Earthquakes

Earthquakes occur almost everyday all over the world. Most of the time
earthquakes are not strong enough to be felt by people, but the shaking
caused by an earthquake can be recorded by a seismometer. These
machines are located all over the world to ensure detection of earthquakes
of all strengths. Only occasionally will a larger magnitude earthquake strike
and cause damage to the region. There are many faults around the world
and depending on where these faults are plays a major factor in determining
where an earthquake will occur. It is these faults that are the reason
for earthquakes. The information seismologists know about past earthquakes
and earthquakes in general give them a limited ability to generally predict
when
and
where
earthquakes
are
going
to
occur.
An earthquake is the shaking of Earths surface caused by rapid movement
of the earths rocky outer layer. Earthquakes occur when tension stored in
rocks suddenly releases (Vogt 12). Faults occur at these places where rocks
on either side of the crack have moved. Oceans are very common places for
major tectonic plates to shift. When two plates separate, new oceanic crust is
made near the fault as magma rises and eventually sets on the sea floor. If
the plates on either side of the fault continue to spread then the ocean
slowly becomes larger in width. This is called seafloor spreading. Mid-ocean
ridges are characterized by a crack like valley at the fault. This crack like
valley is caused by the tension pulling the plates apart, causing normal
faulting to occur a number of times in the divergent boundary.
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The most common type of fault is a normal or dip-slip fault. These occur
when two blocks of earth are thrust toward each other, causing one to ride
up over the other (Britt 1). The hanging wall moves downward relative to
the footwall (Tarbuck 244). A reverse fault is the opposite of a normal fault.
The hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall (Tarbuck 244). A
very powerful type of fault is the strike-slip fault that occurs when two plates
slide past one another. The San Andreas Fault in California is a very good
example of this type of fault. A great deal of damage is done when any type
of fault shakes the soil under structures in a low-lying, waterlogged areas,
causing liquefaction. Liquefaction occurs when an earthquake shakes the
wet, sandy soil near a body of water. The soil is forced to sink while the water
is pushed up causing the surface to become very weak and dangerous.
The seafloor sees the most intense tectonic activity in the world. The

frequency of earthquakes is very high at the sites of mid-ocean ridges. An

example of a mid-ocean ridge is the Mid-Atlantic ridge where the seafloor is
spreading at a rate of about 3 cm per year. The frequency of earthquakes at
a mid-ocean ridge will depend on how much tension is happening at that
point. The more tension means the more seafloor spreading, resulting in a
higher frequency of earthquakes at a particular mid-ocean ridge.
When Earths crust is under tensional forces, the crust will become much
thinner than normal and cause it to become weak. This can happen to the
oceanic crust in the ocean basins, but will only cause an earthquake in a hot
spot. A hot spot is an abnormal rising area of the mantle that supplies the
lava for volcanoes. If a hot spot is directly below a thinned crust, then the
magma in the hot spot may produce too much pressure to be held by the
thinner weakened crust and if this happens, the magma can penetrate the
lithosphere, and eventually erupt on the surface. The action of the magma
forcing its way up can trigger earthquakes as it breaks through the crust.
When
magma
breaks
through
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the crust in the sea, eventually a volcanic island will be formed in the middle
of the ocean. Due to plate movements this can lead to the creation of midplate
chains
of
basaltic
volcanic
islands
like
Hawaii.
A subduction zone is where two plates collide and one is forced below the
other. They collide because of compression forces, pushing them into each
other. One plate is pushed below the other into the mantle, where it will be
recycled. An example of this is the Pacific plate subducting under the
Eurasian
plate.
Convergent boundaries occur when the pressure between two plates builds
up over a long period of time as they push at each other (Vogt 26). As time
progresses, one of the plates will start to bend downward under the other
one due to extreme force. The friction between the two plates is high enough
to allow them to bend without slipping. This is a very slow but continuous
movement, maybe only a few millimeters every year. Every fraction moved
by the plates increases the build-up of elastic strain energy within the rock.
The rock continues to store this energy from a few decades to a few
thousand years. An earthquake will happen when the strain in the rocks
exceeds that of the limit of the rocks (Plate 1). The fault then ruptures,
moving a large distance in a short space of time. The plates then snap back
into a new position, forcing the already undercutting plate to dive down even
further under the other. The collisions of two plates generally produce large
forces in the plates. These forces result in the triggering of the earthquakes
within
the
subduction
zones.

Seismologists try to predict how likely it is that an earthquake will occur

within a specified time, place, and size. Earthquake prediction also includes
calculating how a strong ground motion will affect a certain area if an
earthquake does occur. Scientists can use the growing catalogue of recorded
earthquakes to estimate when and where strong seismic motions may occur.
They map past earthquakes to try and determine an expected
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pattern. Seismologists can also measure movement along major faults using
global positioning satellites to track the relative movement of the rocky crust
of a few centimeters each year along faults. This information may help
predict earthquakes. Even with precise instrumental measurement of past
earthquakes, conclusions about future tremors always involve uncertainty.
The elastic rebound theory gives a generalized way of predicting
earthquakes because it states that a large earthquake cannot occur until the
strain along a fault exceeds the strength holding the masses together.
Seismologists can calculate an estimated time when the strain along the
fault would be great enough to cause an earthquake. Scientists have also
measured other changes along active faults to try and predict future activity.
These measurements have included changes in the ability of rocks to
conduct electricity, changes in ground water levels, and changes in
variations in the speed at which seismic waves pass through the specific
region. None of these methods have been successful in predicting
earthquakes
to
date.
Earthquakes are common events and are happening all the time. They can
be caused by many different factors within the earth s interior. Depending
on the type of area that they happen in will determine the strength of the
earthquake, and the frequency of earthquakes within the region. The
distribution of earthquakes within an area will depend upon what caused the
earthquake
to
happen
in
the
first
place.
We understand today how earthquakes are caused, and we can record where
they happen every day of the year. This has helped us to learn and
understand earthquakes in much detail. Today we are still not able to
pinpoint exactly where earthquakes will occur but seismologists know a great
deal about past earthquakes and earthquakes in general to predict where
seismic activity will occur.