MME 467

Ceramics for Advanced Applications

Lecture 2: Overview and Basic Properties of Advanced Ceramics

Ceramics have some attractive properties compared to metals and polymers, which make them useful for specific
applications. Their physical properties have been utilized for many applications. In other applications their
mechanical properties are important. The main drawbacks of ceramics are their brittleness and the large scatter in
the mechanical properties. In this introductory section a short overview of the most important ceramics and of
their basic properties is given.

1. General Behaviour
The most important advantageous features of ceramic materials are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

low electrical conductivity,

low thermal conductivity,
low density,
high strength at high temperatures,
wear resistance,
corrosion resistance, and
specific physical properties (optical, electrical, magnetic).

These properties lead to applications in many technical areas. For example, the low electrical conductivity leads
to applications in insulating techniques. Spark plugs are the best-known applications in engine manufacturing.
The low thermal conductivity is used, for instance, for the protection tiles of the Space Shuttle and in the form of
insulation layers in combustion chambers. The resistance against corrosion leads to applications as heat
exchangers for corrosive agents. In biomechanics (hip joints, dentures) the compatibility of ceramics with human
bodies is of high importance. The excellent wear resistance is exploited for cutting tools, as roller bearings or in
the textile industry (thread guidance, yam-guiding grooves). The high temperature strength is used in nuclear
fusion technology applications, in the development of gas turbines and in the field of solar energy.
The main disadvantages of ceramics are
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

low tensile strength at room temperature for some materials,

brittleness,
large scatter of strengths, and
subcritical crack extension.

Brittleness means that failure occurs without prior measurable plastic deformation. This is due to the strong
atomic bonding of ceramics, which lead to high stresses for the motion of dislocations. Thus, failure can start
from small flaws before plastic deformation is possible. This fact can also be expressed in low resistance against
crack extension, which is characterized by the fracture toughness. The absence of local plastic deformation leads
to failure at locations of high local stresses, e.g. at notches, at contacts between different material or during
thermal shock. In metals these strain-controlled local stresses lead to small plastic strains.
The large scatter of strength is caused by the statistical distribution of the flaw size and the flaw location. This
requires a statistical description of the strength and a relation between failure probability and the stress
distribution in a component.
Subcritical crack extension can cause failure under constant or cyclic loading during the operation of a
component and will lead, consequently, to a limited lifetime.
Due to these disadvantages ceramic materials are applied only in such cases where the positive properties prevail
over the negative ones. In order to enforce the positive features of ceramics one has to keep the influence of
negative features as low as possible. This requires careful material selection. On the other hand some important
construction guidelines should be followed.

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For material selection the following material properties are of importance:

(a) Physical properties:
thermal expansion coefficient,
thermal conductivity,
density,
elastic constants (Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio), electric conductivity.
(b) Mechanical properties:
tensile strength (mostly given as bending strength),
compressive strength,
fracture toughness,
parameters of subcritical crack growth.
Some general design rules are:
(a) Minimize tensile stresses. This can be achieved in the following way:
Ceramic elements should be introduced at locations were compressive stresses are expected.
Sharp notches and other stress concentrators should be avoided.
External loads should not be introduced by point or line contacts.
Temperature gradients should be minimized.
Free expansion of thermal strains should be allowed; any restriction will result in stresses.
(b) A careful and accurate computation of stresses in the whole component is necessary. In most cases this
requires application of the finite element method (FEM). The determination of thermal stresses is of
particular importance.
(c) The design requires a statistical analysis.

2. Overview of Ceramic Materials

Ceramics can be subdivided into different groups under various aspects considering chemical composition,
microstructure or application. From the application point of view one can distinguish between traditional
ceramics and advanced ceramics. The traditional ceramics include tableware, pottery, sanitary ware, tiles, bricks
and clinker. The advanced ceramics may be subdivided into electronic ceramics (insulators, substrates,
capacitors, varistors, actuators, sensors), optical ceramics (windows, lasers), magnetic ceramics and engineering
ceramics. The engineering or structural ceramics have applications in mechanical engineering, chemical
engineering, high-temperature technology, and in biomedical technology. Special ceramics which are not
directly related to the categories mentioned above are reactor ceramics (absorber materials, breeder materials,
nuclear fuels) and refractory products.
A possible classification of ceramics is to distinguish between
(a) silicate ceramics,
(b) oxide ceramics,
(c) non-oxide ceramics.
This classification is a mixture of chemical composition (oxide, non-oxide) and atomic structure (glassyamorphic, crystalline). The main feature of silicate ceramics is the glassy-amorphic phase with a pronounced
pore structure. The main content is SiO2 with additions of Al2O3, MgO, BeO, ZrO2 and other oxides. The further
subdivison is between clay-ceramics with mullite (3Al2O3.2SiO2) as the main constituent and other silica
ceramics, e.g. cordierite (2MgO.2Al2O3 5SiO2). Clay-ceramics are subdivided into those with fine and with
coarse grain structures. Earthenware, tableware, porcelain and tiles belong to the first category. Bricks, clay
pipes and clinker belong to the latter.
Oxide ceramics are distinguished from silicate ceramics by the dominance of a crystalline phase with only a
small content of glassy phase. The most important oxides are: Al2O3, BeO, MgO, ThO2, TiO2, VO2, ZrO2.
The properties of the single oxides can be modified by additives. Dispersion toughened ceramics are mostly
Al2O3-ceramics with a fine dispersion of particles of ZrO2 or TiC. The system Al2O3-ZrO2 is named ZTA
(zirconia-toughened aluminium oxide).
Zirconia exists in several modifications. Pure ZrO2 is not of practical importance since cracks are generated after
sintering by phase transformation from the tetragonal to the monoclinic state. Addition of other oxides (MgO,
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Y2O3, CaO, CeO) can suppress partially or totally the transformation. The following materials are of general
interest:
Mg - PSZ
Y - PSZ
Mg/Ca - PSZ
Y - TZP
Ca - CSZ
Y - CSZ

partially stabilized ZrO2 with MgO

partially stabilized ZrO2 with Y2O3
partially stabilized ZrO2 with MgO and CaO
tetragonal ZrO2 with Y2O3
fully stabilized ZrO2 with CaO
fully stabilized ZrO2 with Y2O3

If different components are present in an oxide ceramic which can react with an oxide compound with specific
structure one calls such a ceramic a multicomponent or mixed oxide. The following materials belong to this
class:
spinel
mullite
aluminium titanate

MgO.Al2O3
3Al2O3.2SiO2
Al2TiO5 (Al2O3.TiO2)

The non-oxide ceramics comprise:

elements
nitrides
carbides
borides
selenides
silicides
sialons
syalons

carbon in the form of graphite and diamond,

AIN, BN, Si3N4, TiN
B4C, SiC, TiC, WC
TiB2, ZrB2
ZnSe
MoSi2
Si3N4 with A12O3
Si3N4 with Al2O3 and Y2O3

Silicon nitrides and silicon carbides are produced by different procedures. For the products the following
nomenclature is used:
SSN
RBSN
HPSN
HIPSN
SRBSN
SSiC
RBSiC
HPSiC
HIPSiC
RSiC
SiSiC

sintered silicon nitride

reaction bonded silicon nitride
hot-pressed silicon nitride (with additions of MgO or Y2O3)
hot isostatically pressed silicon nitride
post sintered reaction bonded silicon nitride
pressureless sintered silicon carbide
reaction bonded silicon carbide
hot-pressed silicon carbide
hot isostatically pressed silicon carbide
recrystallized silicon carbide
silicon carbide containing free silicon (silicon infiltrated silicon carbide).

The materials RBSN, RBSiC and RSiC are noticeably porous.

A special material class is that of the glass-ceramics. They include partially crystallized glasses which are
manufactured by controlled crystallization. The content of the crystalline phase is between 50 and 100%. Three
groups can be distinguished:
SiO2-Li2O
LAS
MAS

with additions of Au, Ag, P2O5

based on Li2O-Al2O3-SiO2
based on MgO- Al2O3-SiO2, further additives are K2O, ZnO, P2O5, TiO2, MoO3,WO3.

Well-known trade names are, e.g., Zerodur (Schott) and Pyroceram (coming).

3. Fields of Application
Table 1 and 2 show some important areas in which ceramic materials - predominantly engineering or structural
ceramics - are applied. Table 3 gives some examples of advanced applications for the most important ceramics.

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Table 1: Some important areas of applications of ceramic materials.

Utilized properties
Engine manufacturing
wear resistance, heat insulation, low
density, resistance to corrosion, electrical
insulation, high temperature strength
Industrial processing engineering
resistance to corrosion, wear resistance

High-temperature techniques
resistance to corrosion, thermal
insulation, electrical insulation, high
temperature strength
Machining of materials
Resistance to corrosion, wear resistance
Medical techniques
Resistance to corrosion, physiological
compatibility
Electrical engineering, electronics
Electrical insulation, heat conductivity

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Materials

Examples

Al2O3, Al2TiO5, ZrO2,

SiC, Si3N4

thermal insulation of combustion

chambers, valve seats, spark plugs,
turbochargers, gas turbines

Al2O3, SiC, C
(graphite), ZrO2

chemical devices, drawing die, slide

rings, thread guides, rolls for paper
industry

Si3N4, SiC, Al2O3, C,

BN, MoSi2

heat exchangers, crucibles, heating

conductors, protective tubes for
thermocouples, loading devices for
materials testing, burner units

Al2O3, Si3N4, SiC, B4C,

TiC, TiN, BN, diamond

cutting tools, grinding wheels,

sandblast nozzles

Al2O3, ZrO2

bone replacements (hip joints), dental

ceramics

Al2O3, AlN

substrates for integrated circuits,

insulations

Table 2: Properties and applications of advanced ceramics.

Property
Thermal
Insulation
Refractoriness
Thermal conductivity
Electrical and dielectric
Conductivity
Ferroelectricity
Low-voltage insulators
Insulators in electronic applications
Insulators in hostile environments
Ion-conducting
Semiconducting
Nonlinear I-V characteristics
Gas-sensitive conductivity
Magnetic and superconductive
Hard magnets
Soft magnets
Superconductivity
Optical
Transparency
Translucency and chemical inertness
Nonlinearity
IR transparency
Nuclear applications
Fission
Fusion
Chemical
Catalysis
Anticorrosion properties
Biocompatibility
Mechanical
Hardness
High-temperature strength retention
Wear resistance

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Applications (examples)
High-temperature furnace linings for insulation (oxide fibers such as
silica, alumina, and zirconia).
High-temperature furnace linings for insulation and containment of
molten metals and slags.
Heat sinks for electronic packages (AlN).
Heating elements for furnaces (SiC, ZrO2, MoSi2).
Capacitors (Ba-titanate-based materials).
Ceramic insulation (porcelain, steatite, forsterite).
Substrates for electronic packaging and electrical insulators in general
(Al2O3, AlN).
Spark plugs (Al2O3).
Sensors, fuel cells, and solid electrolytes (ZrO2, -alumina, etc.).
Thermistors and heating elements (oxides of Fe, Co, Mn).
Current surge protectors (Bi-doped ZnO, SiC).
Gas sensors (SnO2, ZnO).
Ferrite magnets [(Ba,Sr)O.6Fe2O3].
Transformer cores [(Zn, M) Fe2O3, with M = Mn, Co, Mg]; magnetic
tapes (rare-earth garnets).
Wires and SQUID magnetometers (YBa2Cu3O7).
Windows (soda-lime glasses), cables for optical communication
(ultra-pure silica).
Heat- and corrosion-resistant materials, usually for Na lamps (Al2O3,
MgO).
Switching devices for optical computing (LiNbO3).
Infrared laser windows (CaF2, SrF2, NaCl).
Nuclear fuel (UO3, UC), fuel cladding (C, SiC), neutron moderators
(C, BeO).
Tritium breeder materials (zirconates and silicates of Li, Li2O); fusion
reactor lining (C, SiC, Si3N4, B4C).
Filters (zeolites); purification of exhaust gases.
Heat exchangers (SiC), chemical equipment in corrosive
environments.
Artificial joint prostheses (Al2O3).
Cutting tools (SiC whisker-reinforced Al2O3, Si3N4).
Stators and turbine blades, ceramic engines (Si3N4).
Bearings (Si3N4).

Table 3: Some examples of advanced applications of the most important ceramics.

Ceramic materials

Applications

Alumina

Sealing disks, printed circuit boards, cutting tools, sandblast nozzles, protective
tubes for thermocouples, spark plugs, bearings, valves, thread guides for textile
machines, pump elements, slip rings, implants for human medicine, burner
nozzles, crucibles, rotating spindles for accurate machining.

Magnesia

Firebricks, crucibles, thermocouple sleeves.

Zirconia

Crucibles, bearing components, grinding elements, manufacture of apparatus (e.g.

pumps), wire-drawing tools, thermal insulation layers, knife blades.

Silicon carbide

Seal rings, heat exchangers, grinding materials, heating elements, crucibles, slip
rings, bearings, drawing nozzles, mortars, materials testing devices for high
temperatures, components for gas turbines and turbochargers.

Aluminium titanate

Exhaust portliners, burner nozzles, thermocouple sleeves.

Molybdenum disilicide

Heating elements.

Boron carbide

Sandblasting nozzles, armour plates, grinding and polishing powders, mortars,

dressing tools for grinding disks, neutron absorbers.

Tungsten carbide
(in cobalt alloy matrix)

Cutting tools, sandblasting nozzles.

Silicon nitride

Bearings, hot-pressing pistons, components for chemical plants, crucibles, drawing

nozzles, cutting tools, valves, elements for gas turbines and turbochargers, balls for
ball bearings, welding tips, thermocouple sleeves.

Aluminium nitride

Crucibles, electronic substrates, heat exchangers, heat sinks in electronic power

devices.

Boron nitride

Metal melting crucibles, thermocouple sleeves, pumps for liquid metals, hot press
pistons.

Glass ceramic

Laboratory equipment, hearth plates, heat exchangers, crucibles, furnace windows,

pumps for corrosive agents, bearings, astronomical instruments (mirrors for
telescopes).

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