COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Elective 4-1 Mech

JNTU H

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Composite Materials

Chapter 1 Introduction to composite

Materials
A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials
that results in better properties than those of the individual components used
alone. In contrast to metallic alloys, each material retains its separate chemical,
physical, and mechanical properties. The two constituents are reinforcement
and a matrix. Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the
best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural.
The main advantages of composite materials are their high strength and
stiffness, combined with low density, when compared with bulk materials,
allowing for a weight reduction in the finished part.
Classification of composites:
Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:
1. The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix
constituent

2. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement

form:
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Fibre reinforced composites: Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of

fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a
discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre
length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further
increase in length does not further increase the elastic modulus of the
composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres
are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they
have very good tensile properties. These fibers must be supported to keep
individual fibres from bending and buckling.
Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by
matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category.
Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in
a matrix body.
The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle
boards are examples of this category.

Natural composites
Natural composites exist in both animals and plants.
Wood is a composite it is made from long cellulose fibers (a polymer) held
together by a much weaker substance called lignin.
Cellulose is also found in cotton, but without the lignin to bind it together it is
much weaker. The two weak
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Substances lignin and cellulose together form a much stronger one.

The bone in your body is also a composite. It is made from a hard but brittle
material called hydroxyapatite (which is mainly calcium phosphate) and a soft
and flexible material called collagen (which is a protein). Collagen is also found
in hair and finger nails. On its own it would not be much use in the skeleton but
it can combine with hydroxyapatite to give bone the properties that are needed
to support the body.

Advantages of Composites
Light Weight - Composites are light in weight, compared to most woods and
metals. Their lightness is important in automobiles and aircraft, for example,
where less weight means better fuel efficiency (more miles to the gallon).
People who design airplanes are greatly concerned with weight, since reducing
a crafts weight reduces the amount of fuel it needs and increases the speeds it
can reach. Some modern airplanes are built with more composites than metal
including the new Boeing 787, Dreamliner.
High Strength - Composites can be designed to be far stronger than aluminum
or steel. Metals are equally strong in all directions. But composites can be
engineered and designed to be strong in a specific direction.
Strength Related to Weight - Strength-to-weight ratio is a materials strength
in relation to how much it weighs. Some materials are very strong and heavy,
such as steel. Other materials can be strong and light, such as bamboo poles.
Composite materials can be designed to be both strong and light. This property
is why composites are used to build airplaneswhich need a very high strength
material at the lowest possible weight. A composite can be made to resist
bending in one direction, for example. When something is built with metal, and
greater strength is needed in one direction, the material usually must be made
thicker, which adds weight. Composites can be strong without being heavy.
Composites have the highest strength-to-weight ratios in structures today.
Corrosion Resistance - Composites resist damage from the weather and from
harsh chemicals that can eat away at other materials. Composites are good
choices where chemicals are handled or stored. Outdoors, they stand up to
severe weather and wide changes in temperature.
High-Impact Strength - Composites can be made to absorb impactsthe
sudden force of a bullet, for instance, or the blast from an explosion. Because of
this property, composites are used in bulletproof vests and panels, and to shield
airplanes, buildings, and military vehicles from explosions.
Design Flexibility - Composites can be molded into complicated shapes more
easily than most other materials. This gives designers the freedom to create
almost any shape or form. Most recreational boats today, for example, are built
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from fiberglass composites because these materials can easily be molded into
complex shapes, which improve boat design while lowering costs. The surface
of composites can also be molded to mimic any surface finish or texture, from
smooth to pebbly.
Part Consolidation - A single piece made of composite materials can replace
an entire assembly of metal parts. Reducing the number of parts in a machine
or a structure saves time and cuts down on the maintenance needed over the
life of the item.
Dimensional Stability - Composites retain their shape and size when they are
hot or cool, wet or dry. Wood, on the other hand, swells and shrinks as the
humidity changes. Composites can be a better choice in situations demanding
tight fits that do not vary. They are used in aircraft wings, for example, so that
the wing shape and size do not change as the plane gains or loses altitude.
Nonconductive - Composites are nonconductive, meaning they do not conduct
electricity. This property makes them suitable for such items as electrical utility
poles and the circuit boards in electronics. If electrical conductivity is needed, it
is possible to make some composites conductive.
Nonmagnetic - Composites contain no metals; therefore, they are not
magnetic. They can be used around sensitive electronic equipment. The lack of
magnetic interference allows large magnets used in MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging) equipment to perform better. Composites are used in both the
equipment housing and table. In addition, the construction of the room uses
composites rebar to reinforced the concrete walls and floors in the hospital.
Radar Transparent - Radar signals pass right through composites, a property
that makes composites ideal materials for use anywhere radar equipment is
operating, whether on the ground or in the air. Composites play a key role in
stealth aircraft, such as the U.S. Air Forces B-2 stealth bomber, which is nearly
invisible to radar.
Low Thermal Conductivity - Composites are good insulatorsthey do not
easily conduct heat or cold. They are used in buildings for doors, panels, and
windows where extra protection is needed from severe weather.
Durable - Structures made of composites have a long life and need little
maintenance. We do not know how long composites last, because we have not
come to the end of the life of many original composites. Many composites have
been in service for half a century.
Disadvantage of composites

Even though composites have distinct features over metals, they do have few
limitations or drawbacks. So the drawbacks or limitations in use of composites
include
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High Cost High cost of fabrication of composites is a critical issue. For

example, part made of graphite/epoxy composite may cost up to 10 to 15 times
the material costs. A finished graphite/epoxy composite part may cost as much
as $300 to $400 per pound ($650 to $900 per kilogram). Improvements in
processing and manufacturing techniques will lower these costs in the future.
Complex Repair Procedure Repair of composites is not a simple process compared

to that for metals. Sometimes critical flaws and cracks in composite structures
may go undetected.
Mechanical Characterization Mechanical characterization of a composite structure is

more complex than that of a metal structure. Unlike metals, composite

materials are not isotropic, that is, their properties are not the same in all
directions. Therefore, they require more material parameters. For example, a
single layer of a graphite/epoxy composite requires nine stiffness and strength
constants for conducting mechanical analysis. In the case of a monolithic
material such as steel, one requires only four stiffness and strength constants.
Such complexity makes structural analysis computationally and experimentally
more complicated and intensive. In addition, evaluation and measurement
techniques of some composite properties, such as compressive strengths, are
still being debated.
Composite materials dont break easily, but that makes it hard to tell if the
interior structure has been damaged at all. In contrast, aluminum bends and
dents easily, making its easy to detect structural damage; the same damage is
much harder to detect with composite structures. Repairs can also be more
difficult when a composite surface is damaged.
The resin used in composite material weakens at temperatures as low as 150
degrees, making it important for these aircraft to avoid fires. Fires involved with
composite materials can release toxic fumes and micro particles into the air.
Temperatures above 300 degrees can cause structural failure.
Finally, composite materials can be expensive, but the high initial costs are
typically offset by long-term cost savings.

In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two

paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and
deforming to distribute the stresses among the constituent reinforcement
materials under an applied force.
The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations,
be conductors or
Resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight
advantages, ease of

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Handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the
purpose for
Which matrices are chosen? Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate
other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential
matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found
applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with
commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and
show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression.
Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion
characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement
and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase.
Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each
side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide
interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other.
Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of
matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the
selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be
chemically inert non-reactive.
Role of Matrices in Composites

Holds the fibres together

Protects the fibres from environment.
Transfer stresses between the fibers. Distributes the loads evenly between
fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same amount of strain.
Provide a barrier against an adverse environment.
Protect the surface of the fibers from mechanical abrasion.
Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component
Determine inter-laminar shear strength.
Determine damage tolerance of composites.
Determine in-plane shear strength.
Determine the processibility of composites.
Determine heat resistance of composites.

Organic Matrix Composites (OMC)

1. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) or Carbon Matrix
Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) is the material consisting of
a polymer (resin) matrix combined with a fibrous reinforcing dispersed phase.
Polymer Matrix Composites are very popular due to their low cost and simple
fabrication methods. Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed
easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows,
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therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical

applications.
Two main kinds of polymers are Thermosets and Thermoplastics.

Thermoplastics, in basic terms, are melt-process able plastics (materials

that are processed with heat). When enough heat is added to bring the
temperature of the plastic above its melt point, the plastic liquefies (softens
enough to be processed). When the heat source is removed and the
temperature of the plastic drops below its melt point, the plastic solidifies (or
freezes) back into a glass-like solid. This process can be repeated, with the
plastic melting and solidifying as the temperature climbs above and drops
below the melt temperature, respectively. However, the material can be
increasingly subject to deterioration in its molten state, so there is a practical
limit to the number of times that this reprocessing can take place before
material properties begin to suffer. Many thermoplastic polymers are additiontype, capable of yielding very long molecular chain lengths (very high molecular
weights).
Reinforcement of Thermoplastics: Resins reinforced with thermoplastics
now comprised an emerging group of composites. The theme of most
experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and
extract the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues, including
attempts to replace metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline
thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the morphology to a considerable
extent, prompting the reinforcement to empower nucleation. Whenever
crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their creep
over an extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at
which the usage of resins is constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems
can increase the failure load as well as creep resistance.
A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its
original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this
condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are
that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release
of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating,
shaping and cooling the structures.
Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is
apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement
will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they
can be aligned directionally.
There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition
of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend loose
their strength at elevated temperatures. However, their redeeming qualities like
rigidity, toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the
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important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control

panels, electronic products encasement etc.
Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of
thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and
they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes.
This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the
more cumbersome moulding compounds.
The different types of thermoplastic are: Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
(ABS), Acetals,
Acrylics, Cellulosics, Fluorocarbons, Polyamides, Polycarbonates, Polyethylene
(PE),
Polypropylenes (PP), Polystyrenes, Polyetheretherketone, Polyvinyl Chloride
(PVC), Liquid
Crystal Polymers (LCP), Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS) and Vinyls.

Molecular structure of thermoplastics

Applications
Thermoplastics can be used to manufacture the dashboards and car trims, toys,
phones, handles, electrical products, bearings, gears, rope, hinges and catches,
glass frames, cables, hoses, sheet, and windows, etc.

Thermosets, again in basic terms, are materials that undergo a chemical

reaction (cure) and transform from a liquid to a solid. In its uncured form, the
material has very small, unlinked molecules (known as monomers). The addition

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of a second material (catalyst) and/or heat or some other activating influence

will initiate the chemical reaction. During this reaction the molecules cross-link
and form significantly longer molecular chains, causing the material to solidify.
This change is permanent and irreversible. Subsequently, exposure to high heat
will cause the material to degrade, not melt. This is because these materials
typically degrade at a temperature below where it would be able to melt.
Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional
molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on
hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter
the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They
can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of
time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as
matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites.
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to
form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset
resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of
void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the
composites in terms of strength and dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic
and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins.
Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form
particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific
quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer
and phenolic polyamide resins.

Molecular structure of thermosets

Applications
Thermosets are commonly used for high temperature applications. Some of the
common products are electrical equipments, motor brush holders, printed
circuit boards, circuit breakers, encapsulation, kitchen utensils, handles and
knobs, and spectacle lenses.
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Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable
for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are
excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of
volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather
expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their
use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result,
is ruled out.
Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find
use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature
for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure
the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and
structural applications.
The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and
transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable
against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service
requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other
advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and
can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey.

2. Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) are composed of a metal matrix and a
reinforcement, or filler material, which confers excellent mechanical
performance.
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) are classified according to whether the
reinforcement
is
continuous
(monofilament
or
multifilament)
or
discontinuous (particle, whisker, short fibre or other).
They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than
polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they
require reinforcement materials which need to be stable over a range of
temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the choice
depends essentially on the matrix material.
High strength, fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal
matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts.
Light metals form the matrix for temperature application and the
reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons are characterized by
high moduli.
Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices
for low temperature applications are not many.
The principal matrix materials for MMCs are aluminium and its alloys. To a lesser
extent, magnesium and titanium are also used, and for several specialised
applications.
MMCs with discontinuous reinforcements are usually less expensive to produce
than continuous fibre reinforced MMCs, although this benefit is normally offset
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by their inferior mechanical properties. Consequently, continuous fibre

reinforced MMCs are generally accepted as offering the ultimate in terms of
mechanical properties and commercial potential.

Schematic presentation of three shapes of metal matrix composite materials

Applications:
Automotive and heavy goods vehicle- Bracing systems, piston rods, frames,
piston, piston pins, valve spring cap, brake discs, disc brake calliper, brake
pads, cardan shaft
Military and civil air travel - Axle tubes, reinforcements, blade-and gear box
casing, fan and compressor blades
Aerospace industry - Frames, reinforcements, aerials joining elements
Other applications: Super conductor, Carbon brushes, Spot welding
electrodes, Bearings

3. Ceramic Matrix Materials (CMM)

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic
bonding in general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points,
good corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high
compressive strength, render ceramic-based matrix materials a favorite for
applications requiring a structural material that doesnt give way at
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temperatures above 1500C. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice
for high temperature applications.
High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics
posses, have combined to cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements
to obtain strength improvement.The purpose of developing the ceramic matrix
composites (CMCs) is to improve the desirable properties of ceramics with
adding reinforcements and limiting their inherent weaknesses.
Properties of ceramic composites
Typical mechanical, electrical and chemical properties exhibited by ceramic
composites are discussed below.
Mechanical Properties
Tensile and compressive behavior
Fracture toughness
Creep
R-Curve behavior
Fatigue Resistance

Fiber-Reinforced Composites:
A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a composite building material that consists
of three components:
(i)
The fibers as the discontinuous or dispersed phase,
(ii)
The matrix as the continuous phase, and
(iii) The fine interphase region, also known as the interface.
This is a type of advanced composite group, which makes use of rice husk,
rice hull, and plastic as ingredients. This technology involves a method of
refining, blending, and compounding natural fibers from cellulosic waste
streams to form a high-strength fiber composite material in a polymer
matrix.
The designated waste or base raw materials used in this instance are those
of waste thermoplastics and various categories of cellulosic waste including
rice husk and saw dust. Fiber-reinforced composites are composed of
axial particulates embedded in a matrix material. The objective of fiberreinforced composites it to obtain a material with high specific strength and
high specific modulus. (i.e. high strength and high elastic modulus for its
weight.) The strength is obtained by having the applied load transmitted
from the matrix to the fibers. Hence interfacial bonding is important.
Classic examples of fiber-reinforced composites include fiberglass and wood.

Fiber Geometry
Some common geometries for fiber-reinforced composites:

1.

Aligned

The properties of aligned fiber-reinforced composite materials are highly

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anisotropic. The longitudinal tensile strength will be high whereas the

transverse tensile strength can be much less than even the matrix tensile
strength. It will depend on the properties of the fibers and the matrix, the
interfacial bond between them, and the presence of voids.
There are 2 different geometries for aligned fibers:

a) Continuous & Aligned

The fibers are longer than a critical length which is the minimum length
necessary such that the entire load is transmitted from the matrix to the fibers.
If they are shorter than this critical length, only some of the load is transmitted.
Fiber lengths greater that 15 times the critical length are considered optimal.
Aligned and continuous fibers give the most effective strengthening for fiber
composites.
b) Discontinuous & Aligned
The fibers are shorter than the critical length. Hence discontinuous fibers are
less effective in strengthening the material, however, their composite modulus
and tensile strengths can approach 50-90% of their continuous and aligned
counterparts. And they are cheaper, faster and easier to fabricate into
complicated shapes.

2.

Random:

This is also called discrete, (or chopped) fibers. The strength will not be as
high as with aligned fibers, however, the advantage is that the material will
be istropic and cheaper.

3. Woven:
The fibers are woven into a fabric which is layered with the matrix material to
make a laminated structure.

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Applications:
There are also applications in the market, which utilize only waste materials. Its
most widespread use is in outdoor deck floors, but it is also used for railings,
fences, landscaping timbers, cladding and siding, park benches, molding and
trim, window and door frames, and indoor furniture.

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Chapter 2
Reinforcements:
Introduction to Fibres:
Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost
all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are
of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic
fibers and notwithstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which
render the composites in which they are used.
Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon
carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and
wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are
used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass,
R-glass etc.
There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of
organic fibers.
The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising
the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites

Fiber Types:
Natural

A composite is a material that is formed by combining two or more materials to

achieve some superior properties. Almost all the materials which we see around
us are composites. Some of them like woods, bones, stones, etc. are natural
composites, as they are either grown in nature or developed by natural
processes.
Natural fibres like straws from grass plants and fibrous leaves were used as
roofing materials
Some Examples of Natural fibers.
Eg: Stone axes, daggers, spears with wooden handles, wooden bows, fishing
nets woven with vegetable fibers, jewelleries and decorative articles made out
of horns, bones, teeth, semiprecious stones, minerals, etc.
Cellulose: Wood is a fibrous material consisting of thread-like hollow elongated
organic cellulose that normally constitutes about 60-70% of wood of which
approximately 30-40% is crystalline, insoluble in water, and the rest is
amorphous and soluble in water.
Cellulose fibres are flexible but possess high strength
The more closely packed cellulose provides higher density and higher strength
The walls of these hollow elongated cells are the primary load-bearing
components of trees and plants. When the trees and plants are live, the load
acting on a particular portion (e.g., a branch) directly influences the growth of
cellulose in the cell walls located there and thereby reinforces that part of the
branch, which experiences more forces.
Bones: Bones contain short and soft collagen fibres i.e., inorganic calcium
carbonate fibres dispersed in a mineral matrix called apatite. The fibres usually
grow and get oriented in the direction of load. Human and animal skeletons are
the basic structural frameworks that support various types of static and
dynamic loads.
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Tooth is a special type of bone consisting of a flexible core and the hard enamel
surface. The compressive strength of tooth varies through the thickness. The
outer enamel is the strongest with ultimate compressive strength as high as
700MPa. Tooth seems to have piezoelectric properties i.e., reinforcing cells are
formed with the application of pressure.

Man-Made

Types of man made fibers:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Glass fibres
Silica fibres
Kelvar
Carbon
Metal Fibers
Ceramic fibers
Boron Fibers
Silicon Carbide Fibers

Glass Fibers:
Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are
inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with
respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced. Fiberglass materials are
popular for their attributes of high strength compared to relatively light
weight.
Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus
characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone
to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time..
However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time
frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when
glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously
Fiberglass really is made of glass, similar to windows or the drinking glasses.
The glass is heated until it is molten, then it is forced through superfine holes,
creating glass filaments that are very thin so thin they are better measured in
microns
Glass fibers are most commonly used fibers- They come in two forms:

Continuous fibers
Discontinuos or staple fibers

Principal advantages:

Low cost
High strength

Limitations:

Poor abrasion resistance causing reduced usable strength

Poor adhesion to specific polymer matrix materials
Poor adhiesion in humid environments

Glass fibers are coated with chemicals to enhance their adhesion properties. Th
ese chemicals are known as coupling coupling agents.
Many of coupling agents are silane compounds

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Difference between Glass and Fibre Glass:

Manufacturing processes:
1. Direct Melt Process
2. Marble Melt

Direct Melt Process

Step 1: Batching
In the initial stage of glass manufacture, materials must be carefully weighed in
exact quantities and thoroughly mixed (batched). More than half the mix is
silica sand, the basic building block of any glass.
Step 2: Melting
From the batch house, pneumatic conveyor sends the mixture to a high
temperature (1400C) furnace for melting. The furnace is typically divided into
three sections, with channels that aid glass flow. The first section receives the
batch, where melting occurs and uniformity is increased, including removal of
bubbles. The temperature is so high that the sand and other ingredients
dissolve into molten glass. The molten glass then flows into the refiner, where
its temperature is reduced to 1370C.
Step 3: Fiberization
Glass fiber formation, or fiberization, involves a combination of extrusion and
attenuation.
In extrusion, the molten glass passes out of the forehearth through a bushing
made of an erosion-resistant platinum alloy with very fine orifices, in thousands.
Bushing plates are heated electronically, and their temperature is precisely
controlled to maintain a constant glass viscosity. Water jets cool the filaments
as they exit the bushing at roughly 1204C.
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Attenuation is the process of mechanically drawing the extruded streams of

molten glass into fibrous elements called filaments, with a diameter ranging
from 4 m to 34 m (one-tenth the diameter of a human hair). A high-speed
winder catches the molten streams and, because it revolves at a circumferential
speed of ~2 miles/~3 km per minute (much faster than the molten glass exits
the bushings), tension is applied, drawing them into thin filaments.
Step 4: Coating
In the final stage, a chemical coating, or size, is applied.
Size is typically added at 0.5 to 2.0 percent by weight and may include
lubricants, binders and/or coupling agents. The lubricants help to protect the
filaments from abrading and breaking as they are collected and wound into
forming packages and, later, when they are processed by weavers or other
converters into fabrics or other reinforcement forms
Step 5: Drying/packaging
Finally, the drawn, sized filaments are collected together into a bundle,
forming a glass strand
composed of 51 to 1,624 filaments. The strand is wound onto a drum into a
forming package
that resembles a spool of thread. The forming packages, still wet from water
cooling and sizing,
are then dried in an oven, and afterward they are ready to be palletized and
shipped or further processed into chopped fiber, roving or yarn.

Marble Melt process:

The Marble melt process can be used to form special purpose, for example high
strength
fibres.
In this process the raw mateirals are melted, and solid glass marbles usually 2
to 3 cm
(0.8 to 1.2 in) in dia are formed from the melt. The marbels are remelted (at the
same or at a
different location) and formed into glass fibers.

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Uses for regular glass fiber

Mats and fabrics for thermal insulation, electrical insulation, sound

insulation, high-strength fabrics or heat- and corrosion-resistant fabrics.
It is also used to reinforce various materials, such as tent poles, vault
poles, arrows, bows and crossbows, translucent roofing panels,
automobile bodies, hockey sticks,surfboards, boat hulls, and paper
honeycomb.
It has been used for medical purposes in casts.
Glass fiber is extensively used for making FRP tanks and vessels.
Open-weave glass fiber grids are used to reinforce asphalt pavement.
Non-woven glass fiber/polymer blend mats are used saturated with
asphalt emulsion and overlaid with asphalt, producing a waterproof,
crack-resistant membrane.
Use of glass-fiber reinforced polymer rebar instead of steel rebar shows
promise in areas where avoidance of steel corrosion is desired

Type

Types of Glass Fibre

Description

A Glass

Contains 72% slilica. High Alkali Glass containing

(25% Soda and lime). Is transparent, easily
formed and most suitable for window glass. Poor
resistance to heat (500600 C). Used for
windows, containers, light bulbs, tableware.

C Glass

Chemical glassSodium borosilicate glass (alkalilime glass) with high boron oxide content,
improved durability, making it preferred
composition for applications requiring corrosion
resistance. Used for glass staple fibers possesses

D glass

Borosilicate glasses with improved dielectric

strength and low density, developed for improved
electrical performance.

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E Glass

An electrically resistant glass fibre.Aluminacalcium-borosilicate glasses. Constitutes the

majority of glass fibre production. Used in glass
reinforced plastics as general purpose fibres
where strength and high electrical resistivity are
required

ECR Glass

Calcium aluminosilicate glasses.Modified E

glass having superior long term resistance to
strain crack corrosion in acid conditions.

AR Glass

High Quality Alkali resistant glasses composed of

alkali zirconium silicates used in cement
substrates and concrete.

R Glass
S & S2 Glass

Calcium aluminosilicate glasses High-strength,

high-modulus glass at a lower cost than S.
Magnesium aluminosilicate glasses (40% higher
than E-glass) developed for aerospace
applications.

2. Silica fibre:
Silica fiber is a long thin thread made of sodium silicate The thread or strand is
actually made of sodium silicate, also known as water glass. In its pure form, it
appears as a white powder. It is very stable and through a process of melting
and brushing is formed into a series of thin strings or fibers. They can be made
such that they are substantially free from non-alkali metal compounds.
These fibers have properties which make them useful in friction-lining materials
Silica fibers made of sodium silicate (water glass) are used in heat protection
(including asbestos substitution) and in packings and compensators.
It has many aerospace, electrical and automotive applications due to its high
heat resistance
These are also used as optical fibers for long distance telecommunications,
sensors and fiber optic medical instruments.
Sodium silicate fibers may be used for subsequent production of silica fibers,
which is better than producing the latter from a melt containing SiO2 or by acidleaching of glass fibers.
Protection made of this material can withstand temperatures of up to 1832
degrees Fahrenheit (1000 C) for very long periods or even higher temperatures
of 3092 F (1700 C) for short periods of time.
The silica fibers are useful for producing wet webs, filter linings and reinforcing
material.
They can also be used to produce silicic acid fibers by a dry spinning method.
A silica fiber has an amazingly high mechanical strength against pulling and
even bending, provided that the fiber is not too thick and that the surfaces are
well prepared. The mechanical strength of a fiber can be further improved with
a suitable polymer jacket. Even simple cleaving (breaking) of silica fiber ends
can provide nicely flat surfaces with sufficient optical quality.

Kelvar:
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Kevlar is a material formed by combining para-phenylenediamine and

terephthaloyl chloride. Aromatic polyamide (aramid) threads are the result.
They are further refined, by dissolving the threads and spinning them into
regular fibres.

If layers of the woven Kevlar are combined with layers of resin, the
resulting rigid material is light and has twenty times the strength of
steel.
It is also superior to specialist metal alloys.
However, Kevlar is expensive due to the demands of the manufacturing
process and the need for specialist equipment.
Kevlars properties aid in distinguishing it from many other fibers and
materials.
Kevlar is strong but also very light.
The tensile strength of the Kevlar fiber is over eight times stronger than of
a steel wire. It also handles heat very well and can withstand
temperatures well above 850F.
Kevlar will burn but is easily extinguished by removing the heat source.
Kevlar is capable of remaining soft and pliable down to -320F. and is even
slightly stronger at lower temperatures.

DISADVANTAGES OF KEVLAR:

Kevlar textiles tend to absorb moisture. It must be combined with

moisture resistant materials, if there is a need for moisture resistance as a
physical property. Consequently, very few general cloths are
manufactured with Kevlar.
Kevlar reacts well under a tensile force (stretching force) but badly under
a compressive force. It is not used where compression resistance is
needed, such as bridge building or the structure of a building.
It is difficult to cut and shape, unless through the use of special tools and
equipment. Laminated Kevlar is also difficult to machine and consequently
special cutters are required. Special cutting techniques were developed to
enable the manufacture of Kevlar parts, for the Euro fighter.
Kevlar reacts badly to UV light (sunlight) unless it is protected / hidden
from direct sunlight.
Kevlar suffers some corrosion if exposed to chlorine.
Long exposure to ultraviolet light will cause discoloration and degradation
in its fibers. Additionally, certain chemicals on the fibers can weaken it

Carbon Fibers:
Carbon fibers are a new breed of high-strength materials. Carbon fiber has been
described as a fiber containing at least 90% carbon material consisting of very
thin filaments of carbon atoms. When bound together with plastic polymer resin
by heat, pressure or in a vacuum acomposite material is formed that is both
strong and lightweight.

Carbon fibers have found wide application in commercial and civilian

aircraft, recreational, industrial, and transportation markets.
Carbon fibers are used in composites with a lightweight matrix.
Carbon fiber composites are ideally suited to applications where strength,
stiffness, lower weight, and outstanding fatigue characteristics are critical
requirements.
They also can be used in the occasion where high temperature, chemical
inertness and high damping are important.

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S.No
1

2
3

5
6

7
8

Characteristic

Application

Physical strength, specific

toughness, light weight
High dimensional stability,
low coefficient of thermal
expansion,
and
low
abrasion

Aerospace, road and marine transport,

sporting goods
Missiles, aircraft brakes, aerospace
antenna and support structure, large
telescopes,
optical
benches,
waveguides for stable high-frequency
(GHz) precision measurement frames
Good vibration damping, Audio equipment, loudspeakers for Histrength, and toughness
fi equipment, pickup arms, robot arms
Electrical conductivity
Automobile hoods, novel tooling,
casings and bases for electronic
equipments, EMI and RF shielding,
brushes
Biological inertness and x- Medical applications in prostheses,
ray permeability
surgery
and
x-ray
equipment,
implants, tendon/ligament repair
Fatigue
resistance,
self- Textile machinery, genera engineering
lubrication, high damping
Chemical inertness, high Chemical
industry;
nuclear
field;
corrosion resistance
valves, seals, and pump components in
process plants
Electromagnetic properties
Large
generator
retaining
rings,
radiological equipment

Boron Fibers
They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms
the substrate, usually made of tungsten.
Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a
mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until
the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its
thickness.
Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the
changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according
to size. However, they are known for their remarkable stiffness and strength.
Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus
is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much
cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber.

Applications: Boron Fiber composites are in use in a number of U.S. military

aircraft, notably the F-14 and F-15, and in the U.S. Space Shuttle.

Increasingly, boron fibers are being used for stiffening golf shafts, tennis rackets,
and bicycle frames. One big obstacle to the widespread use of boron Fiber is its
high cost compared to that of other fibers. A major portion of this high price is the
cost of the tungsten substrate.

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Silicon Carbide Fibers:

Silicon Carbide is the only chemical compound of carbon and silicon. It was
originally produced by a high temperature electro-chemical reaction of sand and
carbon.
Silicon carbide is an excellent abrasive and has been produced and made into
grinding wheels and other abrasive products for over one hundred years. Today the
material has been developed into a high quality technical grade ceramic with very
good mechanical properties. It is used in abrasives, refractories, ceramics, and
numerous high-performance applications. The material can also be made an
electrical conductor and has applications in resistance heating, flame igniters and
electronic components. Structural and wear applications are constantly developing
The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable
than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the
fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best
qualities.
Silicon carbide (SiC) can be used in harsh environments due to its thermal,
mechanical and chemical
Stability.

Silicon Carbide Properties

Low density
High strength
Low thermal expansion
High thermal conductivity
High hardness
High elastic modulus
Excellent thermal shock resistance
Superior chemical inertness

Silicon Carbide Typical Uses

Fixed and moving turbine components

Suction box covers
Seals, bearings
Ball valve parts
Hot gas flow liners
Heat exchangers
Semiconductor process equipment

Boron Carbide (B4C)

Boron Carbide is one of the hardest materials known, ranking third behind diamond
and cubic boron nitride. It is the hardest material produced in tonnage quantities.
Boron carbide powder is mainly produced by reacting carbon with B2O3 in an
electric arc furnace, through carbothermal reduction or by gas phase reactions. For
commercial use B4C powders usually need to be milled and purified to remove
metallic impurities.
In common with other non-oxide materials boron carbide is difficult to sinter to full
density, with hot pressing or sinter HIP being required to achieve greater than 95%
of theoretical density. Even using these techniques, in order to achieve sintering at
realistic temperatures (e.g. 1900 - 2200C), small quantities of dopants such as fine
carbon, or silicon carbide are usually required.
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2015

As an alternative, B4C can be formed as a coating on a suitable substrate by

vapour phase reaction techniques e.g. using boron halides or di-borane with
methane or another chemical carbon source.

Key Properties:
Boron carbide is characterised by its:

Extreme hardness
High Melting point
Good chemical resistance
High Youngs Modulus (its a very stiff material)
Relatively low thermal expansion and conductivity
Good nuclear properties
Low density

Applications
Abrasives
Due to its high hardness, boron carbide powder is used as an abrasive in polishing and
lapping applications, and also as a loose abrasive in cutting applications such as water
jet cutting. It can also be used for dressing diamond tools.

Nozzles
The extreme hardness of boron carbide gives it excellent wear and abrasion resistance
and as a consequence it finds application as nozzles for slurry pumping, grit blasting
and in water jet cutters

Nuclear applications
Its ability to absorb neutrons without forming long lived radio-nuclides make the
material attractive as an absorbent for neutron radiation arising in nuclear power
plants. Nuclear applications of boron carbide include shielding, and control rod and
shut down pellets.

Ballistic Armour
Boron carbide, in conjunction with other materials also finds use as ballistic armour
(including body or personal armour) where the combination of high hardness, high
elastic modulus, and low density give the material an exceptionally high specific
stopping power to defeat high velocity projectiles.

Other Applications
Other applications include ceramic tooling dies, precision toll parts, evaporating
boats for materials testing and mortars and pestles.

Particulate Composites:
A composite that consists of tiny particles of one material embedded in another
material.
The particulates can be very small particles (< 0.25 microns).

Chopped fibers (such as glass), platelets, hollow spheres, or new materials such as
bucky balls or carbon nano-tubes. In each case, the particulates provide desirable
material properties and the matrix acts as binding medium necessary for structural
applications.
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2015

One form of composites is particulate reinforced composites with concrete being a

good example. The aggregate of coarse rock or gravel is embedded in a matrix of
cement. The aggregate provides stiffness and strength while the cement acts as the
binder to hold the structure together.
Particulate composites offer several advantages. They provide reinforcement to the
matrix material thereby strengthening the material.
The combination of reinforcement and matrix can provide for very specific material
properties. For example, the inclusion of conductive reinforcements in a plastic can
produce plastics that are somewhat conductive.
Particulate composites can often use more traditional manufacturing methods such
as injection molding which reduces cost.

Benefits:

Improved material properties

Tailored material properties
Manufacturing flexibility

Applications: The most common particulate composite materials are reinforced

plastics which are used in a variety of industries.
Consumer Products Many of the plastic components we use in daily life are
reinforced in some way. Appliances, toys, electrical products, computer housings,
cell phone casings, office furniture, helmets, etc. are made from particulate
reinforced plastics.
Automotive Glass reinforced plastics are used in many automotive applications

including body panels, bumpers, dashboards, and intake manifolds. Brakes are
made of particulate composite composed of carbon or ceramics particulates.

Polymer composites
Polymer composites are any of the combinations or compositions that comprise two
or more materials as separate phases, at least one of which is a polymer. By
combining a polymer with another material, such as glass, carbon, or another
polymer, it is often possible to obtain unique combinations or levels of properties.
Typical examples of synthetic polymeric composites include glass-, carbon-, or
polymer-fiber-reinforced, thermoplastic or thermosetting resins, carbon-reinforced
rubber, polymer blends, silica- or mica-reinforced resins, and polymer-bonded or
-impregnated concrete or wood. It is also often useful to consider as composites
such materials as coatings (pigment-binder combinations) and crystalline polymers
(crystallites in a polymer matrix).

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Chapter 3:

Composite Manufacturing process:

Composites can be manufactured in the following methods.
1. Autoclave
2. Tape production
3. Moulding
A manufacturer using composite materials has to work directly from the ingredients of
fiber and matrix to make the finished product itself.

Relatively thin flat plate or shallow shell with free edges. Normally aerospace
components have these types of shapes. These are usually made using the
hand-lay-up method. The autoclave is the common tool used for making
aerospace composite components having these shapes.
Components of revolution, such as cylindrical or spherical pressure vessels and
pipes. These structures usually have no free edges (except for the end
openings). These are usually made using the filament winding method.
Components having constant cross section such as tubes, rods, or even
components with complex but constant cross section along the length such as
door frames. These are usually made using the pultrusion method.
Components having complex 3-D configurations. These can be thick or thin.
These are usually made using the liquid composite molding (LCM) method.
Large structures such as boat hulls, wind turbine blades etc.These are made
using a modified form of LCM such as vacuum-assisted LCM.
A special process called SCRIMP (seaman composite resin infusion molding
process) is usually
used to make boat hulls.
Small and large components, either without free edges or with free edges. These
can be made by the tape or fiber placement method.

The different stages of existence of composite constituents up to the final

product:
Stage A: At this stage, the materials appear in raw basic form. For fibers, these consist
of fiber either in the form of filaments or fiber bundles. Fibers may also be woven into
fabrics or braided into braided perform. For matrix, the material usually appears in
liquid form for thermoset resin or in granular form in the case of thermoplastics.
Stage B: At this stage, the fibers and matrix may be combined into a single layer. For
the case of thermoset matrix composite, the matrix may appear in a semi-liquid, semisolid form so that the sheet can hold its shape. For the case of thermoplastic
composite, the matrix is solidified. This form for thermoset matrix composites is called
prepreg. For thermoplastic composites, it is called towpreg.
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Stage C: At this stage, the layers in stage b are stacked on top of each other to make
flat plate laminates. This intermediate step is important for the analysis where material
properties are tested or calculated. However this step is usually bypassed in the
manufacturing process of practical composite parts.
Stage d: This is the final stage where the final product configuration is formed.
The involvement of these stages in the different manufacturing processes is as follows:

Hand-lay-up (with or without autoclave): Stages a, b and d are involved. Stage

c is bypassed.
Filament winding: Stages a and d are involved. Stages b and c are bypassed.
Pultrusion: Stages a and d are involved. Stages b and c are bypassed.
Liquid composite molding: Stages a and d are involved. Stages b and c are
bypassed.
Thermoplastic composites: Stages a and d are involved.Sometimes stage b
and even stage c may be involved

Autoclave method:

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Autoclave processing is commonly used for manufacturing composite components for

the aerospace industry. The process produces composite components of high quality,
but it requires a considerable amount of time.
The main steps of the autoclave processing of composites are:

Prepregs
Tool preparation ( Fig a)
Laying up prepregs on the tool to make the part (Fig b)
Curing of the part (Fig c)
Removal of the part from the tool
Inspection
Finishing steps (Fig d)

Prepregging involves the incorporation of the partially cured resin with the fibers. In

the prepregging process,dry fibers are fed from creels through stations of combs where
the fibers are spread out. The fibers then enter into a bath of wet resin where they are
wetted. Subsequently the fiber/resin combination is heated to change the liquid resin
into a partially cured state. The partially cured resin is viscous enough to help keep the
fibers in the configuration of flat sheets. This fiber/viscous resin combination is called
prepreg. Normally sheets of backing paper are placed on both sides of the prepreg for
handing purposes. Then the prepregs are rolled up for storing and shipping.
The partially cured resin has about 30% of the cross links already formed. With the
incorporation of fibers (such as carbon, glass or Kevlar at about 60% by volume) ,
prepregs are flexible sheets of fibers about 150 mm thick. This is similar to a sheet of
wallpaper except that it is sticky on both sides.

Tool preparation

Manufacturing using autoclave is a molding process. As such, molds (also called tools)
are required. The mold provides the shape and surface finish for the part. As such the
size of the mold depends on the size of the part. Large parts require large molds and
these can be very expensive. Advanced composites must be cured at about 180C and
at pressures of about 600 kPa; molds would be required to sustain these conditions for
periods of several hours. In addition, there are many other considerations when
29
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designing and building tools. These include tool cost, life, accuracy, weight,
machinability, strength, thermal expansion, dimensional stability, surface finish, and
thermal mass and thermal conductivity.
Over a wide range of material systems and processing scenarios used for composites,
there are many materials suitable for tooling. In general, the choices fall into three
categories:
1. Reinforced polymers, for low to intermediate temperature ranges
2. Metals, for low to high temperatures
3. Ceramics and bulk graphite, for very high temperatures
For production tooling for advanced composites, the choice is usually made between
metals, including aluminum, steel, nickel alloys (Invar), electroformed nickel, and
graphite/epoxy tooling.
Elastomeric tooling is often used as a pressure intensifier and to distribute the applied
pressure over a part. For high temperature applications, such as thermoplastic
composites, much consideration has been given to bulk graphite and various ceramic
systems, including a new material called geopolymere.

Laying up prepregs on the tool to make the part:

The laying up of the prepregs on the surface of the mold consists of not only the laying
of the fiber prepregs on the mold, but also the placement of ancillary materials for the
following purposes:
To facilitate the removal of the part after cure (without the problem of the part sticking
to the mold)

To allow the compaction of the stack of prepregs using vacuum

To prevent excess resin from running within the plane of the stackof fibers, which
can distort the orientation of the fibers
To provide an escape path for volatiles such as water vapor or gases that are
generated during the curing process
To provide materials that can absorb excess resins that ooze out of the laminate
during the curing and molding process
To obtain good surface finish on the part

Curing of the part

The resin in the stack of layers of composite in the bag is a viscous liquid, needs to be
transformed into a solid to make a useful composite, which requires heat to activate
the chemical reaction between the molecules During this transformation of the resin, it
is important to assure that the fibers maintain their orientation and that no resin rich
area or other defects will exist. Sufficient amounts of pressure need to be applied for
this purpose.
Also, during the transformation of the resin from the liquid to solid state, volatiles such
aswater vapor or other gases may be generated. These need to be removed from the
material in order to avoid the occurrence of voids after the resin has become solid.
After curing the part is separated from the tool and subjected for inspection.

Tape/ Fiber Placement method:

Fiber placement is a process in which the fibers are placed onto the surface of the
mandrel one strip at a time.
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The fibers are pushed toward the surface of the mandrel. As such, flexible tows
cannot be used for fiber placement. Instead, tapes with a certain degree of rigidity are
used there is a pressure applicator that Presses the fibers as they are being placed on
the surface of the mandrel. This pressure applicator consolidates the fibers as they are
being wrapped around the mandrel. With the pressure applicator, surfaces other than
convex can be used.
In the fiber placement process, usually heat is applied at the nip point (point where the
fiber bands meet the surface of the mandrel). The application of heat allows the
liquefaction of the resin. Combination of heat and pressure provides the drive of flow
and consolidation. Due to the presence of heat and pressure the resin systems used for
the fiber placement process can be different from those used for filament winding.
The fiber placement process can be applied to both thermoset and thermoplastic
composites without significant change in the machine setup (except for the laying
head).

Moulding techniques:
There are two general divisions of composites manufacturing processes: open
molding and closed molding.
With open molding, the gel coat and laminate are exposed to the atmosphere during
the fabrication process.
In closed molding, the composite is processed in a two-sided mold set, or within a
vacuum bag. There are a variety of processing methods within the open and closed
molding categories:
OPEN MOLDING
Hand Lay-Up
Spray-up
Filament Winding

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CLOSED MOLDING
Compression molding
Pultrusion
Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding (RRIM)
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
Vacuum Bag Molding
Vacuum Infusion Processing
Centrifugal Casting
Continuous Lamination
Hand lay-up technique
Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The
infrastructural requirement for this method is also minimal. The processing steps are
quite simple.
First of all, a release gel is sprayed on the mold surface to avoid the sticking of
polymer to the surface.
Thin plastic sheets are used at the top and bottom of the mold plate to get good
surface finish of the product.
Reinforcement in the form of woven mats or chopped strand mats are cut as per
the mold size and placed at the surface of mold after perspex sheet
Then thermosetting polymer in liquid form is mixed thoroughly in suitable
roportion with a prescribed hardner (curing agent) and poured onto the surface
of mat already placed in the mold.
The polymer is uniformly spread with the help of brush.
Second layer of mat is then placed on the polymer surface and a roller is moved
with a mild pressure on the mat-polymer layer to remove any air trapped as well
as the excess polymer present.
The process is repeated for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required
layers are stacked.
After placing the plastic sheet, release gel is sprayed on the inner surface of the
top mold plate which is then kept on the stacked layers and the pressure is
applied.
After curing either at room temperature or at some specific temperature, mold is
opened and the developed composite part is taken out and further processed.
The time of curing depends on type of polymer used for composite processing.
o For example, for epoxy based system, normal curing time at room
temperature is 24-48 hours.
This method is mainly suitable for thermosetting polymer based composites.
Capital and infrastructural requirement is less as compared to other methods.
Production rate is less and high volume fraction of reinforcement is difficult to
achieve in the processed composites.
Hand lay-up method finds application in many areas like aircraft components,
automotive parts, boat hulls, dais board, deck etc.

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Spray lay-up:
The spray lay-up technique can be said to be an extension of the hand lay-up
method. In this technique, a spray gun is used to spray pressurized resin and
reinforcement which is in the form of chopped fibers.
Generally, glass roving is used as a reinforcement which passes through spray
gun where it is chopped with a chopper gun.
Matrix material and reinforcement may be sprayed simultaneously or separately
one after one. Spray release gel is applied on to the mold surface to facilitate the
easy removal of component from the mold.
A roller is rolled over the sprayed material to remove air trapped into the layups.
After spraying fiber and resin to required thickness, curing of the product is done
either at room temperature or at elevated temperature.
After curing, mold is opened and the developed composite part is taken out and
further processed further.
The time of curing depends on type of polymer used for composite processing.
Spray lay-up method is used for lower load carrying parts like small boats, bath
tubs, fairing of trucks etc.
This method provides high volume fraction of reinforcement in composites and
virtually, there is no part size limitation in this technique.

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Filament Winding:
The main components of filament winding are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Fiber creel
Resin impregnation system
Carriage
Rotating mandrel

This process is primarily used for hollow, generally circular or oval sectioned
components, such as pipes and tanks.
Fibre tows are passed through a resin bath before being wound onto a mandrel in
a variety of orientations, controlled by the fibre feeding mechanism, and rate of
rotation of the mandrel.
Fiber tension is critical in filament winding because compaction is achieved
through the fiber tension.
The fiber tension affects the percentage of fiber reinforcement and porosity
content in the composite which in turn affects the properties of the processed
composite product
The fiber tension depends upon the type of fiber, its geometry and the winding
pattern required on the rotating mandrel.
The fiber tension should be at optimal level because too high fiber tension may
break the fiber completely or initiate fiber fracture at the surface.
Curing of the composite is done with heat, generally in an oven and final
composite product is taken out of the mandrel.
To remove the metallic mandrel from the composite part, hydraulic rams may be
used. For complex geometry of composite part, the mandrel used may be of
soluble plaster which can be washed out after processing or it may be a
collapsible rubber and materials having low melting point.
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The profile of the mandrel is exactly the same as that of the final product is
required. In some cases, mandrel becomes the integral part of the assembly.
A carriage is used to keep the roving in place and to direct them to the mandrel.
A high fiber volume fraction can be achieved in the composite with this
processing technique.
Cores may be used in this method but normally, product is in single skin.
Now a days, computer controlled machines are used which independently
monitor every movement of the whole process.

Application:
1. Composite products like storage tanks, pipelines, vessels, gas cylinders, fishing rods,
missile cases, rocket motor cases, ducting, cement mixture, sail boat mast, aircraft
fuselages and golf club shafts are very common to be developed with this method.
2. Now, the application spectrum of filament winding has expanded to complex
engineered non-spherical and non-cylindrical composite products with the use of
sophisticated machinery and software.
Advantage:
1. High strength to weight ratio is possible to achieve with this process.
2. High degree of uniformity in fiber distribution, orientation and placement.
3. Labor involvement is minimal as it is an automated process.
4. Filament winding method is suitable to process composite parts requiring precise
tolerances.
5. Fiber orientation in a specific direction is possible in this process.
6. Cost of the composite part processed through filament winding method is
substantially low as compared to other manufacturing methods as this process involves
less and low cost material to produce high strength component.
7. Design flexibility in composite part is possible with the change in winding patterns,
material and curing option.
8. The size of the component is not restricted.
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9. For high production volume, process automation results in cost saving.

Disadvantage:
1. Capital investment is relatively high.
2. Very precise control over the mechanism is required for uniform distribution and
orientation of fiber.
3. Composite product configuration be such that it should facilitate in mandrel
extraction.
4. It is not possible to produce the reverse curvature (female feature).
5. For some applications, mandrel may be expensive and surface of the composite part
may
not be satisfactory.
6. Fiber direction cannot be changed within one layer of winding.
CLOSED MOLDING

Pultrusion

Pultrusion is a manufacturing process for producing continuous lengths of reinforced

polymer structural shapes with constant cross-sections.
Beginning from the left-hand side, the fiber tows drawn from fiber racks are routed
through a series of guides. The fibers then traverse through a bath of low viscosity
resin for impregnation.
It is a continuous process in which composites in the form of fibers and fabrics
are pulled through a bath of liquid resin.
Then the fibres wetted with resin are pulled through a heated die.
The die plays important roles like completing the impregnation and controlling
the resin. Further, the material is cured to its final shape.
The die shape used in this process is nothing the replica of the final product.
Finally, the finished product is cut to length.
In this process, the fabrics may also be introduced into the die. The fabrics provide a
fibre direction other 0. Further, a variant of this method to produce a profile with some
variation in the cross-section is available. This is known as pulforming.
The resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic can be used with any fibre.

Applications:
Beams and girders used in roof structures, bridges, ladders, frameworks

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Advantages:
The process is suitable for mass production.
The process is fast and economic.
Resin content can be accurately controlled.
Fibre cost is minimized as it can be taken directly from a creel.
The surface finish of the product is good.
Structural properties of product can be very good as the profiles have very straight
fibres.
Disadvantages:
Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components.
Heated die costs can be high.
Products with small cross-sections alone can be fabricated

Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)

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Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) is a low pressure, closed molding process which offers a
dimensionally accurate and high quality surface finish composite molding, using liquid
thermoset polymers reinforced with various forms of fiber reinforcements.
Typically polymers of Epoxy, Vinyl Ester, Methyl Methacrylate, Polyester or Phenolic are
used with fiberglass reinforcement. Other reinforcements are offered for more
demanding applications such as Arimid, Carbon and Synthetic fibers either individually
or in combination with each other.
The process consists of arranging the fibres or cloth fabrics in the desired configuration
in a preform. These fabrics are sometimes pre-pressed to the mould shape, and held
together by a binder.
A second matching mould tool is then clamped over the first. Then pressurized resin is
injected into the cavity.
Vacuum can also be applied to the mould cavity to assist resin in being drawn into the
fabrics. This is known as Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM) or Vacuum
Assisted Resin Injection (VARI).
The laminate is then cured. Both injection and cure can take place at either ambient or
elevated temperature. In this process, the resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and
phenolic can be used. Further, one use the high temperature resins such as
bismaleimides can be used at elevated process temperatures. The fibres of any type
can be used. The stitched materials work well in this process since the gaps allow rapid
resin transport. Some specially developed fabrics can assist with resin flow

Advantages:

The process is very efficient.

Suitable for complex shapes.
High fibre volume laminates can be obtained with very low void contents.
Good health and safety, and environmental control due to enclosure of resin.
Possible labour reductions.
Both sides of the component have a moulded surface. Hence, the final product
gets a
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superior surface finish

Better reproducibility.
Relatively low clamping pressure and ability to induce inserts.

Disadvantages:
Matched tooling is expensive and heavy in order to withstand pressures.
Generally limited to smaller components.
Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts
Applications:
The applications include the hollow cylindrical parts like motor casing, engine covers,
etc.

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