxation
stages of a microcycle.
Each microcycle comprises:

1) A stimulation phase
(the training load is used
to obtain a certain level of fatigue or
exhaustion)
2) A relaxation phase
(a decrease in the training load results
in the recovery or regeneration of
energy and other potentials, on which
an athlete's readiness for the next
training session depends)
36 - 7
Structure of one microcycle in the second

phase of a preparatory period
(Grosser et al., 1986)
Load level
IV
total load
III
load intensity
load volume
II
I
MO
1T
SpP
SpS
TU
2T
SSP
SPE
WE
1T
AeE
acR
FR SA
SU
TH
2T 2T
1T
1T
SCC SpP SCC acR
Te SpS SP
SpS SPE SE
SpP specific power, SpS specific speed, SP speed power, SPE specific
endurance, AeE aerobic endurance, acR active rest, SCC speed coordination,
S - speed, Te technique, SE speed endurance
Each training session induces certain

fatigue reactions, which are
neutralised in the recovery phase when
compensation and supercompensation
begin to occur
When developing a microcycle plan, it is
necessary to determine its duration,
the number of days of training and
rest days, and the number of
training and competition hours. This
enables the calculation of the training
work stress in one microcycle.
36 - 8
Structure of a microcycle in a competitive period

(Grosser et al., 1986)
Load level
IV
total load
load intensity
III
load volume
T
C
II
Training
Competition
MO TU WE TH FR SA SU
1T 2T 2T 2T 1T C 1T
Load
Example of a competition microcycle
PC
(S)
TT
CC
PC
(B)
AR
IT
TT
COMP
TT
AR
MON
TUE
WED
THU
FRI
SAT
SUN
1+1
AR active rest, FMP (B) functional motor preparation (basic), FMP (S) functional motor
preparation (specific), TT technical-tactical training, CC control competition, TO toning
load, COMP - competition
36 - 9
Operative training programme in the

microcycle of a top football team
(Milanovi, 1997)
22/01
MO
RN
IN
G
Strength,
Fitness,
Technique
Fitness
centre,
outdoors
Exercise machines (8-10 exercises, 3 sets x

8-10 repetitions) - functional gymnastics,
elementary and advanced techniques
90 min.
4
high
Aft
ern
oon
Complex
training
Outdoors
-jogging
-- basic ball exercises
60 min.
3
Medium
23/01
MO
RN
IN
G
Aerobic,
General
strength
Technique
Outdoors
- Continuous running 20-30 min.

-exercises for global activation of the
locomotor system - pair exercises
- elementary technique
90 min.
3
Medium
TUE
Aft
ern
oon
Technique,
Tactics
Outdoors
- offense organisation and tactics training
120 min.
4
Submaxim
um
24/01
WED
MO
RN
IN
G
Strength,
Fitness
Technique
Fitness
centre,
outdoors
Exercise machines (8-10 exercises, 3 sets x

8-10 repetitions) - functional gymnastics,
elementary and advanced technique
90 min.
4
Medium
Aft
ern
oon
Technique,
Tactics
Outdoors
- offense organisation and tactics training
120
(135)
min.
4
Submaxim
um
MON
DAY
TRAINING
GOALS
LOCATION
DAY
TRAINING
GOALS
TRAINING MEANS
LOCATION
TRAINING MEANS
25/01
MO
RNI
NG
THU
Afte
rno
on
Speed, Agility,
Explosiveness,
Strength, TETA
26/01
MO
RNI
NG
Aerobic,
General
strength
Technique
Afte
rno
on
Technique,
Tactics
Outdoors
- technical tactical training

- football game phases mastering
MO
RNI
NG
Technique,
Tactics
Outdoors
Afte
rno
on
Strength,
Fitness
Flexibility,
Technique
Fitness
centre,
outdoors
FRI
27/01
SAT
28/01
SUN
LOAD
VOL/INT
REST
MO
RNI
NG
Afte
rno
on
LOAD
VOL/INT
Outdoors
75-90
min.
4
Submaximum
90 min.
3
Medium
120 (150)
min.
4
Submaximum
Offense and defense segments detailed learning
120 min.
4
Submaximum
Exercise machines (8-10 exercises, 3 sets x 8-10

repetitions) - functional gymnastics, complex
technique exercises
90 min.
4
Submaximum
60 min.
2
low
- general speed exercises - direction changes

- jumping ability - clean and jerk exercises
- TE-TA preparation exercises
- continuous running, 30-40 min., variable pace
- general strength exercises
- specific technique preparation exercises
REST
Aerobic,
Swimming
Relaxation
- active rest
- jogging, 45 min.
- pool stretching, relaxation exercises
36 - 10
Lesson 38:
Modelling of Physical
Preparation

Define training, physical conditioning, diagnostics and

programming
Explain specificities of the competition activity in team
sports
Describe factorial structure of readiness
Make an example of model characteristics of top
athletes
Explain diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics
Compare individual and model preparedness
characteristics
Describe methodology of physical preparation
Explain physical preparation plan and programme
modelling in an annual training cycle
38 - 1
Introduction
Physical conditioning should be understood as a

long-term physical exercise process in which loads
and rest, and stress and adaptation to load
constantly alternate. This will lead to a high-quality
physical preparedness and, what is very important,
high and stable sports results.
Physical conditioning programmes are a result of
long-standing experience of coaches and their
assistants in many sports as well as the applied
research in sports training.
A training programme which is well-planned

and programmed for physical conditioning
demonstrates the following values:
it produces optimal sports preparedness and the desired

sports results
it ensures an improvement in psycho-physical abilities
it decreases the number and the severity of athletes' injuries
it ensures delayed fatigue reactions
it accelerates the recovery process after training and
competition
the time and the effort invested in physical preparation
provide multiple benefits for the athletes - during a
competition they are able to utilise all of their biological,
mental and technical-tactical potentials.
38 - 2
Definitions:
Training is a regulated system of all transformation
operators that are defined by the:
applicable motor activities
total load measures, and
modes of implementation,
which are systematically used with the goal/aim of
achieving explicitly defined goals in the sports
preparation cycles.
Programming of training
is a set of control actions that are used for
selection,
load management, and
distribution
of training operators during training, and a
means of recovery during a rest period.
Training operators are the stimuli that

produce the transformation effects or
quantitative and qualitative changes in the
sports preparation cycles.
38 - 3
Readiness diagnostics
is an objective procedure for determining the level

of abilities, characteristics and motor skills of an
athlete and for detecting his/her "strengths" and
the "weaknesses" of preparedness.
Model characteristics
the results of top athletes when tested for abilities,

characteristics and motor skills, and in the
situational efficiency variables.
Physical preparation
is a complex and comprehensive
process of the application of
several programmes for the
development and maintenance of
the functional and motor
abilities, as well as the
morphological characteristics.
The main objective of all
programmes is to improve
readiness and sports results by
increasing the general, basic and
specific abilities, and
characteristics that are necessary
for a successful participation in
training and competition activities.
38 - 4
Modelling - physical preparation planning

and programming
Many authors (Gabrijeli,

1980, Bangsbo, 1994,
Platonov, 1997, Milanovi,
1997, Mller, 1999,
eljaskov, 1998, Issurin,
2008 and others) define the
PHYSICAL preparation
process using a systematic
approach and closed-loop
modelling
Closed-loop modelling of the physical

preparation process
1. Specificities of the competition
activity in a chosen sport
10. Training effects control
2. Factorial structure of
success in a sports discipline
9. Training employment
3. Model characteristics of top

athletes
8. Training programming: selections

of means, loads and methods
4. Diagnostics of individual
athletes' characteristics
7. Training planning: goals, objectives,

periodisation and conditions
5. Comparison of individual and

model characteristics
6. Physical and technical-tactical

preparation methodology
38 - 5
38.1. Specificities of the
competition activity in team

sports
Heart rate during a football match (a) and the correlation between
the HR and the VO2 while running on the treadmill for one player
(b). With HR mean between 171 and 164 b/min in the first and the
second half VO2 is between 51.1 ml/mol/kg (78% VO2max) and
46.2 ml/mol/kg (72% VO2max)(Bangsbo, 1994)
VO2max = 65.3 ml/min/kg
38 - 6
Distance covered by top

football players during a match
is between 8 and 12 km
Of the total time spent on
the football field players:
stand 12% of the time
walk 32% of the time
run slowly 38% of the time
run fast 16% of the time
sprint 2% of the time
(around 120 s)
Amount of active time (ball in
the game) - 60 minutes
Distance run by the players in a handball

match (Bon et al., 2002)
prvo poluvrijeme
First half
2560
drugo
Second half
poluvrijeme
2230
cijela utakmica
Match
4790
2000
4000
This data refers to the new handball rules which include the fast centre.
38 - 7
6000
The various movement pace of players in

the active part of a handball match
(Bon et al., 2002)
7%
walk (to 1.5m/s)
37%
25%
jog (1.5-3.0m/s)
31%
fast run (3.5-5.2m/s)

sprint (faster than 5.2m/s)
Proportion of energy processes in different sports

(modified after eljaskov, 1998)
Energy process
SPORT
AEROBIC
ml//kg/min VO2
ANAEROBIC-ALACTATE
ml/kg/min VO2 debt
ANAEROBIC-LACTATE
% of lactates concentration
toleration
79
78
76
72
71
70
69
66
38
35
40
51
49
48
34
48
140
160
150
195
205
290
180
205
65
64
63
62
54
50
48
55
240
230
210
215
FIGURE SKATING
61
60
59
55
59
56
48
52
220
200
185
215
VOLLEYBALL
54
49
180
ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS
45
38
150
CROSS-COUNTRY SKIING
CYCLING
LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING
SPEED SKATING
SWIMMING
MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING
RACEWALKING
ROWING
ICE HOCKEY
WATER POLO
FOOTBALL
BASKETBALL
SHORT-DISTANCE RUNNING
WRESTLING
SKIING
38 - 8
38.2. Factorial structure of

readiness
Mean data for the maximum oxygen

uptake in various sports (Bangsbo, 1994)
mlO2/min/kg
football
handball
80
middle-distance
running
untrained
individuals
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
women
men
38 - 9
General hypothetical model of

success in team sports (%)
40
PHYSICAL
PREPARED
NESS
30
PERSONALITY
20
BODY TYPE
10
40Speed -
explosive
power
40Controlled
aggression
anaerobic
capacities
30
Motivation
40 Body
30
40
30Input
dimensions
index
COGNITION
Aerobic and
30
Parallel
processor
efficiency
Voluminosity
processor
efficiency
20
Accuracy
10
Coordinationagility
Micro-social
Cognitive
20
10dimensions
adaptability
interaction
Transversal
20
Longitudinal
10
dimension
Serial
20processor
Cognitive
10
dimensions
dimension
efficiency
interaction
Influence of motor abilities

on performance in football
Coordination
15%
Strength
20%
Flexibility
10%
Endurance
30%
Speed
25%
ESF = f (a1E + a2S + a3P + a4CC + a5F)

ESF = (30%E + 25%S + 20%P + 15%CC + 10%F)
38 - 10
38.3. Model characteristics

of top athletes
Preparedness model characteristics

of top football players
ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES
MODEL DATA
1. Body height
178.0
2. Body weight
74.0
3. 30 m run with flying start
3.30
4. 10x30 m run, rest 15''
40.0
5. Standing vertical jump
65.0
6. Vertical jump with an approach run
75.0
7. Pull-ups
10.0
8. Deep squat
111.0 kg (150% of body mass)
9. Zigzag run without the ball
8.60
10. Zigzag run with the ball
10.10
11. Oxygen uptake - VO2 ml/kg/min
68.00
6.00
70% (+)
38 - 11
Preparedness model characteristics of top

handball players (Croatian national team)
ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES
MODEL DATA
1. Body height
192.0
2. Body weight
90.0
3. Biacromial span
44.30
4. Arm span
195.0
5. Hand span
25.2
6. Ball throwing, 800 g
32.59
7. Standing long jump
262.42 (280)
8. Standing double leg vertical jump
59.42
9. Standing single leg vertical jump
65.71 (70)
10. Lateral movement
7.57
11. Double triangle movement
6.6
12. Sit-ups
29.17 (35)
13. Bench-press
88.13 (95)
14. Multi-stage shuttle run test
30.78
15. 30 m run with standing start
4.82 (4.50)
Test data for basic and specific physical

preparedness of cadet (C), junior (J), and senior
(S) basketball players
A.M.C
S.D.C
A.M.J
S.D.J
A.M.S
S.D.S
SAR cm
70.02
7.57
74.08
6.55
77.01
6.77
TRO cm
754.60
40.80
764.42
53.44
814.70
59.10
BLG cm
1513.30
135.10
1560.70
119.52
1720.80
466.60
CAT rep.
27.87
2.53
32.06
2.27
32.15
2.79
VS20 s
3.23
1.83
3.06
0.18
3.00
0.16
DO30 rep.
22.73
0.15
24.42
2.53
25.62
1.85
S45 s
5.26
0.50
5.34
0.51
4.79
0.41
OSMS s
9.09
0.44
8.93
0.63
8.80
0.51
KUS s
7.69
0.35
6.82
0.32
6.63
0.92
SMB s
29.46
1.52
27.56
1.54
26.69
1.28
TRB rep.
29.60
2.44
31.23
3.91
36.77
4.21
A.M. - arithmetic mean, S.D. - standard deviation
38 - 12
38.4. Diagnostics
of individual
athletes'
characteristics
Test data of an athlete X in anthropological

variables of football players
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
VARIABLES
TEST DATA OF AN ATHLETE

X
1. Body height
176.3
2. Body weight
72.0
3. 30 m run with a flying start
3.48
4. 10x30 m run, rest 15''
43.2
5. Standing vertical jump
56.7
6. Vertical jump with an approach run
62.6
7. Pull-ups
7.0
8. Deep squat
96.4 kg (134% of body mass)
9. Zigzag run without the ball
8.80
10. Zigzag run with the ball
10.71
11. Oxygen uptake - VO2 ml/kg/min
62.78
4.40
45% (+)
38 - 13
Test data of handball players X and Y in the

physical preparedness variables
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
VARIABLES
BACKCOURT PLAYER
X DATA
PIVOT PLAYER Y DATA
1. Body height
192.8
184.5
2. Body weight
89.0
83.6
3. Biacromial span
43.0
44.5
200.0
183.5
4. Arm span
5. Hand span
25.4
24
6. Ball throwing, 800 g
38.07
32.53
7. Standing long jump
259.67
269.33
8. Standing double leg vertical jump
62.33
68.33
9. Standing single leg vertical jump
62.33
73
10. Lateral movement
7.22
6.35
11. Double triangle movement
6.17
5.82
26.33
36.33
12. Sit-ups
13. Bench-press
14. Multi-stage shuttle run test
15. 30 m run with a standing start
85
85
30.45
29.05
4.85
4.51
38.5. Comparison
of individual and
model
preparedness
characteristics
38 - 14
Model characteristics and test data of an athlete

X in anthropological variables of football players
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
VARIABLES
MODEL DATA
TEST DATA
OF AN
ATHLETE X
1. Body height
178.0
176.3
2. Body weight
74.0
72.0
3. 30 m run with
flying start
3.30
3.48
4. 10x30 m run, rest

15''
40.0
43.2
5. Standing vertical
jump
65.0
56.7
50
6. Vertical jump with

the approach run
75.0
62.6
40
7. Pull-ups
10.0
7.0
30
111.0 kg (150%
of body mass)
96.4 kg (134%
of body mass)
20
9. Zigzag run without

the ball
8.60
8.80
10. Zigzag run with

the ball
10.10
10.71
11. Oxygen uptake VO2 ml/kg/min
68.00
62.78
Points
70
8. Deep squat
60
6.00
4.40
70% (+)
45% (+)
10
11
12
Test data of handball players X and Y in

physical preparedness tests
ANTHROPOLOGI
CAL VARIABLES
MODEL
DATA
BACKCO
URT
PLAYER
X DATA
PIVOT
PLAYER
Y DATA
1. Body height
192.0
192.8
184.5
2. Body weight
90.0
89.0
83.6
3. Biacromial
span
44.30
43.0
44.5
4. Arm span
195.0
200.0
183.5
5. Hand span
25.2
25.4
24
6. Ball throwing,
800 g
32.59
38.07
32.53
7. Standing long
jump
262.42
259.67
269.33
8. Standing
double leg
vertical jump
59.42
62.33
68.33
9. Standing
single leg
vertical jump
65.71
62.33
73
7.57
7.22
6.35
9. Lateral
movement
-1
6.6
6.17
5.82
10. Sit-ups
29.17
26.33
36.33
11. Bench-press
88.13
85
85
12. Multi-stage
shuttle run test
30.78
30.45
29.05
4.82
4.85
4.51
13. 30 m run
with standing
start
11. Double
triangle
movement
13
Characteristics and
abilities
-2
-3
IGRA X
38 - 15
IGRA Y
Results of top Croatian basketball players

in tests for the assessment of basic and
specific motor abilities
Shooting guards
Measuring instruments - tests
Desired
result
P.1.
P.2.
1. Vertical jump (jumping type of explosive power)
82 cm
82 cm
64 cm
2. Standing triple jump (jumping type of explosive power)
8.50 m
8.60 m
7.80 m
3. Forward - backward run (speed endurance)
25.5 s
25.3 s
27.04 s
4. Chest ball throw (throwing type of explosive power)
18 m
18.5 m
16.30 m
5. 20 m sprint with standing start (speed power)
2.85 s
2.86 s
3.03 s
65 ml/kg
70 ml/kg
74 ml/kg
40
42
36
6. Relative oxygen uptake (aerobic capacity)
7. Sit-ups (abdominal muscles strength)
Physical preparedness profile of

a top basketball player (T.1.)
0 = average results of the group of top basketball players
(0 to 1 = model data)
Z-values
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
TRB
20VS
OSMB
TROJ
4*5B
VUK
SAR2
OSMS
4*5S
SPR
SMB
AEC
SAR1
TROS
BLG
38 - 16
Tests
38.6. Methodology of physical

preparation
Verstile (multilateral) physical

preparation
Verstile or multilateral physical preparation

refers to the process of a harmonious
multilateral development of functional and
motor abilities
It leads to the improvement of functional and
motor abilities, which can not be directly
applied, but which contribute to the later
development of basic and specific abilities
38 - 17
Selected general physical


38 - 18

Fundamental or basic physical

preparation
It utilises exercise, loads and methods

(operators) targeting physical abilities that are
essential in achieving good results in a given
sports discipline.
After Gabrijeli (1987), it refers to the further
improvement of functional abilities of various
organs and organ systems, the improvement of
neuromuscular coordination, dimensions of
strength, speed, endurance and flexibility, and
the improvement of recovery efficiency
38 - 19
Selected basic physical

Specific physical preparation
It ensures the energy

adaptation to specific
requirements of a
sport utilizing a set of
exercises similar to
movement structures,
i.e. sports discipline
technique.
In a certain way, it
integrates physical
and technicaltactical training
38 - 20
Selected exercises for specific

physical preparation of football players
Training variables for the development of start

speed, maximum speed and speed endurance
(Pyke, 2001)
Maximum
speed
Start speed,
acceleration
Speed endurance
Intensity
95-105%
100%
85-95%
Distance
10-20m
5-30m
20-30m / 120300m
Full (3min+)
Full (3min+)
30-90s / 5-8 min
Flying
Standing or
slow walking
start
Speed/ Speed
strength
Explosive
power
Speed/ Anaerobic
capacity phosphagen
2-3
2-3
Recovery between
repetitions
Start
Basic abilities
Frequency (training
sessions per week)
38 - 21
Training load management for the

development of muscular endurance
No.
TRAINING PARAMETRES
SYMBOL
TRAINING CHARACTERISTICS
External load weight
EL
40-60% 1 RM
Number of repetitions
NR
20 - 10 repetitions
Number of sets
NS
3 - 4 sets with each weight

10 - 20 sets total
Rest interval
RI
1 - 2 minutes between sets

2 - 3 minutes between weights
3 - 4 minutes between exercises
Rest activities
AR
Performance pace
PP
Medium
Means (exercises)
ME
Exercises per training session
NE
2 - 6 exercises
Training frequency (per week)
TF
2 - 3 week
10
Super-compensation period
SP
48 hours
Training programme for the development

of maximum strength
No.
Training load parameters
Symbol
Training characteristics
EL
80-100% 1 RM
NR
5-1 repetitions
Number of sets
NS
6-12 sets
Rest interval
RI
4-6 minutes between sets
Rest activities
AR

exercises
Performance pace
PP
Fast
Means (exercises)
ME
NE
2-4 exercises
TF
1-2 per week
10
SP
60-72 hours
38 - 22
Training programme for the development

of the strength for child athletes
No.
Symbol
Training characteristics
EL
30-40% 1 RM
NR
20 -30 repetitions
Number of sets
NS
4-6 sets
Rest interval
RI
30-60 seconds between sets
Rest activities
AR

exercises
Performance pace
PP
Moderately fast
Means (exercises)
ME
General physical preparation

exercises
NE
8-12 exercises
TF
3 per week
10
SP
48 hours
Load management in different types of training

programmes for strength using different training methods
Intensity
(%)
Number
of rep.
Rest
Maximum interval training

method (A)
85-100
5-1
2-3 min
3-5
5-8 *
Maximum interval training

method (B)
70-85
6-4
2-4 min
Intensive interval training

method (A)
60-70
8-6
Intensive interval training

method (B)
50-60
Extensive interval training

method (A)
40-50
Methods
Extensive interval training

method (B)
30-40
Pace
Main training effects
Powerful and
explosive
Dynamic, maximum and

explosive strength
3-5
Explosive
Maximum strength - muscle

hypertrophy
3-5 min
4-6
Fast and
explosive
Speed power
10-8
60-90 s
3-5**
Very fast standard or

variable
Maximum and speedstrength endurance
15-10
30-60 s
4-6
Fast - standard
or variable
Repetitive power
6-10
Moderate standard or
variable
Muscle endurance
20-15
RS
85
15
90
95
100
3
2
3
3
Number
of sets
30-60 s
**
RS
30
20
80
40
15
60
50
10
40
60
32
70
24
20
236
11
12
33
38 - 23
Energy mechanisms operative zones in

sports activities (Winckler & Gambetta, 1987)
ATP adenosine triphosphate, CP creatine phosphate: phosphagen anaerobic process,
G glycolytic anaerobic process, CH carbohydrates, FA fatty acids
SPORTS
ACTIVITIY
DURATION
LOAD
INTENSITY
SPORTS
ACTIVITY
ENERGY
SOURCES
1-15 s
maximum
(95-100%)
15-60 s
ZONE
DOMINANT ENERGY
PROCESSES %
ANAEROBIC
AEROBIC
ATP
CP
95-100
05-00
Sub-maximum
(85-95%)
ATP
CP
+G
80-90
20-10
1-6 min
high
(75-85%)
G+
aerobic
CH
70-40
30-60
6-30 min
medium
(60-75%)
aerobic
CH+FA
40-10
60-90
> 30 min
low
(30-60%)
aerobic
CH+FA
05
95
Load management in a training task:

the 100 m run
Time/
intensity
%
100 95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
11.0
11.2
12.2
12.9
13.7
14.7
15.7
16.9
18.3
11.5
12.1
12.8
13.5
14.4
15.3
16.4
17.7
19.2
12.0
12.6
13.3
14.1
15.0
16.0
17.1
18.5
20.0
12.5
13.1
13.9
14.7
15.6
16.7
17.8
19.2
20.8
13.0
13.7
14.4
15.3
16.2
17.3
18.6
20.0
21.7
13.5
14.2
15.0
15.9
16.9
18.0
19.3
20.8
22.5
14.0
14.7
15.5
16.5
17.5
18.7
20.0
21.5
23.3
14.5
15.3
16.1
17.0
18.1
19.3
20.7
22.3
24.2
15.0
15.8
16.7
17.6
18.7
20.0
21.4
23.1
25.0
38 - 24
Load management in the training of a jumping

type of explosive power
Exercise: drop jumps

Location: a sports hall
Training equipment: Swedish box (5), mat
Training methods:
Interval training
Eccentric-concentric muscle contraction
Individual training
Station method
Load management:
Swedish box height can be set at 70 cm

(result for the jumping ability in the Sargent test)
Distance between Swedish boxes: 100 cm
Number of repetitions: 1 X 5
Number of sets: 10
Rest between sets: 2-3 min
Pace (performance speed): fast
Rest activity: stretching and relaxation exercises
Super-compensation period: 72 hours
Frequency per week: 2x
Biological factors and risks in the motor abilities

training at a young age
(Keul, 1982 according to Milanovi, 1997)
Ability
Duration
Limiting system
Risk of
injury
Sport example
Possibility for
development
or "sensitivity"
STRENGTH
< 5 min
Muscle contraction mechanism
Bone-cartilage
tissue
Weight lifting, throwing

disciplines
Muscles
Tennis, 60-100 m run
Catabolic
(catecholamine)
and vegetative
system
300 m running and

combat sports
600 m run and 400 m

swim
< 15 s
Phosphagen (alactate) energy

process
SPEED
ENDURANCE
< 1 min
Phosphagen (alactate) +
glycolytic (lactate) energy
process > 90%
SHORT-TERM
ENDURANCE
1-5 min
50-70% aerobic; 50-30%

anaerobic energy process
MEDIUM-TERM
ENDURANCE
5-30
min
80-90% aerobic; 20-10%

anaerobic energy process
Tendon system
1500 m run, 800 m i 1500

m swim
++
LONG-TERM
ENDURANCE
> 30
min
95% aerobic; 0.5% anaerobic

energy process
Cross country skiing and

long-distance running
++
COORDINATION
Neuromuscular synchronisation
Joints and
tendon system
Team sports, gymnastics,

track and field
++
BALANCE
Balance centre
Figure skating and

gymnastics
++
Oculomotor coordination
Team sports, shooting
++
Ligaments and tendons elasticity
Joints and
muscles
Volleyball, rhythmic
gymnastics and karate
++
SPEED
ACCURACY
FLEXIBILITY
38 - 25
FACTORS FOR FLEXIBILITY DEVELOPMENT IN

SPORTS (Grosser, 1983)
FACTORS
FAVORABLE - POSITIVE
NON-FAVORABLE - NEGATIVE
Age
Child athletes (up to 14 years of age)
Adult athletes
Elasticity of muscles,
muscle fascias and
ligaments
Good elasticity and intermuscular

coordination of agonists and
antagonists
Poor elasticity and intermuscular

coordination of agonists and antagonists
Muscle tension
Relaxed muscles
Increased muscle tension
Emotional, mental
tension
Slight
Strong and persisting
Anatomicbiomechanical factors
Optimal activation of leverages and

degrees of freedom
Insufficient utilization of natural

relationships of leverages and joint
surfaces
Time in the training day
11 a.m. - 12 p.m. until 4 p.m.
Morning hours
Outdoor temperature
Above 18 C
Below 18 C
warm-up
Full and extended
Partial and short
Fatigue exhaustion
Restfulness of locomotor system
Intense fatigue of locomotor system
Training duration
Up to 1 hour of training
More than 1 hour of training or strong

hard training
100%
90%
80%
Physical
conditioning
70%
60%
Technical
training
50%
40%
Tactical training
30%
20%
Indivudual
additional
training
10%
0%
I
II
III
IV
VI
VII VIII
IX
XI
XII
38.7. Physical preparation plan
and programme modelling in

an annual training cycle
38 - 26
Training programmes proportions in the

preparatory and competitive period according
to 59 German football coaches
Preparatory period
training programmes (%)
21,1
Competitive period
training programmes (%)
21,3
28,4
19,6
16,2
21,3
21
15,2
15,3
20,1
Physical conditioning without ball

Technical training
Tactical training
Complex training
Match
Training focus in the phases of the preparatory

period of an annual cycle for sprinters (G. Winkler, 1991)
General preparation
phase
Special preparation
phase
Pre-competitive phase
Very important
Very important
Very important
General endurance
Extensive running endurance
Aerobic capacity
Aerobic power
General strength
Flexibility
Coordination
Endurance at a slow speed
Specific endurance
Anaerobic capacity
Speed
Glycolytic endurance
Specific and general strength
Lactates tolerance
Technique
Tactics
Situational physical preparation.
Technique
Speed
Specific endurance
Speed endurance
Tactics
Team synchronisation
Situational physical preparation
Peak performance stabilisation
Less important
Less important
Less important
Technique
Speed
Anaerobic capacity
Tactics
General endurance
Aerobic power
Aerobic capacity
Flexibility
General and specific strength

Flexibility
Aerobic power
38 - 27
100
90
80
First
round
70
Peak performance
Volume
Intensity
60
1
VI
2
VII
3
VIII
4
IX
X XI
7
XII
8
I
Performance
Performance
build-up
1. Peak performance
Peak
perform
ance
decline
Periods
Preparatory
period (PP)
1. Competitive period
Interperiod
9
II III
10
IV
11
V
2. Peak performance
2. Competitive
period
Mesocycles
Months
Peak
perform
ance
loss
Transiti
on
period
Training programmes distribution in an

annual cycle for basketball players
Periods of an annual
cycle
Months
Multilateral-basic
motor preparation
Special-situational
motor preparation
Technical preparation
Shooting practice
(shooting at
the basket)
Tactical preparation
Preparatory
period
VIII
IX
XI
XII
Preparatory matches,
control matches,
championship
and cup matches
Control of the
training effects
Active rest
Preparatory Transition
period
period
Competitive period
38 - 28
II
III
IV
VI
VII
Annual cycle periodisation for a Croatian top

football team (bi-cycle periodisation)
1.
Preparatory
period
Competitive
period
Transition
period
20/06/2001 28/07/2001
29/07/2001 10/12/2001
11/12/2001 - 09/01/2002.
Preparatory
period
Competitive
period
Transition
period
10/01/2002 23/02/2002
24/02/2002 03/05/2002
14/05/2002 15/06/2002
2.
First cycle
1.1.
1.2

2nd preparatory period
phase
3rd preparatory period

phase
20/06 30/06 2001
01/07 -14/07 2001
15/07 28/07 2001
multilateral-basic
preparation
build-up / basicspecific preparation
maintenance / specificsituational preparation
Competitive period: 29/07 10/12/2001
1.3
1st preparatory period

phase
In the competitive period (autumn season) there were:

18 championship matches
3 cup matches
(17 wins/3 draws/1 loss)
Transition period: 11/12/2001 09/01/2002
38 - 29
Training plan and programme for a top basketball team

in the preparatory period
Training plan elements
Comp. Total
period
Mesocycle type
Introductory
Multilateral-basic
Basic
Specialsituational
Precompetitive
Competitive
Mesocycle duration
25/7-2/8
3/8/-13/8
14/8-26/8
27/8-6/9
7/9-18/9
19/912/10
25/712/10
50 / 50
60 / 40
70 / 30
40 / 60
30 / 70
20 / 80
45 / 55
Number of days in the mesocycle
11
13
11
12
24
80
Number of training and match days
12
10
19
67
10
14
18
12
20
80
Number of matches
15+7*
Number of training and match hours
16
25
36
25
20
38
160
Number of rest days
13
10+15
6+14
8+30
72+88
Mesocycle
Energy and information training

ratio
Number of physical conditioning

and information training hours
8+8
15+10
25+11
Training day load volume
2.0
2.78
3.0
2.78
2.0
2.0
2.43
Training day load intensity
60
80
90
80
90
95
825
Second cycle
2.1
2.2

2nd preparatory period
phase
3rd preparatory period

phase
10/01 20/01 2002
21/01 -12/02 2002
13/02 23/02 2002
multilateral-basic
preparation
build-up / basicspecific preparation
maintenance / specificsituational preparation
Competitive period : 24/02 03/05/2002
2.3
1st preparatory period

phase
In the competitive period (spring season) there were:

12 championship matches
2 cup matches
(7 wins/4 draws/3 losses)
Transition period : 14/05 15/06/2002
38 - 30
Proportions of different physical preparation

types and programmes in long-term sports
training
7-10 YEARS
11-14 YEARS 14-18 YEARS
MULTILATERAL
PREPARATION
50
40
20
BASIC
PREPARATION
30
30
30
SPECIFIC
PREPARATION
20
20
30
SITUATIONAL
PREPARATION
10
20
BUILD-UP
PROGRAMMES
50
50
30
MAINTENANCE
PROGRAMMES
10
20
30
RECOVERY
PROGRAMMES
10
10
20
PREVENTIVE
PROGRAMMES
30
20
20
Analysis of the annual training cycle

implementation for 16-year old cadets
AN annual cycle comprises two macrocycles
due to two competitive seasons
There were 552 training hours and 142
competition hours out of a total of 694 hours
This amount of training and competitions was
realised in 272 working days
The transition period was too long - 58 days
without any training cannot be tolerated
when working with this age group.
38 - 31
Load level
T
C
MO
1T
TU
2T
WE
2T
TH
2T
FR
1T
Training
Competition
SA SU
C 1T
38.8. Physical preparation
programme modelling in a
competitive microcycle
Load level
Structure of a microcycle in
the competitive period (Grosser et al., 1986)
Total load
Intensity
Volume
T
C
MO
1T
TU
2T
WE
2T
TH
2T
FR
1T
SA
C
38 - 32
SU
1T
Training
Competition
Example of a competitive period

microcycle in handball
Competitive microcycle with one match

number of training days - 5
number of training units - 8
number of training and competition hours
12 h 05 min
number of rest days - 1
match - Saturday (1)
MON
TUE
WED
THU
TRAINING
SESSION
_________
TRAINING
SESSION
TRAINING
SESSION
TRAINING
SESSION
TRAINING
SESSION
TRAINING
SESSION
TRAINING
SESSION
FRI
________
TRAINING
SESSION
SAT
SUN
________
_________
CHAMPIONSHIP
MATCH
_________
Competitive microcycle with two

matches
number of training days - 7
number of training units - 7
number of rest days - 0
match - Wednesday and Saturday (2)
MON
TUE
WED
----------
TRAINING
SESSION
TRAINING
SESSION
----------
MATCH
TRAINING
SESSION
THU
TRAINING
SESSION
----------
38 - 33
FRI
SAT
SUN
----------
TRAINING
SESSION
TRAINING
SESSION
TRAINING
SESSION
MATCH
----------
Competitive microcycle operative training

programme
Monday: medium intensity training (TE-TA + motor

abilities + global exercises for the trunk), training
duration: 75 -90 min
Tuesday: medium intensity training (TE-TA +
prevention), training duration: 60-75 min
Wednesday: toning + MATCH
Thursday: medium intensity training (aerobic-recovery
+TE-TA + global exercises for the trunk), training
duration: 75-90 min
Friday: medium intensity training (TE-TA +
prevention), training duration: 60-75 min
Saturday: toning + MATCH
Sunday: recovery training (+pool and the massage)
38.9. Conclusion
Physical preparation planning and

programming in sport is an important part
of the coachs and the expert teams
activities.
It minimises contingencies and ensures a safe
and efficient accomplishment of optimal sports
results that are in accordance with an individual
athlete's characteristics and conditions for the
implementation of the training process.
38 - 34
To make the most of a large physical

preparation system we must make sure that
the system meets or fulfils five basic
conditions:
1. Frequency - how often to train?

2. Duration - how long to train?
3. Intensity - what is the amount of intensive
training?
4. Diversity of means - which exercises to do?
5. Specificity - what is the level of direct applicability
in football?
The training process presents a coach and

an expert team with many challenges,
pitfalls and dangers.
Overtraining, as a result of the application of an

excessive load can be extremely dangerous for
an athlete.
It is the result of a disbalance between the

time ratio of the training and the
competition load and the recovery. It can
have an acute (overreaching) and a
chronic (overtraining) form.
38 - 35
The well-coordinated
approach of an expert
team is necessary to
improve successfully
the readiness
components, to
manage peak
performance and to
prevent excessive
training and
overtraining.
Nowadays, the individual and team

physical preparation is conducted mostly
by the physical conditioning coaches.
Favourable conditions for successful work
and achievement of top results are created
if physical conditioning coaches have the
specific education and experience in the
given sport.
Individual additional training in a
competitive period can be useful from the
training and the competition point of view,
but the frequency and proportions of each
additional training type should be
carefully planned for each phase of this
period.
38 - 36
Coaches and athletes should find the

answer to the most important question:
which PHYSICAL PREPARATION system
will provide the individual and team
preparedness that will ensure the highest
sports results.
38 - 37
Lesson 39:
Introduction to Research
Methodology in Sport

Understand the importance of academic
research in sport
Classify the areas of applied research in the
sports kinesiology
Define the structure of sports activity research,
athletes' dimensions and competition efficiency
factors
Discuss research in the area of the effects of
drill and teaching methods and the programmed
process of sports preparation
Explain the possibilities for applying research
results in the sports practice
39 - 1
39.1. Research in the field of

sport and the sports training
Contemporary research in the
field of sport is carried out
using various approaches,
which are usually
interdisciplinary on various
levels, depending on the
general characteristics of the
given sport and the
specificities of the sports
discipline.
Therefore, the sports science includes
various levels of general and
specific approach.
The sports science determines general

patterns of the sports preparation, training,
and competition, basic guidelines for the
training employment, as well as the
specificities of various sports groups and
sports disciplines and individual characteristics
of athletes
Thus, the sports kinesiology defines its own
field and methodology of research, with
possible inclusion of other sports research
disciplines using interdisciplinary or
multidisciplinary approaches.
39 - 2
There are six basic groups of academic research

in the field of sport and sports theory:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Research into sports and sports

results
Research into the characteristics
of sports activities
Research into athletes'
dimensions (abilities,
characteristics and skills)
Research into the effects of drill
and teaching methods
Research into the effects of the
programmed training process
in different training cycles
Research into the competition
efficiency factors
39.2. Structure of the scientific

research in the field of sport
and sports training
Scientific research and knowledge must help
coaches and "their" athletes improve the
training quality and sports results.
39 - 3
39.2.1. Research into sports and

sports results
History of the development of a sport
Analysis of the sports results development
trends
Analysis of the systems for the
collection and the evaluation of sports
results data
Academic knowledge contributes to:

Comprehensive
understanding of the
characteristics of
monostructural,
ploystructural, complex
and conventional sports
activities
Development of the
criteria for the
classification of sports
39 - 4
39.2.2. Research into

characteristics of sports activities
Structural analysis of sports activities
Biomechanical analysis of sports activities
Functional analysis of sports activities
Research findings are used in:

Evaluation of the athlete's readiness
(sports diagnostics)
Determination of model characteristics
for top athletes of various ages and of both
genders
Determination of relations between the
basic and specific anthropological
characteristics and the sports
efficiency
Analysis of the effect of standard
competition efficiency data on the final
result at the competition
39 - 5
39.2.3. Research into the

athletes' dimensions
Analysis of athletes' basic anthropological
characteristics
Analysis of athletes' specific abilities and skills
Collection and the analysis of the
competition efficiency data
39.2.4. Research into the

competition efficiency factors
Effects of basic anthropological
characteristics
Effects of specific abilities and skills

Effects of competition efficiency parameters
39 - 6
39.2.5. Research into the effects

of drill and teaching methods
Analysis of the effects
of various physical
conditioning methods
Analysis of the effects of
technical-tactical
training methodological
procedures
Analysis of the effects of
integrative preparation
39.2.6. Research into the effects of

the programmed sports preparation
process
Modelling and evaluation of the sports
preparation process in multi-annual cycles
Modelling and evaluation of the sports preparation
process in annual cycles
Modelling and evaluation of the sports preparation
in mesocycles and microcycles
39 - 7
39.3. Applicability of scientific

research results in sport
Sports kinesiology or
sports science and
related sciences can
significantly affect the
development of sport
and the sports
training theory and
practice
Results of applied research can improve

the sports practice by affecting:
Identifying sports
talents (the sports
selection)
Training planning
and programming in
Testing and evaluating
different sports
athletes' abilities and
preparation cycles (the
characteristics or detecting periodisation and the
strengths and weaknesses training process
in preparedness based on
programming)
the comparison of the
results with the top
athletes' model results
39 - 8
It is necessary to ensure the transfer of

academic research findings and results
through various forms of professional
education and training of coaches and other
members of expert teams
Only educated sports professionals can
successfully apply the increasing body
of knowledge in improving sports
preparation systems
39 - 9
QUESTIONS
1. Planning of training
2. Periodisation
3. Programming of training
4. Types of planning and programming of training
5. Methods of planning and programming of training
6. Long-term sports preparation periodisation
7. Long-term sports preparation modeling
8. Long-term sports preparation planning and programming
9. Organisational and methodical aspects of the Olympic cycle planning
10. Annual and semi-annual macrocycle
11. Periods and phases characteristics
12. Preparatory period
13. Competitive period
14. Guidelines for the programming of training in competitive period phases
15. Transition period
16. Guidelines for the programming of training in the transition period phases
17. Planning and programming training in a microcycle
18. Microcycle classification
19. Operative planning and programming of a day of training
20. Planning and programming a training unit
21. Specificities of the competition activity in team sports
22. Factorial structure of readiness
23. Model characteristics of top athletes
24. Diagnostics of individual athletes characteristics
25. Comparison of individual and model preparedness characteristics
26. Methodology of physical preparation
27. Physical preparation plan and programme modelling in an annual training cycle
28. Physical preparation programme modelling in a competitive microcycle
29. Structure of the scientific research in the field of sport and sports training
30. Applicability of scientific research results in sport
THESAURUS
Adaptation in sports - process of transformation, the changing of an athletes
characteristics and abilities relevant to his/her best, or at least, acceptable functioning in
either standard or variable conditions of athletic work.
Aerobic training - is physical exercise of relatively low intensity that depends primarily on
the aerobic energy-generating process.
Anaerobic training - is physical exercise of short duration, characterized by high intensity
activities, which last from mere seconds up to about 2 minutes. Energy is gained through two
types of anaerobic energy systems: 1) the high energy phosphates, ATP adenosine
triphosphate and CP creatine phosphate; and 2) anaerobic glycolysis.
Analytic teaching method - refers to the procedure whereby the global movement
structure is divided into several phases, i.e. elements, each of which is taught and mastered
separately. After each phase/element has been mastered, they are integrated, i.e. linked
together into one whole.
Annual training cycle - is planned and programmed in one or more training macrocycles.
Each macrocycle contains three basic periods: preparatory, competitive and transition.
Cognitive abilities of athletes - Enable reception, processing, retention and utilization of
motor information resulting in quick and correct decision making during training and
competition activities.
Competition - process of comparing sports condition between individuals and teams
according to the defined rules and norms.
Competitive period - period in annual cycle in which competitions are dominant, and peak
performance and the highest sports results occur.
Complex sports activities - Characterized by simple and complex movements in terms of
cooperation between members of sports teams during the game.
Conative characteristics of athletes are responsible for athletes' behaviour and their
engagement level and drive during training and competition.
Continuous method training method in which activity continues without interruption. It
can be standard (the training load level remains unchanged from the beginning to the end of
the training activity) and variable (the load intensity changes during the training activity).
Conventional sports activities - Contain aesthetically designed and choreographed sets of
movement structures which are performed under standard conditions. There are obligatory
and free competition programmes, with a subjectively assessed value of technical and artistic
interest.
Cybernetics - a science of management and regulation of interdependent processes
occurring in complex systems.
Cyclic nature of training - means that the process of training is executed through defined
units as regards time and contents, which follow and complement each other.
Diagnostics in sport represents assesing of fitness/preparedness through the

measurements in laboratories and in the field.
Doping - is the use of the forbidden chemical and other substances during sports preparation
with the sole intention of artificially increasing sports or work performance and improving
sports results.
Fitness of athletes denotes the optimal condition and functioning of an athlete in the
process of training and competition.
Frontal training organisational form in which the whole team is involved in performing the
set task at the same time.
Functional abilities of athletes - Related with the efficiency of the oxygen transport
system (aerobic ability) and anaerobic energy supply capacities (phosphogenic and glycolitic
metabolic processes).
Fundamental or basic physical preparation preparation that utilizes exercises, loads
and methods(operators) targeting physical abilities that are essential in achieving good results
in the given sport discipline. Also, it utilizes operators for the development of those abilities
and characteristics that are insufficiently developed.
General or versatile physical preparation refers to the process of a harmonious
multilateral development of the functional and motor abilities and morphological
characteristics.
Group training organizational form for training of groups of athletes that have a similar
level of abilities and skills.
Ideomotor method - refers to the cognitive processing of a motor task. It means that the
athlete repeats in his/her head what he/she has learned at the training session after the
training has finished.
Individual training - organisational form in which only one athlete trains throughout the
training session or one of its parts under the supervision of a coach.
Interval method training method in which exchange of work and rest intervals is present.
It can be standard (load variables are maintained on the same level) and variable (the load
variables change).
Long-term sports preparation - It refers to the total duration of a sports career and the biOlympic cycle.
Methodology of sport training is an academic discipline that studies the patterns of the
methodological structuring of training or modelling of training and means of recovery.
Model characteristics - are test results scores results, achieved by elite athletes in the
primary and secondary anthropological variables and indicators of situational
efficacy/performance
Monostructural sport activities - Activities in which there are one or more movement
structures of a cyclic or acyclic character, which are successively repeated. Standard forms of
motion with the lowest variability of biomechanical parameters.
Morphological characteristics implicate body composition indicators, somatotype

characteristics of athletes.
Motor abilities of athletes - are the aspects of intensity and extensity (volume) of any
motor activity that can be described with the same parameter system and measured with the
identical group of measuring instruments; onset of analoguous physiological, biochemical,
morphological and biomechanical mechanisms is typical for each of them.
Motor mistakes - performance of a motor task which significantly deviates from the ideal
performance expected from the athlete based on his or her psychological and physical
abilities.
Motor programmes - are sets of data defining the execution of a certain motor activity in
standard or variable conditions.
Ordinary (normal) microcycle is characterised by the classic distribution of training
sessions with a higher or lower load. Training sessions with medium and submaximum loads
prevail. Its focus is readiness maintenance.
Parameters of situation efficiency of athletes represent information from each
competition/game about types, amount and quality of activities performed by individual
players and teams (i.e. in basketball: the number of assists or rebounds).
Periodisation - is a procedure to determine the typical sports preparation cycles. It simply
means division of a longer cycle into shorter cycles.
Physical conditioning - is a set of programmes and procedures for the development and
maintenance of functional and motor abilities and morphological characteristics that
correspond to the level of preparedness of an athlete, the characteristics of a sport and the
conditions in which it is implemented.
Planning of training - is a complex control action that determines the goals and
theobjectives of the training process, the time cycles for their achievement periodisation) and
the necessary technical, material and personnel prerequisites.
Polystructural sport activities - Semi-open and open movement structures that are
performed in variable conditions. They are dominated by the complex structure of an acyclic
movement character in which there is a direct, - wrestling opponents (wrestling, judo), or
indirect - kicking, countering the opponent (boxing, karate, taekwondo, fencing).
Preparatory period period in annual cycle in which build-up preparation programmes that
will ensure the achievement of a peak performance are utilised.
Programming of training - is a complex control action that determines the procedures
containing the information on the means, loads and methods of training, and on the recovery
and competition.
Prolonged transformation effects in sports practice training effects that occur later, i.e.
some time after the period in which the training with high and overlaping loads has been
applied.
Recovery - implies the application of diverse procedures that can enable the quick
regeneration of athletes and the re-establishment of homeostatis which the previous exertion
has disturbed.
Recovery microcycle - It comprises a large number of training days and training units with
low or moderate loads.
Shock microcycle - it is characterised by a large number of days of training and training
units with high and maximum loads. The proportion of these training sessions is more than
50%.
Situational physical preparation - preparation that brings together physical and tactical
training. Situational physical preparation exercises involve a load level that is the same or
higher than that at the competition.
Situational teaching method - refers to learning and perfecting techniques and tactics in
the conditions that match those at competitions.
Specific abilities of athletes are manifested within specific movement patterns and game
situation patterns of a particular sport. They represent integration of physical fitness and
technical (specific) preparedness as well as of physical fitness and tactical preparedness
(situational).
Specific physical preparation - preparation that utilizes a set of exercises similar to
movement structures, i.e. sports discipline technique. It integrates physical and technical
training leading to a specific physical preparedness.
Sport - An activity that enables children, needs for movement and play, develop qualities,
skills and motor knowledge, sports and creative expression, preservation and promotion of
health and sports chievements at all levels of competition.
Sport shape - is the heighest level of sportspecific fitness; it enables the athlete to perform
at his/her best, to accomplish the best results at the most important main competitions.
Sport tactics A set of all forms and modes of action by one or more athletes in a
situational training session or competition.
Sport technique - a biomechanically correct and rational movement structure performance.
Sports training - a longterm process of athletic preparation for the greatest and highest
sports achievements. Specifically, it is physical, technical, tactical, intellectual, psychical and
other forms of athletic preparation, it is achieved by practice and activity of the highest
possible physicial load on organs and organic systems.
Supercompensation - is a basic acute, immediate functional response of the organism on
which effects accumulation and the development of sports shape are based.
Synthetic teaching method - refers to learning and mastering a methodical task as a
whole. The athlete performs the task as a whole, placing maximum focus on the most
important phase of the global motor activity.
The means (contents) of training - are systems of motor (competition and training)
exercises and non-motor means implemented in training, competition and recovery in
accordance with the desired outcomes of the sports preparation and characteristics of the
expected training procedure.
Training effects - fitness level changes induced by the application of certain training
operators.
Training methods - are specific forms of work in sport. Training methods fall into two basic
groups: a) exercise methods used in developing and maintaining various anthropological
dimensions (primarily physical abilities) and b) teaching methods used in acquiring and
improving technical-tactical skills.
Training operator changes in athletes.
the stimuli that produce quantitative and qualitative fitness level
Transition period - period in annual cycle in which peak performance is temporarily lost. The
number of days of training and training units significantly decrease, as well as the load level.
Training theory - kinesiological, anthropological, Scientific-educational discipline in which the
organization and function of a sport system is studied, as well as methodological and
methodical principles of planning, programming and control of the process of training,
competition and recovery in different cycles of sport preparation.
Undulation of training loads implies permanent wavy dynamics of loading and unloading
in training process. There are periods of enhanced and periods of decreased total load.
THE FOLLOWING LITERATURE TITLES ARE RECOMMENDED:
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Chamapaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
2. Dick, F.W. (2007). Sports Training Principles. A&C Black Publishers, Ltd.
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Kinetics.
4. Malina, R.M., Bouchard, C. (1991). Growth, maturation and physical activity. Chamapaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.
5. Reilly, T., Williams, A.M. (Eds.) (2003). Science and Soccer (2nd ed.). London: Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group.
6. Verkhoshansky, Y. , Siff, M. (2009). Supertraining. 6th expanded edition.
7. Wilmore, J.H. (2008). Physiology of sport and exercise. Chamapaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
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Dragan Milanovi

Is there a clear delineation between professional and amateur sport?

Is the concern regarding premature involvement of children in intensive sports

When is it recommendable to introduce external loads or weight training without

Is there an optimum technology for the planning and programming of sports

The number of competitions is increasing. What happens when competitions start

5. SCIENCE, THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SPORT AND SPORTS TRAINING

10.3. Diagnostics in sports (10 stages of diagnostic procedure)

16. RECOVERY OF ATHLETES: SUPPLEMENTAL FACTORS OF SPORTS PREPARATION

21.4. Classification (characteristics) of training loads

25.3. Anaerobic training methodology

31.3. Programming of training

38.1. Specificities of the competition activity in team sports

1.1. Basic fields of training

1.2. Training theory contents:

Transformational processes and effects

ANALYSIS OF SPORTS ACTIVITY

Technical and tactical

FSS= f(a1H + a2PHY + a3TE + a4P + a5C + a6A + a7E

DIAGNOSTICS AND ANALYSIS OF

selection of athletes (sample of subjects)

SPORTS PREPARATION SYSTEM

Analysis and prognosis of sport

GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATHLETES

training of adult top

integrated (junior to senior

final preparation for maximum

Modelling and evaluation of training operators

Training aids and

TRAINING PLANNING AND

Goals, tasks, periodization

Sport preparation cycles

EVALUATION OF TRAINING EFFECTS

1.3. Training theory definition

Analysis of results in the long jump

Diagnostics of individual characteristics of

6. Ball throw 800 gr.

8. Vertical jump both legs

9. Vertical jump unilateral

10. Lateral stepping

11. Triangle movement

12. Abdominal crunches

14. Shuttle run

15. 30m sprint

Basic statistical parameters of motor

Example of maximum strength training

Development of maximum strength

Adult athletes in preparatory and competition period

Repetition method maximum interval training

80-90-100% (1RM), 60% warm-up

Number of repetitions (R): 5-3-1

2-4 minutes (sets), 3-5 (load)

4.5. Activity during rest Stretching and relaxation

Basic and specific exercises with weights

Structure of microcycle in second part of

1.4. Training theory subjects

Thanks to sport science research, we understand

1.5. Training theory tasks:

e) Diagnostic procedures and test results in

h) Peak performance as a state of an athletes

Methodology procedures directed to the

j) Models of plans and training programmes

SPORT (current issues of