Professional Documents
Culture Documents
schuster)
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ELEMENTARY
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
SEYMOUR
SCHUSTER)
DOVER PUBLICATIONS,INC.
Mineola,
New
York)))
Bibliographical Note
Dover
This
the work
edition,
originally
of Congress
Library
is an
unabridged
& Sons,
vector geometry /
Elementary
p. em.
Originally
Includes
ISBN-13:
published:
of
1962.)
Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Seymour.
Schuster,
republication
Seymour
New York:
John
Schuster.
Wiley
- Dovered.
& Sons,
Inc., 1962.
index.
978-0-486-46672-9
ISBN-lO: 0-486-46672-8
1.Vector
QA433.S38
analysis.
2. Geometry.
I. Title.
2008
515' .63-dc22)
2007050541)
Manufactured
Dover
Publications,
11501)))
to
my
parents)))
preface)
This short
presented at a
is
work
held at
lectures
outgrowth
of
pattern
teachers.
geon1etry
mathematics
in
events
of
material
essential
rather,
but,
that were
of lectures
Institute
Foundation
Science
backgrounds
that
the
National
The
1959.
of
the
\"enriching\"
However,
no longer
the
indicates
education
enrichment
for every
knowledge
teacher.
It
just
a few
years
is
\037
revolution
in
undergraduate
and
education,
a
much
at
acquired
for
usual
matrices,
particularly
college
as
applied
to geometry.
recommendatio11s
made
v)))
Furtherby
the)
PREFACE)
VI)
Commission
Group,
Study
Programin
on Mathematics,
the School M\037thematics
on the Undergraduate
and the Committee
all
in the direction
Mathematics
of
point
into the
c011cepts
school
high
I have
curriculum.
1011g felt that vector techniques
find
,viII
their
should
way into the high school
n
otas
of the mathecurriculum-perhaps
integral
part
matical training of all studentsbut, at the
as
least,
work to excite and challenge superior students.
and
an
very
On
level,
elementary
very
marily
development
mathematical tool in
greater insight into the
theorems
proofs
proofs,
knowledge
prerequisite.
oped slowly-more so
on vectors. Simple
vector
natural
vector
any
algebra
of the
as
explanations,
well
as
two
(in
geometry
developedasa
gain a
illustrations,
analytic
is to
attempting
by
of
in
than
geometric
numerous
aim
elements
The
vector
The
geometry.
and analytic
deals prialgebra as a
this textbook
of
the
with
of the
outgrowth
vector treatment.
to assist in other
linear
because
involutes,
programming,
As for
I
and
projective
theorems.
development
of
of
Loosely
geometry.
formally
(axiomatic)
reader
Ellclidean
is
familiar
geometry
speaki11g, I have
the definitions
and with the bare)))
\\vith
VII)
PREFACE)
area
and
parallelism,
angle,
of trigonometry.
essentials
assumedthat the
knows
sine, cosine, and tangent
functions
as ratios
sides
the
of
resliits
from
of a
(in
the
right triangle).
and
geometry
of the
definitions
the
reader
naive
I haye
trigonometry,
sense,
In regard to
indeed
taken very
little
for
of. geometric
granted.
Samples
information that are calledupon are: formulas
for
the
area of a parallelogram and volume of a parallelopiped\037
the fact that two points determinea unique
and
the
line,
result that opposite sides of a parallelogram
are
equal.
3 I use the)aw of cosinesfor motivatio11,
In Chapter
but
who
has
not seen it before will be consoledby
the reader
a
shortly
given
proof
thereafter.
coordinate
development,
beenadopted several
in rewriting the
by
high
approaches.
The
curriculum.
mathematics
approach
Teachersof
Sincere
who
of
came
comfortably
l\\lathematics.
thanks
to
and
Carleton
learning
are
appreciation
i11 the SlImmer
mathematics
Minnesota
the
strains
but who, instead, laboredal1dperspiredunder
of vector geometry and the 96% humidity. For reading
the
and for their valuable suggestiol1SI am)))
n1a11uscript
PREFACE)
VIII)
grateful
especially
School in
Lincoln
of
the
University
the
of
Chicago
colleague,Professor
B.
William
special
thanks
courageously
Science
National
1961.
This
tribute
substantially
Jr.
Houston,
Also,
who
go to ProfessorDick
Hall,
used the text in mimeograph form at a
Wick
Institute
Foundation
enabled
experience
by
pointing
out
Sllmmer of
Hall to conerrors ill judg-
in the
Professor
ID.y
N orthfield,
January,
Minnesota
1962)))
SCHUSTER)
contents)
Chapter
Fundamentalproperties4.
\302\267
of
5. Auxiliary
vectors.
of
Uniqueness
\037
Chapter
IN
combinations
point technique.6.
COORDINATE
SYSTEMS
40)
7. Rectangular
and
vectors
Linear
representations.)
VECTORS
Basis
of vector. 3.
2. Definition
Introduction.
1.
1)
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
applications
\302\267
9.
The
complex
plane.)
Chapter
10.
INNER
Definition.
12.
Components.
14.
Work.)
60)
PRODUCTS)
11. Properties
of inner product \302\267
13. Inner
product formulas.
IX)))
CONTENTS)
x)
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
4.
Chapter
Distance
\302\267
16.
geometry
a
from
The
to
point
line
straight
21.
method of proof. 20. Circles.
24.
line in
straight
two lines
plane
\302\267
28.
Chapter 5
29.
a point to a plane
three dimensions \302\267
26.
Angle
\302\267
25.
\302\267
27.
a line
\302\267
The
be-
line with
and a plane.)
135)
PRODUCTS)
from
to
point
a plane
\302\267
32.
Dis-
cross
two
between
scalar product.
30. Triple
products.
31. Distance
tance
of a
Intersection
between
Angle
CROSS
Cross
by points on it
from
Distance
tween
a plane
Det\037rmining
17.
22.
Spheres.
\302\267
23.
Planes
\302\267
the
of
76)
products.)
Chapter
151)
TRIGONOMETRY)
34. Plane
trigonometry.)
Cl\037apter
more
parametric
by
inequalitjes.
37.
few
programming.
general
160)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
Theorems
arising
in
equations
to
locus
problems.
42.
Rigid motions.)
APPENDIX
204
ANSWERS
fJ06
INDEX)
\03711)))
elem.entary
operations)
1.
INTRODUCTION
The
history
of the
of mathematical ideas
development
indicatesthat abstractconcepts
arise
from
generally
in some
problemsof
counting,
roots
Arithmetic stemmedfrom
\"practical\" problem.
arose
geometry
from
problems
of
theorems
science,
which is
logical
of
consequences
deductive
the
ELEMENTARY
2)
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
with
it is
a
interpretations:
the path of a
some
under
molecule
circumstances,
a host of
and
in
origins
its
of
problems.
The
mathematician,
pure
oncehe
a mathematical
beyond. Because
free to exercisehis imagination making
study,
begins
he is
logical
by
deductiollS
(proving
that
qllite
apart
the
problem.
within his deductivescience.
drawing
metry for illustration, we can point to the
are
li\"'or
from
Again
dimensional
fOllr
of
geo-
developments
n-dimensional
geometry-even
world
is
spite of the fact that our physical
non-Euclidean
or
to
the
of
invention
dimel1sional,
geometry-in
three
geometries,that contradictEuclid'sParallelPostulate
for
(which,
2000
over
mathematicaltruth).
were
consequences
the
beyond
consideration
was accepted
years,
Such
as absolute
by mathematicians
creations
the physical
world.
Vector
in
physical
is
analysis
problems.
also
It
a subject that
was developed
in
initially
physical
twentieth
of
a vector
science.
Developments
have resulted
in a
consequently,
centuries
and,
of
th\037
branches
nineteenth
to
meof
and
in the abstractconcept
wide range of interpre-
tationsofthisabstractconcept.
The
result
is that
vec-)))
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTA.RY
tors
now
to name
3)
studies,
theory,
and
psychology,
economics,
theory,
electro-magnetic
of
electrocardiography.
with illustrations
filled
in
Geometry books aI,vays
fact
that
the
circle
of
are
abstract
point,line,
spite
that do 110texistin physicalreality
in spite
concepts
of the fact that beginning students are apprisedof the
are
and
and
the
at
of
abstract
subject
their course. The reasonis
Abstract
simple.
quite
is difficult;
reasoning
beginning of
the very
nature
leastassisted
by-the
of
help
some
real
model
are at
(or inter-
a
pretation) of the abstract concepts.Consequently,
with a sharp pencil is a convenient
dot marked
of point, and a sharppencildrawn
for the concept
model
a
ruler
leaves a n1arkthat isusedasa
of
the
along
edge
of line.
for
the
Such pencil marks are a
model
concept
until they get to feel at
for
convenience
beginl1ers
great
and
in
the
home
subject
begin to feel that there is a
in
itself.
Later in their mathematical
reality
geometry
small
studies students
other
encounter
abstract
concepts,
but
models
to
by this time they can, and do, use geometric
assist
in still more abstract reasoning. This
them
is precisely
of
what occurs in the
pattern
development
the concept of vector can
of
vectors.
Although
study
a geometric
be made abstract,
model (directed line segthat
assists
the beginner in development) is the crutch
ing steadylegsinthe field that is new to him.
that
It is the author'sview
steady
legs in abstract
and
that
vector algebra are developedslowly
reasoning
in the model (now geometry)for some
extended
period
should
be done preliminary to engagingin the abstract
study.
this
Therefore
with a geometricstudy
entire
of
vectors
textbook
(i.e.,
co\037cerns itself
the application
of vectors.
Let us
begin.)))
abstract
of
2. DEFINITION
Earlier
we
OF VECTOR
out
pointed
from
originally
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
4)
physics.
that
ber-with
whereas
second
the
magnitude
These
dire-ction.
and
called
tude
examples
are typical
elementary
physics.
of
classification is made:
that
are singled out and
possess
only magnitude
whereas
that
both
quantities
possess
scalars,
magniare called vectors.
and direction
the
simple
following
In additionto
of scalar
examples
quantities are mass, length, area,
in addition
volume;
and,
to velocity, examples of vectors are force,acceleration,
temperature,
and
a11delectricalintensity.
Just as the
for his
means
trained
which
he can
A convenient
the
geometry-to
by
of
reasoning.
is a directedline
desires
mathematician
general concepts, so
segment
model
geometric
doesthe physicist.
For
has a reality
physicist-also
because
this
possesses
mathematical development,
we
make
the
for-
following
mal definition.
Definition.
use
boldface
vector
is
a directed
type to indicate a
line segment.
vector. The
e shall
symbol1AI)))
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
5)
Terminus
or
endpoint)
c)
p
Origi n)
.0)
(b))
(a))
FIGURE
that the
event
we
PQ,
being
of
PQ
to designate
used
be
will
(see
In
emphasize
origin
and
Figure
1a).
the
1)
the
\037
nature by writi11gPQ,
Q being the terminus or endpoint
Another useful conventionwhen
vector
\037
--7
\037
a
vectors OB, OC, and OD with
several
and
common
0 is to call these vectors
D,
origin
with
concerned
a
is
if
discussion
That
respectively.
is,
from a single point, we may
several
vectors
emanating
to
referring
B, C,
them
designate
merely
by
their
individual
endpoints
(see Figure1b).
The
one is called a unit vector.
of zero length (with
direction),
any
conalthough
peculiar, is actually a great
apparently
vector
zero
venience.
We refer to such a vector as the
The
to time.
and shall point to its usefulnessfromtime
of
the
direction
notation
for the zero vector is o. The
4.
zero vector is discussed further in Secti011
A
of
vector
notion
Scalars,
being
bered
scalars
they
length
vector
of a
merely
will
magnitudes,
be real-num-
mathematics
(In more
may be elements of the complexnumbers;indeed,
be from any number field. Our needs,
may
quantities.
advanced
how-)))
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
6)
ever, do
satisfied
They
or
by
3.
FUNDAMENTAL
numerals.)
Our desire
end we must
tors equal.
Definition.
A
(ill)
vectors
Two
and only if I
B) if
(i)
(ii)
PROPERTmS
is to build an algebraof
first present a criterion
is
and
possess
It cannot be emphasized
toostrongly
even
be equal
space.
vector
if
may
do
they
hold:
not
direction; and
the
that
vectors
the same
possess
of B.)
length
may
position in
matter
be
a position
to
rigidly
that
(see
As
conditions
three
following
vec-
two
to B;2
parallel
IAt
calling
B are
A and
the
for
to this
and
vectors,
do
we
change
tion
When
free.
1
The
phrase
is actually
tion
is,
(a) If
(b)
If
2
We
\"parallel
in
high
where
Section
to
itself.
in
this
on the
conditions
use
or
the
on
up the
(i),
(ii)
more
Although
and
A =
then
hold,
the
defini-
or logicalequivalence.
general
this
(iii) hold;
That
and
B.
sense to mean
is not given
usage
same
line.)))
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
7)
\"
\"
\"
,
\"-
\"
Y)
\
'\\
(b))
(a))
FIGURE
,)
2)
of vectors
ments
/
//
z/)
(b))
(a))
FIGURE
3)))
(a))
(b))
4)
FIGURE
direction.
our
effect
F represents
definition.
ofthe bar
of
and
and
represents
F and
bar.
the
therefore
would
They
are
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
8)
be equal accordingto
a pulling force
a pushing
force
G would have
considered
therefore
at the center
at the center
the same
mechanical
mechanically equal.
a
effect
However,H appliedat theendofthebar
of
turning
motion, which is quite different from the
F = G.
Thus H is not equal to the otherforces.
it would be natural to insist that
forces
such
studies
different
lines of action be unequal. Thisjustifies
having
would
effect
In
two
inthe
the stipulation
of
of permitting a vectorto be
theory
of rigid
mechanics
displaced
only
along
bodies,
its
line
of action.
theory
of
elasticity,
two
vectors
applied
at
different)))
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
considered
not
are
points
9)
restrictedto its
position;
original
bound.
called
with
state,
are free,
We
book
this
equal.
all
in
vectors
of
definition
equality.
any two vectors (Figure 4a).
for vector B so that its origin
of A. Now we construct a third
the
terminus
at
placed
A + B, whose origin coincides with the
called
vector,
A
with the terof
and
whose
terminus
coincides
origin
Let
Addition.
B be
and
is
a location
select
can
We
minus of B.
The construction
of
nal
sense
(ii)
B =
Addition
(A
Part (ii)
the
indi-
both are the same diagothe same parallelogram, and they possessthe same
Hence we have the followingresult.
of direction.
=
Theorem 1. (i)
that is
A clearly
B +
of
4b)
(Figure
cates that B +
of
the
of
definition
A +
B, for
Addition
of
is
vectors
commutative;
B + A.
of
vectors
B)
+ C
theorem
addition.
that is
is associative;
is easily
(B +
C).
established
5 illustrates
Figure
Co>
\037
Co
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037)
B+C
\037)
A)
A)
FIGURE
6)))
by using
the proof.)
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
10)
the
However, the reader is advisedto phrase
proof
from
deduction
elementarygeometryindependent
logical
of
as a
a figure.)
EXERCISE
1. Give an elementarygeometry
vectors areaddedto equal vectors,
As indicated in Section1, the
toricallYr
notably
from
an
It
force.
but nonethelessexcellent,Dutch
experimented
(1548-1620),
replace the
covered
by the
two
by
sums
the
of a
notion
to characterize
attempt
is interesting
a single
theorem: If equal
are equal vectors.
of the
proof
his-
physical quantities,
forces
an effort
He
resultant.
that
Stevin
Simon
scientist,
two
with
vector arose,
force
the
This
forces,
theory
(It is for
to
dis-
represented
which he
of equilib-
this reason
that the parallelogramsof Figure 6 are sometimes referred to
as parallelogramsof forces.)
the many other accomAmong
of
are
his:
work
on hydrostatics,which
Stevin
(1)
plishments
of)
laid
for
the
reclamation
of
the
below-sea-Ievel
land
plans
Force Fl)
Force
Fl)
Force
FIGURE
6)))
Fl)
Holland,
with
the
first
to
11)
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
a
give
entitled
chapter
systematic
\"Stevin
for numbers
notation
decimal
He was the
for computation.
methods
consequent
by D. E. Smith, or A History
oj MatheJ. F. Scott, 1960.)
of vector addition is consistentwith
our
Thus
definition
the
desires
of the physicist who is interestedin applying
techthe
of vector analysis to his problems. (The
of
student
niques
a critical
science should constantly maintain
attitude
applied
toward the mathematical definitions,
care to see whether
taking
or not they accurateiy reflect
situations.)
given
physical
Before continuing, it should be mentioned
that
Galileo
(15641642), quite independently, cameto the sameconclusionas did
Simon
two scientists discovered how
vectors
Thus
Stevin.
two centuries prior to the inven\"should\"
add, approximately
tion
of vector
algebra and vector analysis in the nineteenth
in Mathematics,
Book
matics, by
century.
Our
can
addition
vectors:
of
Of course,
(ii) of
of
definition
sum
the
Al +
However,
as
simply
grouping
the
pairs
definition
(note
part
repeatedly.
geometric
follows:
of
terminus
AI;
move
move
A 2 so
of A 2 ; continue
this process until An is placed
its origin at the terminus of An-I.
The
sum Al +
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
A
is
then
the
vector
whose
+
+ An
g +
origin
terminus
with
A
coincides
cides
the
with
with
the
origin
terminus
of Al
and whose
terminus coin-
of An.
FIGURE
sum
We then
length.
This
answer
our
D+ E+ F=
C +
B +
query
for
a polygon
o.)
of n sides, so the
zero vector.
is: The
Multiplicationof a
by
convenient to introduce
a scalar.
vector
In arithmetic
as
multiplication
of addition.
4 + 4 + 4.
the
zero
write
holds
argument
to
are the
vector
7)
Hence
above.
described
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
12)
\037\037
rt,\037)
FIGURE
8)))
\037
of
thought
it is
extension
an
with-)
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
13)
we
addition,
parallel to
the
however,
A +
vector
know
and
the
having
of A +
length
is
twice
is
8)
(Figure
same sense
A
extension
might be
as an
scalar
a vector
actually
of direction as A;
the
length
of A.
A by
A, the result of multiplying
2 is a vectorparallelto A having
the same
sense
of direction as A but with twice the length of A.
Therefore,
2A
if
A +
the scalar
be appropriate
f\037r
for the
In
parallel
of
if
general,
X =
to A, (b)
direction
this
stipulate
moment,
opposite
and
see where
(a)
(c) X must
IAI
(-A)
= 0;
0, we know that
\\xl, and
to that of
A reasona-
of -A.
a definition
be that
(Figure
a
what
9).
so let us,
it takes us.
X
must
be
have a sense
Thus-A
have
FIGURE
9)))
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
14)
GEOMETRY)
;1A)
FIGURE 10)
sentence
nA
of our
n =
Figure
definition).
3, n = -3, and n
for
init.ion
Theorem
2.
is a
m(nA)
(ii)
(iii)
illustrate,
a
nA
3
2A,
The
sy-mbol
(m + n)A
definition
(mn)A.
mA
nA.
B) = mA +
consider m = 5 and
meA +
vector twicethe
Inl refers
i-.
To
10 illtlstratesthe def-
of
length
mB.
- 2.
A btlt
directed
of n,
which is
< 0,
then
value
of
a
101
Then
Inl
defined
=
number
=
which
O.
-n.
is
We
should
15)
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
(i) states:
oppositely to A.
5(-2A) = (5)(-2)A
(-2))A =
(5 +
states:
(ii)
3A =
5A
5A
-lOA.
or
(-2)A
(- 2)A.
ImllnAI
of
same
the
have
the definition
(ii)
That
length.
that both are
a vector
by
= ImnllAl
ImllnllAI
1 proves
Equation
mem-
left
the
of
are
(i)
(1)
(mn)AI.
in
equal
fact
from
the
is left
to check
sense.
Use
(Hint.
nA..)
vectors
represent
m +
If
n <
0,
of
definition
of
nA.)
Let us
(iii)
We consider the
nonzero.
A
suppose that
(see
--7
then P R
and
Bare
B.
and
nOllparallel
trianglePQR,-?
which
11), by having A
Figure
A +
PQ,
defines
-?
B =
QR,
P' Q'
R'
triangle
,
-?
\037
=
=
=
mA
mA
where
+ mB.
P'Q', mB
Q'R', then P'R'
is
similar
to triPQR
SincemAilAandmBilB.triangle
-?
We
construct
-?
angle
result
the
P'Q'R'.
Thus
P'R'
the
that
of)))
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
16)
p')
p)
A)
mA)
11)
FIGURE
m.(A +
break
if
down
A\\.IB?
Since
NOTE.
part
(i)
3(2A)
\302\267
2)A
As il1 elementary
Subtraction.
that
traction is operation
we define subtractionof
is
an
2A
the
parenthesis
6A.)
vectors
More precisely,if
addition.
\302\267
there
know
now
would
is a
a - a = a + (-a) O. This
fact that subtractioll is
of
addition.
that subtraction is the
-a
is the
that
the
realilumber
maticians
say
=
defined
Mathe-
inverse
a relative
is the
to the
operation
inverse
additive
of
of
inverseof -a).
carry
defining subtraction.
Definition.
to
mean
-lB.)))
B =
or
additioll
(similarly,
these
We
that
states
Theorem
of
(-B)
ideas
simply
a is
that
of
- a
the additive
over to
where
inverse
-B
vectors in
is
written
ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS)
17)
of subtraction
can take
in
12.
Note
that the
any
preeented
Figure
A
of the
is equal to the sum
diagonal
parallelogram
B (A - B) and also to the sum (A - B) + B. Such
who is
for
the
algebraic checking advised
beginner
the
Geometrically
operation
forms
the
of
is
elementary
EXAMPLE
--+--+
--+
OM
cussed
(OB
\037
+ OC).
on page
In accordance with
5, we shallwrite
\037
OB,
convention
the
--7
C = OCand M
Then)
\037
= B
+ BM)
= C
- MC = C \037
and
\037
BM
\037
(since
Bill
\037
= MC).)
B)
-B)
B)
FIGURE 12)))
dis\037
= OM.
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
18)
B)
B)
D)
o)
o)
c)
c)
(a))
(b))
13)
FIGURE
we get)
Adding,
2M=B+C
M =
or)
If we considerour figure
(Figure13b),
then
o to the midpoint
to
the
result
of
diagonal
\037
for
IODI
we
conclude
may
eachother.
of a
t\\VO sides
any
one half of
Prove
2.
EXAMPLE
\\B
it.
PQ
and
\037
Then
.C
these
that
(Note
\037
B = PkI
= NR,
vector
Adding
and
D
to
of
that
equality
A - B, we
of vectors)
the segment
and
N be
C+
midpoints
\037
\037
C
J.lfQ,
A
follow from
MN,
to
equal
and
D =
\037
QR.
- B = o.
about
vectors
summing
Since
- Band
equations
MNP
triangle
111 and
let
14)
midpointsof
Call)
respectively.
PR,
\037
PN
+ C).)
(B
\037
- B = D.
(by the
proves simultaneously thatNM\\lRQ
have
2C
= D, which
of
the
base
definition
RQ.)))
and
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
19)
p)
R:)
14)
FIGURE
EXERCISES
\037
\037
3.
four
Show
that
arbitrarily
PQ +
chosen
\037
TlS =
\037
where
2MN,
points
P,
and where
FIGURE
15)))
Q, R,
\037f
and
and S
N
are
are
the)
Draw
5.
\037
\037
point,
+ XR.
current. The
5 mph N.
and give a
the resultant.
is
in equilibrium
a body
mid-
\037
force
resulting
the direction
of
the
.of
geometricconstructionthat shows
6. Using the fact that the sum
on
\037
X Q
XP
the magnitude
Compute
of A.B, Q the
CA. If X is any
acted
is
is 8
velocity
\037
XB + XC =
NMPQ.)
midpoint
midpoint of
\037
sailboat
wind
P the
with
R the
and
XA +
that
show
ABC,
triangle
BC,
the
Sum
(Hint.
vectors
point of
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY.
20)
problem.
7.
8. If
the
that
Show
A,
D are
that
plane),
prove
and Q
are the
of
quadri-
of a parallelogram.
and
C,
B,
sides
of consecutive
midpoints
are vertices
lateral
of
midpoints
and
A.C
in a
necessarily
(not
\037
\037
CD
4PQ
where
(How does
BD.
relateto Exercise
this
2?)
Using
associative
(A
properties
-
B) and
(A
nology: the
0'
vector
0' =
4.
of subtraction, the
definition
the
9.
zero
of addition,
B) +
B, do actually
reduce
to
equal
A.
uniquenessof
vector.
and
commutative
0,
(Hint.
0.))
LINEAR
COMBINATIONS
OF
VECTORS
Now that
and also to
21)
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
and
If
way:
lowing
Xl, X2,
X3,
xiA
AI,
,X n
A 2, A 3 , . . .
are n scalars,
X2A 2
X3
and
n vectors
the vector
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
A g
are
, An
xnAn
of AI, A 2, A 3 , . .
to be a linearcombination
of
section is devoted to the study
The present
of certain sets of vectors,
and
the
combinatiolls
contained herein are perhaps the most difficult
Thus we shall proceedslowly.
el1tire book.
The
is cautioned
to study the definitionsand to take
is said
,An.
linear
ideas
the
in
reader
them
literally!
Iloted
We
that
tiplying
earlier that
-A, that is,
Since
-1.
A by
could, in a sense,say
conversely,that
the equationA
X is the vector
X is
that
is
dependent
A =
and)
X =
obtained
0 implies
by
from
derived
mul-
A, we
depe11dent upon A;
UpOll X.
Similarly,
or,
if
we could write
3Y = 0,
be
can
--lA
3Y.)
this case
in
consideratiol1
from
making
the
following
definItion.
4
The
defining
satisfying
synlbolism
sets in the
the
{I
},
following
condition
borrowed
\"ray:
or sentence
from
{zIS(z)}
S (z).)))
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
22)
Two vectors
Definition.
dependent if and
not both
zero,
if
only
aA +
so that
there
are called
two scalars
and
GEOMETRY)
exists
bB = o.
Remark:The studentshould
recognize
the
linearly
a and b,
fact
that
linearly
parallel. The
can
reader
verify
these
interpretations
of the
form
formally by constructing a general
that preceded our definition. One
point,
however,
must
be mentioned;
this concerns the presenceof 0 as
argument
fine
one
of
that 0
10 +
vectors
the
and
any
under
vector
consideratio11.
A are linearly
First,
we note
dependent, for
OA
0 and
for
0, which is the definingcondition
be linearly depe11de11t
nonzero
(1 is the required
would say that
Our
scalar).
geometric
i11terpretation
o isparalleltoA, where A may be any vector. This may
howto the beginning student of vectors;
appear
strange
it
is
a
of
conmatter
convenience
to
retain
the
ever,
great
vention that the zero vector is parallel to every vector!
as having no direcInstead of regarding
the
zero vector
tion (as would
to some),
we regard 0 as having
appeal
and direction,
Vectors
direction.
any
specify
magnitude
so we chooseto say that 0 has any or all directio11s
simul-)))
A to
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
Of course,
taneously.
23)
vector
with
to
vector.
zero
has
vector
In the
we
ent,
we
the idea
with
consistent
is
this
Again,
that the
direction.
any
that:)
say
of vectors,
A pair
(1)
is a
one
which
of
is a
zero vector,
(2)
(3)
of
pair
vectors is a linearly
nonzero
parallel
dependentset.
A
of
pair
a linearly
vectors is
nonparallel
nonzero,
independent
set.)
merely
the generalizing
would leave us
contradict
fllrthermore,
of linear
and,
theory
extend
Xn,
so
If,
that
A 2,
. .
if
example,
of
the
are
x's
the
zero).
implies
one
definition.
following
. .
. , An
a set
exist
X2 A 2
of
is called
n vectors
of scalars Xl,
Xl
. , An
three
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
(i.e. when
zero
X2A 2
=
is
X2 =
said
XnAn
on the other
+
xlAl
AI,
A 2,
vectors
X2,
that)
xlAI
equal
the
with
spirit
of
mathematics
of
dependence.
notions
Ollr
to pairs
attention
our
Confining
would
hand,
the
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
. =
\302\267
to be
\037
= 0,
xnAn
Xn =
= 0
0, . then
linearly independent.
vectors,
AB,
cases
must
following
\037
set
the
For
\037
occur: (a) It
are
is
given,
possible)))
three scalars a,
to find
\037
\037
not
is
It
to
possible
The
shall
we
of
geometric
3.
any
vector
third
bination of A
are
the
they
It
dealing
segments
be
can
16).
Figure
mille
form
C;
and
and
which
are
is parallel
B, can
be
then
independent,
linearly
to (or
expressed
as
in)
the
plane
com-
a linear
B.
be
should be recalled that vectors may
they possess a commonorigin, that is,
with free vectors.
Therefore, even when
A, B, and C might be in space,
representing
to positions in the same plane (see
moved
A and B with a commonorigin deterFor
so that
arranged
we
If
by A and
Proof.
o.
may be rather
theorem.
Theorem
determined
to be linearly
dependto be linearly independent.
a = 0, b = 0, and c =
an intermediate
provide
In
scalars.
said
to n vectors
vectors
two
from
jump
steep,so
if
hold
will
that)
(*))
such
three
find
In both cases(*)
such
\037
case (a)
ent.
all zero,
not
c,
+ cEF = o.)
bC D
aAB
(b)
and
b,
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
24)
alld
pla11e;
C (being
then be displacedsothat it is
actually
the
in
plalle
A and B.)
'B)
\037)
A)
\037
))
A)
FIGURE
16)))
of
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
yBII
25)
B
xA
\037----
A)
and
oX <
> a
/x >o
is a
if C
C alld
diagonal
y>O
17)
FIGURE
Now,
and
(b))
(a))
with
A
\037
A)
'\\vith
B.
A and
along
edges
An
in
explicit constructioll of this parallelogramis given
17
and
call
be
as
described
follows:Call0 the
Figure
common
of the
vectors A, B, and C, and call A,
origin
and
C the respective
B,
endpoints of the three vectors.
Constructa line \302\243through
C parallel
to B, alld call D
theintersectionof
the
\302\243
with
line
of actiol1
of A
the
(when
\037
of A
origin
of
multiple
is 0).
A; let
\037
DC
yB.
OD =
us say
xA.
In the
trivially
\037
DC,
let
B;
us
say
Then)
C = xA
(2))
yB,)
of
C to be a linear combination
the
event that C is the zero vector,
true, for)
shows
which
some
is
l\037\"urthermore,
is some multipleof
to B,
parallel
being
B.
and
is
theorem
OA + OB,)
(3))
Toassociate
more
the
concept
Corollary.
strollgly
of lillear
Any
linearly depertdent.)))
three
the
idea
3 '\\vith
we state the
dependence,
vectors
of Theorem
in
the
same
plane. are
Proof.
Equati<?ns 2 and 3 imply
scalars Xl, X2, Xg, (not all zero), so that
For,
when
\037
zero. When C = 0,
number, say
Xg
one of
and
exist
(2) is
non-
to any
real
y in
Xg equal
X2 = o.
Xl
set
can
we
1, and
there
that
= O.
+ xgC
least
at
0,
X2B
xlA
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
26)
\037
writing
=
to
meA
be
= OP, A
+ C)
meA
Because
in
Thus m
n(A
C),)
and C-termsgives
- n)C = o.
C are linearly independent, their scalar coeffi.A and
the last equation must both be zero. Hence
+ n
(m
cients
\037
n =
+
,
\037
n =
which
l)A
(m
and
proves
that P
n =
o.
simultaneously.)
B)
o)
FIGURE
18)))
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
tant
in
vectors
the
that
theorem
with
work
with
Continuing
tionsof
problems.
geometric
Let A, Band C
4.
Theorem
a common origin O.
If
(i)
C has
80 that
located
be
its endpoint
points
and
C =
lA
mB,
where
if
C has
a representation
mB,
where
C=
lA
they have
Then:)
of
Conversely,
(ii)
27)
B,
l + m
l + m
= 1.
in the form
= 1,
pointsof
that
in
same
the
in
.
and
and
B.
the readershould
with three vectors
(often called coplanar vectors), and
plane
nonzero and nonparallel, then every vector
is a linear
of A and B (C being one
Before
observe
the
are
plane
if
such)
of
combination
and
theorem singlesout
B,
by
Theorem
linear
particular
3.
However, the
combinations
by
coefficients.
condition on the scalar
of
For
the converse
point
view, we would state (and
should
the
reader
verify) that any linear combinationof
A and B, is equal to a
two
independent
linearly
vectors,
A
B
of
in the
and
when
the two are situated
vector
plane
a common origin. Once again, the theorem
to possess
means
of a
states
that
that
and
B,
A,
C has
that
points
of
and
li\037\037ar
combinations
have
implications.
geometric
interesting
and
of these
certain
we
have
as
our
hypothesis
the fact
C all emanate
from the same point 0,
its endpoint on the line joiningthe endWe follow the convention of calling)))
B.
GEOMETRY)
'VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
28)
o)
FIGURE
B,
A,
(see Figure
Let e
endpoints of A,
e the
and
19)
and
B,
C, respectively
19).
divide
the
in
BA
segment
\037
=
Thus C =
B +
+
(1
lA
mB.
\037lgebraically
lBA
B +
leA
- B)
- l)B.
where l + m =
1.
We
jOillillg
lA
or
that
himself
\037
Be = B
lA
l:m, where
ratio
l + m = 1. (The
reader
should
convince
a given ratio can always
be
transformed
so that the two parts sum to Ullity.)
TheIl)
show
must
the
mB
that
endpoints
= lA +
C = B+
leA
C has
of A
(1 -
A,
B,
+ mB,
its end-
and B.
l)B;
B).)
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
29)
EXERCISES
1. What
happens
2.
What
are
land
3.
What
can
be
stated
4.
(a) l =
(b)
5. (a)
land
(b)
Do the
(c)
Do
the
positive?
for cases
where
j;
-i.
= l:m,
is 2:3
division
of
m so
that 1 +
1.
4: 3.
5: -3.
For,
triviality.
BC
C if
\037
;
If the ratio
EXAMPLE
with
! and m
= i and m
find
of
O?)
1 =
(c) l
zero vector?
the location
regarding
are
constructions
Give
is the
= A?
m if C
(c) 1 =
or B
if
Theorem
let
0, B,
i-B +
i-C.)
o)
c)
FIGURE
20)))
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
30)
A)
c)
21)
FIGURE
POINT TECHNIQUE
5. AUXILIARY
The introduction of
an
to play
point
auxiliary
the role
technique.
2.
of Example
problem
new approach
Let
shall
We
5.
EXAMPLE
be
may
new
to
approach
difficult
more
perhaps,
the
the
instructive.
ABC be
triangle
now provide
Although
N midpoints
and
jJ{
with
given,
of
N
and
similarly,)
Since
M =
- M.
N
which
parallel
proves
to
C;)
\037
\037A
\037B
to compare MN
we desire
vector N
\037A
with
must
we
BC,
examine
Thus
- M
both
desired
- B (=
C
\037
\037
(C
\037
results: that N
\037
BC)
\037
and
that
MN
B),)
\037
M
\037
BC.)))
\037
(=
]jfN)
IS
EXAMPLE 6.
a
of
the
31)
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
bisect
parallelogram
point
auxiliary
once
shall
We
position
we
vention,
\037
OA,
write
B =
our
Establishing
\037
OB, C =
\037
\037
OC,
in vector
hypothesis
BC or)
and P
OD,
\037
\037
AD
intersection
the
Let
of
language, we
\037
OPe)
write
- B.)
(4))
P =
then
nA
we would know,
where n +
mC,
by Theorem 4,
\037
\037
IPCI:
IAPI
in
coefficients
the
a linear combination
of
1,
that)
= n:m.
statement
P as
and
of Theorem
Consequently,
C so
c)
A)
o)
FIGURE
22)))
4 are
seek
we
of
the)
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
32)
= nA
determined,
we
where)
can
If we
8 are
and
= rB + sD,
(5))
=
=
n +
m
1 and r + s
1.)
succeed in producing theserelationssothat n, m, r,
P
our end.
achieved
have
will
(5) is to add
+ mC
+ B
D =
B +
members
C.)
(6))
Since
Both members
of
left
\037B
4.
to both
getting)
(4),
\037
with
comply
(7)
\037A
(6)
equation
is 2,
(7))
tC.)
of Theorem
the conditions
a vector
member
from
represents
emanating
whose endpoint must be on BD; and the right member
from
emanating
0, and whose endpoint
representsa vector
the
Thus
0,
and
is
on
Therefore
AC.
EXAMPLE7. Employing
to prove the familiar
result:
a point two-thirds
the way
Let
ABC
triangle
AC, respectively
medians
AM and
Applying
Theorem
the
The
BD
and
AC in
we attempt
techniques,
of a triangle meetin
medians
N midpoints
the
be
the fact
OP,
Theorem
....L\\.pplying
both
be
same
from a
M and
have
\037
of
sides
BC
and
of
intersection
general position.
of
BC,
we have)
\037
OM
Similarly,
N being
the midpoint
\037
ON
Attempting
and also
M. =
N =
tB +
of
AC
tA +
C.
\037
(8))
yields)
tC.)
(9))
M,
(9))))
eliminate C:
(8) to
from
adding
Then,
33)
OPERATIONS
ELEMENTARY
\037A
N to
of
both members by i.
multiply
l
TA
\037B
on each
coefficients
the
2\"\"
N.
side of
2M --
-g-
(10) is
,
\037
we
so
IB + \037.
2N
-g-
o and
(10))
Thus
left
The
A
2\"\".
iA +
The sum
IB -
--
(11))
vector whose
the
right
origin
member
is
of
that
is P,
vector
that
is,)
+ iM = j-B + iN.
(12)
us that P divides AM in the ratio i:j-.
in the equation allow
how
the coefficients
P = j-A
tells
12
Equation
(Noticeonce
again
us
to
Query:
in a
\037
\037
\037
intersect
point?
Remark.
of
\037
deduce
common
B)
c)
M)
FIGURE
23)))
position.
general
the
placing
Moreover,
special,judiciouslychosellposition
leads
often
siderable
to
con-
simplification.
been
have
follow,
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
34)
EXERCISES
1.
out
Carry
5 when
Example
point
is the
point
of emanation
2. Do
same
3. Do the
same for
the
for
Example
6.
Example
7.
with
(compare
5.
Given
7 on
Exercise
ABC
triangle
with
MN is parallelto BC,prove
consecutive
by
p. 20).
N on AB
that
of a quadriof Theorem
use
making
sides
AN:NB
and
to
parallelogram
diagonal
crossed
by it.
[l/(n + l)]AC.
8.
the
of Theorem 3, namely: If A, B,
analogue
three nonzero, noncoplanar (cannot be placedin one
in space
can be expressed as a
plane) vectors, any vector
linear combination
of A, B, and C.
(Hint. A parallelepiped
is the space analogue of the parallelogramin Theorem3.)
of part a, prove that any four
vectors
the result
(b)
Using
in space form a linearly dependentset.)
and
6.
(a)
Prove
C are
OF
UNIQUENESS
REPRESENTATIONS
of
two
given
that
com-
in)))
35)
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
plane.
that)
But is it
possiblethat
+ nB.)
mA
is
there
(13))
another
representation,
perhaps
of A and B?
there
Then
(m -
and)
r)A
(n
that)
sB.
= rA +
nB
mA
rA +
s so
rand
scalars
are
combination
(14))
sB
- s)B =
O.)
However,
that
C=
r =
a2 A 2
alAI
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
anAn
= blAl
+
where
{AI,
of vectors.
(al -
bl)A
2,
,An}
is
a linearly
Again, the
the
bnAn,
set
independent
(a2
2 )A 2
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
(an
Then)
Again,
roster of
+ b2 1\\2
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
brace symbolism
elements
represents
of the set.)))
a set,
bn)An
O.
\037mplies that
reader)
The
with a listing
or
36)
the
observe
of the
uniqueness
B.
A and
of
combination
linear
construction in Theorem3 to
of C as a
representation
the geometric
check
should
We now employthesefacts
geometry.
EXAMPLE8. We return
problemin orderto prove
to
Referring
once
the
some
attack
to
that
24, we
Figure
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
of
problems
to the parallelogram
bisect each other.
more
diagonals
write)
\037
PT
= meA
+ B).)
(15))
\037
one side
as
it
\037
But
since
QT
\037
nQS
another
achieve
can
We
\037
(15)
and
(16) we
\037
PT
= mA
= A
+ neB -
PT
as
PQ
QT.
QT =
\037
write
(16))
A).
conclude that)
+ mB =
(1 -
B are linearly
independent,
a linear combination of A and
Since A and
\037
Thus)
PT
From
considering
\037
\037
by
\037
- A).
nCB
of PT
representation
n)A
nB.)
the
representation
B Inust
be unique.
R)
FIGURE
24)))
of
That)
37)
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
.
IS,)
which
m = n
that
imply
m =
and)
m=1-n)
the desired
proving
,
\037
n,)
result.
representation).
We
9.
EXAMPLE
new approach.
\037
is a
AP
to
\037
\037
PN
\037
\037
= mAM.
\037
and
Simi-
n.)
\037
\037
= m( \037AB
mAM
the
that
\037
(17))
AC).)
\037
\037
we
a pair
AC constitute
and
AB
If
Figure
part of
\037
larly,
median
problem, using
23 again, we note
the
to
turn
Referring
in
succeed
of
representation
\037
linear
and AC, we
To this end we
\037
AP
\037
employ
our
NP)
\037
\037
\037
\037
- n(tBA
tAC
\037
then
may
write)
- nBN)
AC
\037
as a
---4
\037
=, AN +
=
of AP
\037
of AB
combination
new technique.
vectors.
\037
another
finding
independent
linearly
n\037
AC
\037
BA
+
-
tBC))
\037
n\037
(AC
AB).)
Finally,)
\037
AP
Comparing(17)with
m\037
\"2
which-because
AB +
of
I-n\037
\037
AC +
(18))
gives)
(18)
m\037
AC
\037
nAB
2\"
the
nAB.
uniqueness
1-n\037
AC,)
of representation-allows)))
state
us to
that)
pair
to
effort
linear
=-.1
3)
observe that
two representations
get
is)
equations
\037
\037
A usual
specific vectors AB and A C.
encountered by the beginningstudent revolves
of the two
bination
difficulty
aroundthe
of
problem
the
getting
2)
and)
3)
should
reader
of
m=The
1- n
to this
solution
m
-
and)
-=n
2)
The
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
38)
two
\"right\" relationships.
relationindependent
two
different
polygons,
,)
\037
\037
AP
\037
\037
BP)
AB +
he
If
here?
\037
\037
+ NP.)
AN
bears
the
in mind
---?
get different
to
aim
general
AP
and)
representations
as a linear combination of
instance)
linearly independent vectors, he may
employ
AP
of
same
the
the
(for
set
of
technique
coefficients.)
of equating
EXERCISES
1.
medians
the
that
Prove
the method
of
Example
\037
of NP.
sentations
2. Re-do
method of
3.
that
Show
Given
bisects
AC,
intersection
use
making
of the
Example9.
line join.ing
the
vertex of a triangle
4.
9, but
of AD
of
to a
median
the
intersection
and Be.
with
ABCD,
quadrilateral
call
the midpoints
to
BD
the
FG.)))
(This is
Let
\037
difficult
\037
DG
= xDA
\037
and DF =
call CG
\037
x in terms
of
.
in
of u.
terms
tion
of DA
u.
n)
and
you
m: (1
m to
in
the
be sure that
the
have
will
and
CB
a linear
CD
point
AC'
of
intersection
would
the
the
with
CP
(How would
bisect
a linear
desired
Let
- m). Let
ratio m: n.
as
of triangle
parallelogram
expressGF
Theorem:
following
that A'CB'P is a
divides
as
com-
\037
Finally, if you
n: (1 -
and DC,
5. Prove the
\037
=.uDA
\037
\037
\037
\037
DB
that
Note
yDC.
\037
of DA
bination
provide
\037
\037
\037
Then
so we
problem,
\037
uDC.
39)
OPERATIONS)
ELEMENTARY
angle
combina-
result.)
C?))))
choose
nand
in
vectors
coordinate
systems)
'1.
AND
SYSTEMS
RECTANGULAR
ORIENTATION
coordinate
reader
systems
customary
correspondence
is made
between
the
where
numbers,
points of each axis and the real
real numbers are on that side of the origin
positive
as the positive part of the axis (see
arbitrarily
designated
The
standard
convention (by no means
25).
Figure
is to have the horizontal axiscalledthe x-axis,
binding)
with
its positive
side to the right of the origin o. The
axis
is then
vertical
the y-axis, with its positive side
the
above
25b). Now, consider any
origin
(see Figure
P in the. plane.
From P we drop perpendiculars
point
to the axes.
Call P x a11dP y the feet of these per40)))
IN
VECTORS
COORDINATE
41)
SYSTEMS)
y)
y)
P (x, y)
Py
----1
(-3,2)
. (3,2)
t
I
I
I
x\037
(a))
P%)
(b))
26)
FIGURE
on the
associated
Rectangularcoordi11ate
systems
in
space
follow
the
in the
same general pattern as do such
systems
plane.
Three mutually perpendicular (intersecting) lines are
selected
as axes:
the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis,
with
of the three axes being
the
of intersection
point
a
called
the
Again,
positive direction is chosen)))
origin.
arbitrarily
between
made
origin
is
axis
are
has
been
the
same pattern
which
is
correspondence
as the
designated
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY'
42)
positive side
of
axis.
the
Following
plane, we consider
point
any
of
in the
as
development
in
From P we
space.
we call P x, P y and
to axes, and
drop perpendiculars
P z the feet of these perpendicularson the x-,
and
real
number
The
(see
Figure 26a).
respectively
z-axes,
associated P x on the x-axis is called the x-coordi11ate
the
y-,
with
of
of
real
the
P;
becomes
the
the
are
origin
all zero.
not on
solid, with the
an axis) at the
of
a rectangular
as
shown
origin 0 at the opposite
This may suggest to the
other
might prefer in finding the coordinates
corner
in Figure
corner,
reader
of
if
its
coordinates
are
given.
P is
(when
26b.
he
approaches
P,
or in
For example,
locating
suppose we
te
of P.
in space,
When we designate a pointby its coordinates
the order of the triple of numbersfollows
the
alphabetic
in dealing with
that is: (x, y, z). We stated
order,
that,
plane coordinates, it
is
customary
to
take
the
x-axis
as)))
COORDINATE
IN
VECTORS
43)
SYSTEMS)
z)
z)
/)
y)
y)
A)
x)
x)
(a))
(b))
FIGURE
etc.
horizontal,
z-axis
positive
26)
pointing
zontal. It isalso
pointing toward us
our
right.
to
toward us and which
our
our
influences
vector
right
seriously
development.
before
on the orientation
we
decide
Consequently,
finally
of the axes, it would
to explain
be
well
the notions of
and
right-handed
left-handed
triples of vectors.
Let {A, B, C} be an ordered set of three linearly indecan
be considered
as
pende11tvectors
(which
always
However,
axis points
which
same
Moreover, no two
the
first
a11d
are
second
0).
point
do
not
Since
vectors
one plane.
the
all lie in
on
the
Thus
a11gle
(0
<
8 <
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
44)
GEOMETRY)
c)
o)
{A, B,
C} right-handed
triple
(a))
0\\
\\
\\
\\
\\)
{A, B,
C} left-handed
triple
(b))
FIGURE
second,
tllird
il1 the
triple that
27)
an observerstatio11ed
onthe side
of
the
plane
of A
and B
45)
SYSTEMS)
COORDINATE
IN
VECTORS
A)
28)
FIGURE
A and
B as
or
ha'nded
{B,C,
the vector C, we
triple.
positive
say
{A,
It should
seats at a
and
{C,
A, B}
circulartable,all
clockwise
{A,B, C} right-handed)
{A,B,
C} left-handed)
(b)')
(a))
29
FIGURE
(a) ()rdinary
(starti11g)
readings
screw goesin.
(b)
Ordinary
screw
comes
out..)))
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
46)
and
all
letter) yield triples of the same orientation
of
the
readings yield triples
opposite
This situation
is described succinctly by
orientations.
a cyclic permutation
of the vectorsof a triple
that
stating
or rightdoes not change its orientation as a left-handed
as
the
case
be.
handed
triple,
may
mnemonic
is found
A
useful
by studying a screw.
Think of the first two vectors of the triple as being
at any
counterclockwise
on the
the
of
head
ordinary
(right-handed)
into
the second through
vector
first
than 1r. If
thishasthe
effect
the general
direction
the
of
of
the
driving
third
Turn
screw.
an
vector,
in
the
triple is right-handed.)
8.
AND APPLICATIONS
VECTORS
BASIS
Let i, j, and k
positive x-, y-,
be
to be a positivetriple,
a right-handed
triple, we call
otherwise
right-handed;
system
expressed as a
P
We
may
addition,
linear
\037
z)-coordinate
is
left-handed
(0,0,0)
space
and
can
In
them.
of
know
we
in
vector
any
combination
be
par-
(x, y, z);
zk.
P is
y,
(x,
we say it
independent,
where 0 =
= OP
then P = xi +
vector
form
z-directions
and
30.).
Figure
let
rightis,
That
system.
the
Since
ticular,
respective
{i, j, k}
the
establishes
this
and
take
We
z-directions.
(see
in the
vectors
unit
three
and
a1i +
B = b1i+
a2i + a3k
b
2j
bgk.)))
47)
SYSTEMS
COORDINATE
IN
VECTORS
z)
k)
:y)
:y)
j)
(x,y, z)-system
{i,j,k} right-handed)
:JC)
right-handed
x)
(a))
(b))
z)
y)
x)
(c))
FIGURE
Then by
A
30)
Theorem 1,
B =
(al +
and by Theorem2
mA
b1)i + (a2 +
b2)j
(a3 +
b 3)k,
(iii)
mali
+ ma.2j
ma3k,)
and)
mA
nB =
(mal + nb1)i+
(ma2
nb 2)j
+ (ma3 +
nb
3 )k.)))
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
48)
We
linear
general,
that
therefore,
see,
GEOMETRY)
com1?inations
of
i,
of
k can
j, and
vectors
i, j,
expressed a
that is our
in
(in
A =
the
manner
present
discussion),
we may conclude,as we
li11ear
existence
cli
Thus,
(VI +
if h
= vIi
v2j
C2j +
vgk +
Cg.)
V4
h .)
(19))
set {i,j, k, h}
C4 (not
cgk +
C4
the
implies
all zero)
such
o.)
that)
(20))
alld (20)yields
cl)i +
\037
0,
(V2
we
C2)j +
(V3
cg)k
for
(V4
c4)h.
the existen:ceof
combination of
are an infinite number of)))
demonstrated
have
distinct representations V
there
h.
i, j, k,
Actually
and
a3
C2,
of the
dependence
of scalars CI, C2, C3, and
Addi11g (19)
that)
earlier,
{i, j,
v
rfhe
cgk,
set
vector
any
C2j +
c1i +
other
the
on
dependellt
did
if
agk
CI, a2 =
al =
Suppose,
in the
lies
unique
a1i + a2j +
inde-
linear
of
stipulation
as
a linear
49
SYSTEMS
COORDINATE
IN
VECTORS
to (19).
has no
to
reference
reader
The
Remark.
avoided
have
any
dimensional
and
reasoningis
in
being
space
with
accordal1ce
so-called
\"vector
maticians who deal with
spaces.\"
to
assume
of
do
not
choose
the C011any
They
knowledge
related
to
cept of dimension. They see it as naturally
In fact, they
other
involving vectors.
define
concepts
do so in one of two comof a space-and
the
dimensiol1
pletely equivalent ways:)
(1) The
dimension
basis
vectors
in
is
for the
be
to
shown
space.
of the
independent
The dimension
(2)
of linearly
Consequently,
see
we
sional.
is
as the numberof
is taken
a space
of
lishesthe
the
line would
be one dimen-
its corollary
imply that
8 on p.
Exercise
Finally,
dimensional.
two
that
3 and
Theorem
of
character
three-dimensional
number
the plane
34 estab-
what
we have
dimensional.)
three
EXAMPLE
A
(1, 3,
10. Let
4), B
points be given
= (1,5, 2), C =
(1)
The
4k
and
as
6),
position
How
should
(-2,
(0, 0, 0),
5, -2),
of point A is given by A. = i
vector of point E is E = 2j
- 2k.+
vector
position
the
0 =
follows:
(-2, 1,
3j +
\037
(2)
\037
31, we see
we write
that AB =
B-
A.
we
write)))
Noting
Figure
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
50)
\037
=. (i
AB
= (1 =
(3)
How
do
+ 2k) -
+ 5j
l)i +
- 2k
2j
(5
3j +
4k)
(2 -
3)j +
4)k
= E.
a vector
\\ve write
(i
GEOMETRY)
from
emanating
0,
pointing
\037
toward
C but
half the
length
of
C ?
We seek!
OC. This
is
merely)
i( -2i
C
\037
-i
\037
(4)
How
do
segment BC?
= M
= iOB
=
(i
\037
=the
+ 3k.
0
from
midpoint
to the midpoint
of segment BC,
of
we
\037
OC
\037
+ 5j
\037i +
midpoint
(21)
+ 2k)
3j +
coordinatesof
6k)
,,,,rite)
\037
\037
OM
the
it!
employ Theorem 4 to
+ ij
a vector
we write
Calling
+ j +
(
\037
- 2i
+ j + 6k)
4k.
vector
of BC:
of M,
M =
we can
(-t,
state the
3, 4).
z)
y)
x)
FIGURE
31)))
This)
SYSTEMS)
COORDINATE
IN
VECTORS
51)
c)
D)
o)
FIGURE
ment. Call
PI =
Then,
if ill
is the midpoint
=
=
OP2
\037
[(xli
\037
Ylj +
(5) What
the
are
medians
\037
\037
f(
OB
\037
jOM
+
'
YI +
write)
\037
Y2)j
Y2
coordinates
of triangle
coordinatesof
the ratio 2: 1, and using
seek the
=
l(YI +
X2
\037
Z2).
+ OP2)
(OPI
\037
zlk) + (x2 i
x2)i +
Xl
OP
\037
OPI
\037
(Xl
\037
we can
2,
Y2,
(X2,
seg-
Y2j +
\037(Zl
z 2 k)]
+
z2)k.
midpoint is
Thus the
of the
P IP
of
of any
midpoint
P2 =
\037
\037
the
find
and
Zl)
YI,
(Xl,
\037
0111
to
be generalized
can
procedure
32)
'
Zl
Z2
.
)
of the
point
Referring
to
BCD?
of
intersection
Figure
32, we
DM in
4 once again, we write
\037
\037
+ -lODe Employing equation 21, we have OP =
\037
\037
lOC)
P.
Recalling
Theorem
that
P divides
+ iOD,
or)
\037
OP
\037
(t)OB
\037
+ (t)OC
\037
+ (i)OD.)
(22))))
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
52)
GEOMETRY)
Consequently,)
\037
OP
+ 2k) + (j.)(-2i
+ 5j
(j.)(i
+j+
Then
(-1,
these methods
of
the
points
It is hardly
11/3, 2).
are valid
are.
That is,
(22)
even if
- 2k).
to state that
the relative positions
C, and D are in one
0,
B,
true.
holds
still
+ 5j
necessary
what
matter
no
6k)
(j.)( -2i
from
the
zero
vector.
should-before reading the next paragraphto this problem when the polygon is a
attempt
He
may choose to set the
triangle, square, and pentagon.
The reader
a
polygon within
solution
a
coordinate
system
and perhaps, if
trigonometry
or elementary
some
give
specify
necessary,
geometry.
to
thought
any particular
case.
regular polygon but concernsthe general
the origin of a two-dimensional coordinatesystem
Consider
to be at the center of the regular polygon of n sides
(see Figure
33) . Let S be the sum of the radial vectors. If S is not the
the
origin.
of a
inclination
Rotate the
x-axis.
The sum vector S
radius
is now
rotated
y)
respect
about
the
21r/n radians
precisely the same)
a +
inclined
figure
with
has
y)
%)
\037x)
FIGURE
33)))
53)
SYSTEMS)
COORDINATE
IN
VECTORS
one, the
unrotated
the
as
again be inclined a
must
the x-axis.
Thus we have two
vectors
Sand
8'
in
differently while both represent the single sum
Since we know that the sum vector in unique, i.e.,
question.
solution is the vector 8 = 5' = O.)
S = S',the only compatible
to
radians
inclined
regular
proof.
on the lookout
of
student
The
such
for
to
be emphasized
that
polygon
should
It
the
the
simplify
physical
siderations
his
of
encounter-and
Scientists
problems.
make use
try,
mechanics,
and
Hermann
Weyl,
Princeton
metry,
k110W
in
symmetry
World
The
of
of
of Weyl's
A portion
Press.
University
by
science
and
art
role played
prominent
to
who wishes
reader
The
optics.
the
about
more
Mathematics
by
Newman.)
EXERCISES
1.
(a)
on a
Locate
sheet
of
(0,
10,
paper
graph
(4,
-6,
the
points
-10),
A =
and D =
4).
(b)
Write
(c)
Find
the position
Ii, j, k}-basis.
vectors A,
sum A + B + C +
the computation in the
the
this against
B,
\037
C, and
graphically,
D in terms
and
Ii, j, k}-system.
\037
of the
check
Compute
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
54)
2. Let
2i
- 4j,
D = 2i - 3j + k.
(a)
2A as
Determine
B = -i
a linear
combination of
2j,
i + j
i, j,
GEOMETRY)
+ 3k,
and
and k..
3. Do the
A
(a) Is
B,
{A,
and C
A, B,
paralielogram?)
of Exercise1 form
set?
- j,
to a
related
vectors
two
vectors
position
dependent
linearly
4. Let
of
B=i+
j,
C} a linearly
- k.
set?
dependent
and
2i +
4j
- k as a linear cOlnbina-
of the eight
vectors from the center
vertices is the zero vector. Do this by assignto the vertices, writing
the
vectors
ing coordinates
eight
explicitly, and then summing.
(b) Let \037 be a regular dodecahedron (12 faces) and sits
circumscribedspllere. Prove that the sum of the vectors from
the
How
center
of S to the vertices of \037 is the zero vector.
this
radial
such
look
vectors
are there ? (You might
many
up in a solid geometry text.))
of
a cube
to the
THE
COMPLEX
PLANE
A two-dimensio11al
space that naturally admits
il1
terms
of vectors
is the complex plal1e,which
analysis
be familiar
to the reader from his studies in algebra
may
and
111 order to see the complexplane
trigonometry.
9.
from
the
vector
coordinate
system
point
with
y-direction
consider a rectangular
basis
of two unit
consisting
il1 the positive x-directiol1arId
of view,
a
1 is taken
vectors:1
i.
i il1the positive
vector i is actually the
and
to
(see
imaginary
Figure
34).
Ul1it
The
i = VI
unit
1.)))
SYSTEMS
COORDINATE
IN
VECTORS
55)
Y)
i)
1)
%)
o)
34)
FIGURE
That
is, the
played by
J)
i)
\037
If
(x, y),
by
played
is now
8)
i.)
New
Old
i)
.
Section
(of
the vector OP
xl
yi,
more
or,
\037
simply,
vector
the
be thought
OP may
of
as
the
complex
is actually
number
iy. Thus every
complex
a vector il1 the plane. If scalarsare taken
to be real
scalars
cornumbers, the multiplication of vectors
by
numbers
responds precisely to multiplicationof complex
by real numbers
(see Exercise 2, page 57). Is it also
true
that
vector
addition
corresponds to addition of comTo answer this question we considertwo
numbers?
plex
number
complex
their
x +
numbers:
related
CI =
vectors
Xl
being
iYI
Cl
and
xII
C2 = X2
+ y1i and
iY2,
C2
=)))
GEOMETRY
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
56)
y)
(Xl + X2,Yl
Y2)
-----------1
I
I
C2
Yl + Y2
__.J
\"1------
i
I
I
Cl:)
o)
2 i.
numbers allows us
of complex
Addition
>1)
36)
FIGURE
X21 +
\037X)
X2
Xl + X2)
to
say)
CI
and addition of
Cl +
we see
Thus
Cl +
vectors
C2
permits
that
X2) +
(Xl
us to
x2)1 +
(Xl +
Cl
i(Yl + Y2);
C2
(Yl
corresponds
write
+
Y2)i.
to
the
vector
C2.
EXAMPLE
vector
this
C2 =
extremely
Let
12.
Considering
to the
approach
simple and
Example
11 in the light
complex plane, we
elegantsolution.
can
reach
of
an
with
one
be centered at the origin,
radial vectors lying on the x-axis. Figure36 illustrates
the
If the radial vectors are
for the pentagon.
approach
chosen
of unit
from
we
know
algebra that the n vectors,
length,
as complexnumbers,
are
the solutions of the equation)))
simply
of its
the
regular
polygon
x = 1.
for the
SYSTEMS)
COORDINATE
IN
VECTORS
of the roots of
the sum
But
Xn-l
the
of
coefficient
term is
the proof.)
57)
this
is zero,
equation
EXERCISES
1. Sketch
the vectors
+ 2i.
traction, and
and 3
the
with
2. Exhibit
Give
compare
- i
for their
construction
geometric
algebraic.
j(2 -
2(2 - i),
fact
What
geometric
scalar
multiples
Remark
i),
on
of a
Length
\037
(2
multiplesof
i),
- i:
-2(2 -
-(2 - i),
and
our
can
which
is
I
real
\\,
or
complex)
y)
x)
36)))
(real)
Value.
From
vectors
we
FIGURE
of
i).
as well as
number
the
or,
value is
basisfor the
The
stated,
accurately
related,
of
choice
same
(see Figure
can be determined by
lal +
are
we
if
the
of
the
V
But
complex
= al +
bi
theorem
fa +
with
dealing
in
of
length
2
+ b
n umber
2
2
V a + b .
orean
Pythag
V a2
bit
the
the
symbolism.
or modulus of a complex
absolute value
of absolute
This is
vector.
of a
length
inter-
notion
the
two
The
vector.
of
length
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
58)
bil.
real numbers, we
numbers.
complex
That is,
=
R#
Thus
the
length
In both caseswe
of
see
{a +
r
that
bit
al +
the
O}.
Oi is
absolute
=
Irl
v?
value of
iy)
a + bi)
b)
x)
FIGURE
37)))
lal.
a number)
< -2)
,
-6
-5
3)
>
1'1'1
-2 -1 0 1
-4 -3
59)
SYSTEMS)
COORDINATE
IN
VECTORS
::.-)
131=3=131
1-21=2=1-21)
38)
FIGURE
is merely
the length
with
associated
vector
the
of
that
of
properties
following
absolute
value:)
(i)
I al
la +
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
1- al >
lal
\\lal
bl
\\b(
Ibll
<
lal +
<
\\a +
<
\\a
Ibl
bl
bl.)
EXERCISE
1.
Considering
interpretations
above.)))
a and b
of the
to be complexnumbers,
give
geometric
algebraic properties (i) through
(iv)
Inner
products)
10.
DEFINITION
In
this
chapter
aspectsintoour
to introduce quantitative
we begin
vector
Of
algebra.
particular
interest
geometry.
Sincethe plane is
more
than
with
dealt
easily
three
B,
(by the Pythagorean theorem)from
between
d
or)
Note
\\vhich
2 =
(al -
d =
vi (al
w\037
l )2
denote
+
1 )2
(a2
+
can
IABI,
the
(a2
60)))
d,
be found
formula)
(23)
2 )2,
b
(23a))
2 )2.)
is considered
be
or
PRODUCTS)
INNER
61)
V (b 1 -
al)2 +
(b
a2)2.
a1
+ a2
b1
b 22
- 2(alb 1
If we introduce--for convenience
in
notation
cussion-the
(24)
*B
alb l +
as
IABI2
we have
Hence
in
completely
and
A *A
+ B*B
the
a 2b 2).
(24)
present
dis-
a2b2, we
can rewrite
*B.
2A
(25)
terms
-).
we examine
Turning to anglemeasurement,
Figure
39a,
an
for
the
seeking
expression
angle (J. By the law of
cosines we write)
- 21oAIIoBIcos(J;)
=
IOAI2 + IOBI2
IABI2
y)
x)
tal
bII
--------,F
I
lI a 2
b21
I
A)
(4))
(b))
FIGURE
39
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
62)
our * notation,)
or, using
=
IABI2
Upon
GEOMETRY)
A *A
+ B*B
- 2V
from
(26)
subtracting
v' B*B
and
(25)
cos 8. (26)
we
simplifying,
find)
A*B
8 =
cos
(27))
V A*A VB*B)
this
from
motivation
Drawing
discussion-primarily
cos
IAIIBI
of the
in terms
be expressed
also
can
(not
product
to
restricted
of A
and B
(28))
8,)
when
the angle between the two vectors
they
from
same
to
emanate
the
are arranged
point. Accordof distaIlce (length) and angle are both
the notions
ingly,
8 is
where
incorporated
in
for
cos
Because
8 =
whether
cos ( -
of the
is alsocalledthe
of
definition
our
that it is immaterial
8)
cos
notation
dot
8,
inner
product.
8, or 2r
- 8 is
another
name
Note
chosen,
- 8). (SeeFigure
40.)
employed, the inner product
product.
FIGURE
(2r
Still
40)))
is
the)
INNER
PRODUCTS)
scalar
product,
vectors
these
63)
yields
two
\"multiplying\"
popularity
enjoy
terminologies
of
shall
at
them
employ
home
All
mathematics
with
all in
anyone.
\302\267
B =
and
If
However,
is
\302\267
A
\302\267
A =
IAI2
perpendicular
\302\267
B =
if A
(1)
0, there
=
(2) B
(3)
of dot
(commutativity
0,
= 0,
to B.
is perpendicular
product)
is perpendicular
If we agree that the zero vector
to every
22
of
this
for
vector (see page
justification
convention),
in
a single
statement:
we can combine these conclusions
B = ();
5. If A is perpendicular
Theorem
to B, then A \302\267
B = 0, then A is perpendicular to B.
and conversely, if A \302\267
Word
of Caution.
Many beginning students have
in space are perpel1in
that
vectors
difficulty
believing
It must therefore be
dicular if they do 110t intersect.
emphasizedonceagain that the definition of equality of
a free
as long as it is
vector
vectors permits us to move
this
enables us to
to
its
position;
kept parallel
original
It is the sinof any
two vectors
as intersecting.
think
that the reader has long since
of the
author
cere
hope
understoodthis point
and
the word
11.
of
is thoroughly
hence
bored
with
caution.)
PROPERTIES
OF INNER
An examination
of
geometric interpretation
PRODUCT
41
Figure
of
the
leads
inner
to an
product.
interesting
From)))
64)
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
B)
o)
c)
41)
FIGURE
OCB we
triangle
A)
or)
:\037I
\037
\037
loci
\037
on
= Band
A, we
write
OC is
projection
which smacks
multiplying IAI
of
by
of
(projection
IAI
which
product
gives us
concept.
of
BOll
inner
the
product
ill the
results
IBI cos
8,1
(29)
A. B.
In fact,
right member
B on
A) =
lAllBI
cos
8 =
we must clarify
Note
that
(29)
\302\267
may
feel-and
projection
be positive,
the
contained
rather
perspecial
definition.)
vector
negative, or
inner
so-that
rightly
of one
(30)
B,
ideas
the
a
from
haps too much has been iIlferred
We
therefore
the
picture.
provide
following
1
Before proceeding,
in (30).
The reader
as a scalar, which
of
That is,
A.B.
becoming
(J.)
\037
OB
Since
cos
lOBI
zero.)))
upon another
PRODUCTS)
INNER
65)
of B on
By the projection
Definition.
we mean the
written
A,
pr AB,
of
orthogonal projection of
obtained by dropping perpendiculars
from the origin and endpoint of B to the line of act\037.on of A
the
The distance between
42).
feet
of these
(see Figure
the
the
(J
is
the
of
pr AB. If
perp\037ndiculars
magnitude
angle
B are arranged
A and B (when A and
to emanate
between
is acute,
then prAB is positive; if (J
from the same point)
is obtuse
then pr AB is negative.
on
the line
actio\"n
pr AB is
The
A.
of
upon
another
for
the reader.
Theorem 7. A.
(B
that
prove
C)
the
which
to addition,
B + A.
= A.
inner
product
we state as
C.)
I
I
I
I
\037
I
I
rv
\\
prA
<
y
B>
II
\\)
0)
-CL__
/)
y
prA
B < 0)
\037)
_ -..t:L
ri
\\
>
__
_J:J__
I)
y
prA B>
prA B>
0)
FIGURE
42)))
0)
is
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
66)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
'----v----/'--v---'
prAC)
\\.)
prA
J)
prA(B +
\\)
(B
A B)
1)
\037
<
0)
43)
43.)
C)
= prA(B +
C)IAI
= (prAB + prA
=
(prAB)IAI +
=
pr
pr A C
(See Figure
Proof.
\302\267
(B -I: C)
C))
FIGURE
A)
___-1_____
11._____b...____
\037
prA
I
I
C)
Theorem
IAI
(justify!)
6)
(prAC)IAI
D) =
\302\267
B
(by
\302\267
C
6 once
Theorem
using
(by
again).
Corollary
.)
(A
B)
Proof.
(A
and
leave
\302\267
(C
\302\267
C
(A +
\302\267
D
\302\267
C
B.D.)
By Theorem 7 we write)
B)
\302\267
(C
D) =
the remainder
(A
B)
\302\267
C
B)
\302\267
D,)
EXAMPLE
13.
pendicular
bisectors
vVe
prove
of a
PRODUC.TS
INNER
67)
We begin
\037
OM.
\037
language.)
\037
= 0
AB
vector
in
is the
that
fact
\037
(31)
..L AB).
OM
midpoint of
AB,
get.)
(}A
(B
to the
according
expanded
which,
- A)
\302\267
+ j-B)
0,)
corollary
Theorem
of
7,
becomes)
iB
Hence
A.
\302\267
B
\302\267
iA
which
B,
\302\267
A =
expresses
o.
\302\267
B =
We
the
leave
it to
\302\267
c.)
-+
\037
Now
which
what must
We
therefore
is)
vectorially
expressed
expand
hypothesis in the
AC,
\302\267
(C
p. (C
hopes of
- A)
A),
o.)
using
this
showing
relations
dot
our
from
product
to
be)
c)
A)
M)
B)
B)
(a))
(b))
FIGURE
44)))
zero.
Thus
which
from
This
GEOMETRY
Thus)
\302\267
(C
\302\267
(C
- A)
we conclude
example
= (\037A +
!C)
:c: \037C
- A) :c: 0
of
\302\267
C
(for
- A)
\302\267
(C
tA
\302\267
A.
A \302\267
A =
\302\267
C),
the desiredresult.)
illustrates
judiciousselection
the
once
point
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
68
again
from
often
which
leads
to a
simple
problem.)
COMPONENTS
Fh)
(b))
(a))
FIGURE
45)))
PRODUCTS)
INNER
force
motion
horizontal
the
to
69)
\"wasted\"
is
Fv
the
of
being
by
ward? Thesequestions
mower?
answered
are
what
And,
by
considering
is called the
the vertical
component
of
of
F.
1'he
the
component
problem
determining
in
as is easily
dot
components is a problem
products
of a component is
seen by noting
that
the magnitude
the magnitude
of
the
of F.
For example,
projection
=
81, and this relation can easily be transIFllcos
IFhl
into
a dot product
formed
by making use of a un\037t vector
U along
the horizontal.
and
Then IFni = IF \302\267
we
ul,
sum
as the
of
Fv (Figure
45b). Fh
and
is called
Fv
F,
and
Fn
horizontal
may further
of
write)
Fn
The unit vector U serves
(F.
as
U) U)
In plotting
14.
F = 3i +
that
\\tvind
the
in two
a \"gimmick\"
(32))
capaci-
of a
magnitude
and second,
product;
as a vector
because
forces
the
to the
right member
on
,vind force,
shall
(1)
IFI
than as
j are
in terms
yF.
(2) Fx =
2 Some
and
(i
4j
express,
F =- Y
\302\267
i]i)
authors
prefer to define components
a matter
vectors. This is purely
as
of taste,.
scalars
rather
which is
ofteI;l
considerations.
Readers of mathematicai
do well to heed the advice
to Alice by
literature
would
given
I use a word, it means just what
I
Humpty Dumpty: \"When
choose
it to mean-neither
more nor less.\)
colored
by
pragmatic
ELEMENTARY
70
(3)
Fy
= (F.
(4)
The
unit
j)j =
[(3i +
GEOMETRY
\302\267
jJj
4j)
vector along
VECTOR
is
11
the
Thus
component
13.
+
\302\2533i
and
= (F\" A)
IAI
4j)
\"
of
of
the
such
A
(F\" A)
IAI2
+ 5j))
(-i
PRODUCT
INNER
The form
some
'AI
\"
A\" A
\
(-i +
:(
\037\037
\037i
5j)
FORMULAS
in Example
answers
that it
a nature
14 is qllite cumber-
is difficult
We
for
anyone
y)
x)
-3)
-4)
-5)
FIGURE
46)))
to
turn)
therefore
PRODUCTS)
INNER
expressiollS that
to simplifying
those
ill
of
vectors
product
attention
inner
the
71)
directions
(in the
components
take advantage
We shall
terms
our
Thus
pla\037e.
First,
directly with
of
the basis
k = 1.
Vk.
the length of
that
fact
the
note
we
in space
vectors in
the possibility
admitting
in
axes).
than
will deal
computations
rectangular
vectors
handle
to
involve
rectangular
that
fact
the
of
the
of
their
of
\302\267
=
Hence)
i
i
from the
Now, let)
k.
=
+ a2j
ali
Then,
(33)
\302\267
=
follows
which
and
A
\302\267
=
\302\267
k =
1.
(33))
\302\267
i =
0,)
(34))
that
we observe
Secondly,
and
\302\267
i =
+ a3k)
\302\267
k =
mutual perpendicularityof
=
and)
b1i +
b.Gj
its
i,
j,
b 3k.)
corollary),
+ b 2j + b3 k)
a1i \302\267
b3 k
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
b
+ a2j
2j + a2j
b3 k
b1i +
a2j
\302\267
\302\267
b 3k
+ a3 k b1i + a3 k b 2j + a3 k \302\267
\302\267
= a1i \302\267
b 2j + a3 k \302\267
b 3k.
b1i + azj
\302\267
B =
+ a2j
(ali
a1i
\302\267
b1i
we have
Finally,
a1i
a -Simple
\302\267
(b1i
\302\267
b
2j +
for
formula
the
inner
product
of two vectors:)
A
The length
IAI
\302\267
B =
of
V A
a1b 1 +
ca n
\302\267
A =
a 2b 2
ll0 \\V
Va12
be
(35))
a3b3-)
found
+ a2
the
by
2
+ a3
formula
(36))))
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
72)
of A
definition
the
From
\302\267
B,
2
Y a1 +
a2
a3
and
solve for
(36), we
B, getting
and
(35)
a2 b 2
a1b 1 +
GEOMETRY)
a 3b 3
\302\267
Y b 12 + b2 2
2
+ b3
(37)
are
the formulas
(Note that (35) and (36)
precisely
used in our heuristic reasoningon pages60-62,
where
we
were
a
method
for
informally
exploring
introducing quan-
titative aspectsinto
vector
our
15.
EXAMPLE
(2) Fz
[(3
(3) F y
[(3
(3(-1)
IF\\
Fa
(4)
explicit
of the
computations
(1)
algebra.)
.
#
4 .4
1) +
(4
(4
= 5
\302\267
3\"+
0)
\302\267
O)]i
. 1)]j =
+ 4,
form.)
3i.
4j.
-i + 5j
(-1)(-1) + 5.5
5)
-i
\037\037
and A
of
cos
ex
is
the
angle
a between
14?
Example
Using (37),
question: What
+ 5j).)
we V\\Trite
F.A
\037
yF
Y A
\302\267
F
\302\267
A)
+ 4j)
(3i
.3 +
y3
-3
5y
+ 20
26)
.4
\302\267
(-i
+ 5j)
5
(-1)( -1) + 5 \302\267
17
y 26
')
or)
cos
ex
17 V26
130
INNER PRODUCTS)
\\)
73)
J)
Q)
s)
prSF)
47)
FIGURE
14. WORK
applying a
is defined
fs. Thus work is done
pute
to
work
the
an
object
compute
If we
done.
(see
object
Figure
be
the
if motion
to
only
be
that
emphasized
motion
have a
47) with
and
if
magnitude
physicists
by
Furthermore, it s\037ould
force which produces the
of
force
used
is
to com-
the effect
of
the
moving
used
to
of F
\037
That
PQ).
(along
is, calling
=
S = PQ,)
(prsF)ISI.)
(38))
of F to allow
(We write (38) in terms of the projection
the possibility of work
being
negative.
Although
negative work may sound strange to the uninitiated,
the
is one of great practical vallIeto the physicist
concept
and
who need it for an adequate mathematical
engineer,
laws of mechanics and
formulation
of
the
fundamental
electricity.
)
But
formula
(38) can
W
or,
be rewritten
IFI cos
8\\sl;)
finally,)
W=F.S
,)))
that
reader
or perhaps the
in
product
the
direction
dot
the
be viewed
the
of
other;
view
work as a
can
dot
to
prefer
might
physical interpretation of
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
74)
product.)
EXERCISES
1. Using the
of
approachof
meet
triangle
two medians
section; then
sideAB.
2. Let
one
a right
be the
of
force
that
show
of
foot
triangle
the
magnitude
with
inter-
and
BC,
from A.
acting in the
-.:
point of
hypotenuse
perpendicular
be
BN
and
actually bisects
of CP
extension
the
their
call
medians
that the
13, prove
Example
be
ABC
on BC
in a
Consider
direction of
.iE,
IABI
of magnitude
and another
in
acting
\037
the
direction
AG.
IAcl
Prove that the resultant is a force of
magnitude
the
3.
Find
of AD.
direction
a
acting
IADI
\037
in
\037
vector
the
of the
cosine
originto thesepoints.
5.
Prove
that
the
sum
squares
parallelogram is
the
of
the
squares
diagonals
of the
of a
sides.
means of
semicircle
is a
dot
right
of
products
angle.
the
diagonals.
prove
(If AB
PRODUCTS)
INNER
75)
--+
--+
on the circle,then
point--+
--+
the dot product AP \302\267
BP.)
and P any
8.
the altitudes
that
Prove
9.
if
that
Prove
of
meet
triangle
13, and
Example
in a
point.
on
rely heavily
circles intersect,
two
- OA. Evaluate
OB
of
points
in tersection.)
10. Let)
Find
(a)
- 3j
2i
- 2i
+ j -
4k
k.)
A-B.
of n
sum
point O. Then
W=F-S=F l .S+F
In addition, if
sented by
F
8 1, 8 2 ,
\302\267
8 =
\302\267
8
a par-
moving
x-axis.
a particle from
F2 ,
+Fn-S.
, Fn,
(Why?))
consecutive displacements
\302\267
8
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
8n.
the
all acting
then)
, Sn,
+ F
along
.S+...
the
in moving
forces F 1,
in n
results
(2, 0, 0)
A
in
(Why?))))
repre-
analytic
geometry)
15.
POINT
OUR
VIEW
OF
subtraction,
and inner
concepts
are
of
\"independent
system.\")
ticularly to geometry-were
possible. we proceeded
in our development,
it is
new techniques were employed;
this
that
one should view coordinate systems.
light
As
in
be
should
systems
looked
UpOll as
The
deals
the
takes
form.
following
planes,circles,
and
The
spheres.
reached
76)))
by
we
call
geometry
propertiesof lines,
solutions
various
to problems
approaches,
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
some
the
on
depending
learned is
natural
more
being
77)
at hand.
problem
the
usually
which
method,
synthetic
has
In
coordinate
summary,
not be
should
systems
of the
combination
Of
viewed as
tool
scalar
the
of
product-with
tems,
geometry.)
shall
we
16.
some
develop
sys-
elements of analytic
LINE
STRAIGHT
THE
We begin
of coordinate
those
of the
with the
problem of
the
finding
equatioll
of a
if P = (x, y)
straight line in the plane. More
precisely,
is an arbitrary point ona givel1
line
seek
a mathewe
\302\243,
=
matical relation that distinguishesP
those
y) from
(x,
\302\243.
points in the plane that are not 011
of course,
There
are,
many ways to specify a unique
line.
We begin
by specifying two points P1(XI,Yl) and
P 2 (X2, Y2),1 and seek the equation of the
line
determined
these
The
aim
is
to
in
arrive
at
an
by
points.
equation
terms of the coordinatesof the specified
points.
Since P, PI, and P 2 are all one line (see Figure 48),
we may employ
4 to write)
Theorem
--+--+
\037
OP =
1
This
freely
joining
to be
appears
line. It was,
in
translated,
two
points.)))
fact,
(1 - t)OPl + tOP
2 -)
way
as Euclid's
only
one
to specify
first
line
a unique
axiom,
can be
which,
drawn
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
78)
GEOMETRY)
y)
y)
x)
%)
(a))
(b))
48)
FIGURE
in accordance
with
a common
with
vectors
Or,
this
rewrite
we
the
of
equation
points)
Equation
line
PIP 2.
= (1
- t)P1 +
39 is
often referred
As
takes
on
is
the
(1
of the
is also referredto as a
of line
is
(39))
For
=
midpoint
called
parametric
of
j-P
values,
if t =
example,
\037P
of
equation
number
real
j-,)
2)
Pt P
2.
and (39)
segment
a parameter
representation
(vector)
\302\243.
Rewriting
xi
P.
- j-)P1 + j-P2
vector
position
2 .)
to as a vector
different
tP
(39)
yj =
=
in terms
of the
basis vectors, we
- t)x1i+ (1 - t)Ylj
- xI)]i + [YI
[Xl + t(X2
(1
tX2 i +
+
+
in
t(Y2
terms
have)
tY2j
- YI)]j.)
of basis)))
79)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
Therefore
is unique.
vectors
{Y
are the
coordinate
Xl +
t(X2
YI +
t(Y2
is
case by using
0 +
t(1
0 +
t(O
X =
matter
what
=
Calling
the value of t,
a sufficient
the
(40), yields)
simplified
X =
3 +
1 +
If, instead,we
would
had
different
see
that
(-2,
line.
3),
and applying
2 - 3)
t(3 - 1).)
t( -
1 +
with PI
begun
we
zero.
the
5t
2t.
= (-2,3)andP2
= (3,1),
yield:)
X
is always
y-coordinate
form:)
x =
(40)
O.)
(3, 1) and P 2
{ y
x-axis are)
description of
0 is
PI =
and
{ Y
Therefore y
(0, 0)
- 0)
- 0).)
of the
equations
parametric
say
points,
write)
X
In
or
analytic
3).
x-axis
(b)
Yl)
of (a) the
parametric
representations
line joining (3, 1) and (-2,
reader
of course, that the equation of the
knows,
=
this
that
0, but we shall now attempt to verify
is the
No
(40))
the
(b)
The
the
Xl)
Find
16.
x-axisand
Thus
EXAMPLE
(a)
- 2
5t
2t,)
of the
representation
the parametric repre8entationof a
parametric
same line.
line
i8 not
Thus
unique.)))
choiceof
It depends on the
to derive
used
points
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
80)
the parametric
equations.
it
is desirable
In
instances
a
in some
and
to
line
parameter
auxiliaryvariable. In orderto
write
xY
YI
is the
the
form
two-point
for
of
order) of any
two
Y2
X2
YI
the
points
the equation
the
difference
of a
(taken
(41) is called
in the
line is
coordi-
of the
terms
reason
x-coordinates
on the
(41))
Xl)
this
For
2 alone.
statesthattheratio
to the differenceof
YI).)
of the line,2in
equation
PI and P
= t(Y2
YI Xl
which
- Xl)
t(X2
equation
nates of
Xl
second
the
divide
and
elimina-
such
accomplish
(40) as
we rewrite
tion
y-coordinates
in the same
the same,namely
.
YI
- Xl (see Fl gure 49). Not e th at th is isequiva
Y2
X2
in
triangles
Ien t t 0
Figure
Y2
49
-
X2
is precisely
metric form
parametric
the
an
to eliminate
form without
many
of
the
form
line.
coefficients
Thus
is independent
of
at least
t in
the
one feature
of the points
are
YI
Xl
paraof
the
used
to)
Strictly
speaking,
not satisfied by
(Xl,
Yl).
(41),
symmetric
form.)))
81)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
y)
Y2
X2
X-Xl
Xl)
Yl)
:>1)
\037)
X)
o)
49)
FIGURE
the equations.
(See Example
ratio
of the coefficients of t.)
\302\267
\302\267 ..
.
\302\267
derive
the
SIncet e ratIo Y2
h
X2
representation
of it
light
Figure 49.
the
angle
of a
Yl
of the
first
by
proceed
of line
of inclination
the
\302\243. The
formed
positivex-axis. Thatis,a is
the
by
\302\243
that
the
a name,
of inclination
angle
line and
given
slope
of
=
\302\243
portion
of
of
tan
of
inclination
is
inclination
a =
the
counterclockwise
measured
from
a in
labeled
angle a
giving
the
in
further
angle
is
Xl
of
Igeb ralC
h
tea
to
line, we discuss it
IntrInSIC
SO
IS
16b where
Y2
X2
YI
of
to
\302\243
is
termed
line
the
zero.
the
\302\267
(42)
Xl)))
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
82)
Consequently,
a line in
effect,that
terms
A difficulty
any
GEOMETRY)
slope.
occurs when
that produced(41)is
X2
not
Xl =
0; then
for
legitimate,
the division
dividing
by
tan a is
have
no
defined,
hence
vertical
lines
slope.)
Y)
(Xl, Y2))
(Xl, Y1))
x)
X=X1)
FIGURE
60)))
ones
that
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
The
x =
equation
Xl
83)
which,
as
thought
of
equal to
Xl.
the reader
and
have the
constal1t;
horizontal
that
lines
all
form)
our analysis
Continuing
constant.
the
of
41for
line, we solveequatio11
Y =
this
Simplifying
Y2
m=
X2
we
the form)
have
all
erticallines
Y2
X2
Y2
+
Yl
Xl
X2
Yl
and)
Y2
X2
Xl)
YI.
Xl)
the replacements)
by making
expression
straight
y:)
Yl
- Xl X
of the
equation
Yl
Xl +
YI,
Xl)
get)
(43))
y=mx+b)
the
line.
Note
that m, the coefficient
of
Is
the
line.
therea
interx,
slope
geometric
of the constant
b? The answer is easily
deterpretation
mined
the Y = b when x = o. Thus the
by observing
point (0,b) is on the line. This is the point at which the
line
(43) crosses or intercepts the y-axis, and it 'istherefore
called
43 is termed the
the
y-intercept.
Equation
of
a line, for, from
for
the
slope-intercept
equation
form
this equationwe can immediately
off the slope m
read
as the
equation
of
is the
of
(1)
What
of
the
line.
it.
regarding
in
equation
two-point
form?)))
84
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
By
(41) we
GEOMETRY)
have)
- 1
x-3)
3-
-2 -
1
3)
or)
- 1
x-3)
(2)
Solving
b =
What
for
11 \302\267
5
- ---2
5)
Observe
that its
slope is 5
.))
is the equation
y, we get y =
We
graph
applies the
We
therefore
to see
check
\\vhether
given
point,
y)
x)
FIGURE
61)))
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
85)
the
the line by substituting
coordinates
in the sentence
and determining whether the sentenceis renderedtrue. Here
1 = - \037(3) + 15\037' which
we
have
is true.
Hence (3, 1) is
is on
on
actually
a set of
pairs.
is (0,b),
the
line.
In the
language of
set
=
\302\243
the
{(x, y)ly =
the
+ b}.)
set:
following
\037x
line of reasoning,
point of intersection
the
Continuing
finding
= mx
y)ly
{(x,
of
it would
theory
151_
}.
we considerthe
of
two
lines,
problem
and
\302\2431
\302\2432,
where)
\302\2431:
y
\302\2432:
y
+ b1
m1 x
m2x + b 2 .)
(44))
=
intersection (there is, at most,oneunless\302\2431
\302\2432)
statements
both
and
\302\2431
\302\2432
pair rendering
true,
That is, we seek the ordered pair that satsimultaneously.3
both
isfies
equations
simultaneously.
Finding the pair, if it
is then a matter of elementary
for the
exists,
algebra-solving
solution to a set of two simultaneous
linear equations.
Thus finding
the
of our line is the problem of
x-intercept
for the solution of the pair of equations:)
solving
The
is
the
point of
ordered
y
y
\037x
J5\037
(x axis).
slope defined.)))
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
8'6.)
EXAMPLE18. To find
=
Since
discussion,
it
render
\037x
the
;x +
equation
(For another
2.
Exercise8
m =
slope
,
\037
we
may
(45))
b,)
In accordancewith
of (10, -2) in
Thus -2 =
true.
quently, b = 2, and
line parallel to
-2).
(10,
to be determined.
the substitution
b remaining
foregoing
should
,vith
of the
equation
form)
in the
it
\\vrite
the
x
\037
(10)
\037
the
(45)
Consedetermined:
+ b.
is completely
below.))
EXERCISES
1.
(3, 1)
the equation
Derive
(5,
4)
and
in:
2. (a)
(b)
as
the
What
is
What
are
through
whose
(c)
parallel
4. What
is 2x -
is
3y
-5).
slope is
to 2x
the
=
point
12 and
2 and
ExerciseI?
line:
the
4) and
(-5,
through (0,
(b)
in (39);
form.
two-point
3. Derivethe equation of
(a)
expressed
form;
having
-5;
y-intercept
that
is,
through
(1, 1).
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
(a) 2x
5. Sketch
12.
o.
2x =
1.
4.
(e)
(f)
x =
(g)
12.
5y
+ 7 =
(c) 3y
(d)
3y
2x
(b)
87)
{Y
?r.
=
-1
(h)
\037
{:
- 2t
+
_
t.
Find the
point of
A
determined
by
triangle
the
use
(3,
2). (Don't
6. (a)
of
intersection
medians
the
(-2,
of the
equations
of the
C
and
medians!)
is
What
the
\037
is V
of the
equation
\037
AB
\037
AC .
\037
IACI
IABI
line
line
an inclination
with
through
slopeis undefined?
(c)
is the
What
(1, -2)
(1,
of
whose
-2)
whose
with
slope
slope is zero?
given
x
Justify
(b)
y-intercept
Yl -
m.
(Xl, Yl),
(point-slope form)
equation
of
(0,
b) is
a
(47).)))
through
(46))
Xl)
Justify
line
(46).
The
the
by)
given
Y
b)
1.
of
(0, a)
and
by)
(intercept-form)
(47))
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
88)
9. Booby traps:
(a)
Sketch
(b) Sketch
. whose
17.
x +
{ y = t.
(c) Find an equation
is
x-intercept
y.
a line
for
OF THE
GEOMETRY
ANALYTIC
LINE CONTINUED
we
What
Po = (xo, Yo)
=
N
ai + bj?
and
point
If P
y)
(x,
\"is
the
the
pose
to
perpendicular
general
52),
we know
question:
fixed
the
\302\243
through
point
of the
the
vector
line
\302\243
(see
---?
\037
Figure
is 1r/2and
whose inclination
o.)
or
pop.
= o.
Therefore)
[(x
or)
which is
xo)i + (y
a(x -
xo)
\302\267
(ai
yo)j]
bey
Yo)
by
(axo + byo)
bj) =
+
=
can
0
(48)
0,
(48) as)
rewrite
0)
y)
%)
FIGURE
52)))
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
simply, as)
more
or,
ax +
which is
c = 0,)
by
the
where c
(axo
(49))
byo),
straight line in
be solved for y
can
49
= -
for a
equation
general
Equation
plane.
89)
\037
which
in
0),
-cia
all possible
- cia, is
y = -(alb)x
nonvertical.
and
vertical
lines,
straight
If the
find that
-alb.
\037
its
we
vectors,
the slope of
to
over
and
0)
form
slope-intercept
conclude
therefore
We
that:
are
if
perpendicular
of one
reciprocals
another.
That is,
line
if
is the
m1
of line
slope
and
\302\2431,
slope of
the
m2
\302\2432,)
.1
\302\2431
and
if
\302\2432)
only
if)
ml=)
1)
--.)
mt) 4J)
(It
result
EXAMPLE19.
and
Following
the
of the
equation
the vector 3i scheme
of reasoning that
Find
4j.
to
perpendicular
the
climaxed with
\\ve write)
[(x
- 2)i +
or)
3(x
(y
(3i -
(-l))j].
- 2) -
4(11
1) =
4j)
0,)))
0;
-1)
(48),
which, simplified
3x
EXAMPLE20.
and
Find
to
perpendicular
the
Writing
given
the
equation
3x line in
Y
4y
of
10 =
4y
O.
of the
10 =
43,..N
reads:
(49),
o.
slope-intercept
_-
(-1). =
x-2
--,4
_ 5
2')
of the desired
N in Example
the line
(46),
- 5=
- 3y
4x
or)
-1)
form)
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
90)
O.)
EXERCISES
1.
line \302\243
is given
by ax + by + c = 0,
vector N perpendicular to \302\243,
in terms
If a
for a
in the
2.
equation of
the
through
3. Find
an
of the
expression
coefficients
\302\243.
the equation
Find
o and
find
origin.
the equation
of
the
bisector
perpendicular
of the
1 =
seg-
O.)
DISTANCE
18.
The
problem
A POINT
of determining
FROM
betweena pointPo
Yo)
(xo,
\302\243:ax
TO A LINE
the (minimum) distance
and
by +
a line)
c =
is easily
vectors.
We shall actually derive
by
a formula for this distance,but it is
author's
sugthat the reader not memorizethis formula.
gestion
handled
the
One
of
the
as
need
stro'ng advantages
to pure
opposed
to be remembered.
of thinking in
analytics-is
A
thorough
terms of
that
fewer
familiarity
vectorsformulas
with
the)))
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
91)
Po)
\302\243)
53)
FIGURE
vector tools
a basic
basic
following
as easily
ciples-just
The present problem
Let P
applying
first
prin-
formula.
complicated
is a caseill point.
a general point on
d from Po to \302\243
could
be
y)
(x,
distance
minimum
as
by
problems
\302\243.
be
Then
thought
the
of
\037
as
the
of the
magnitude
\037
uct
will
the
last
to
PF
pendicular
serve
as
section,
ai + bj.
\302\243
(see
to finding
an aid
we write
Thlls
53).
Figure
the dot
Applying Theorem 6, we
have)
\037
IprNPPol =
NI
t.PPo.
INI
[(
x-
Xo
)1 +
(y -
Yo
)J J
a.i +
e
_
-_
taxo
- ax
byo
vi a
of
a vector perpendicular
to \302\243ag
\037
d =
prod-
2)))
byl
2
a
bj
2
+ b
But,
- ax
by
+
d = laxo 2byo
formula
coordinatesof the
Po
point
given
c\\
(50))
terms of
the constants
d in
distance
the
for
2
+ b
Va
which is a
have
we finally
c, so
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
92)
and
the
in
EXAMPLE
line
\302\243:
y
jx
formula
Although
Find
- 1.
(50)
for the
Po = (1, 3)
distance has
this
section, we
very
We
writing
by
begin
- 2j. In
the
reader doubtlessly
INI,
which
jection
by
to
in
we were
we were
that
on
projecting
the unit
if we
2y
immediately
used
that
observed
meant
\302\243
can
computation
the
2 = 0, so
be written
arriving at d, the
forced to divide by
convert
\"
I:'
It
might,
the perpendicular
y)
J\\(l,3))
\302\243)
1)
%)
-2
-1
in
suggestion
of working
in favor
the
been derived
of
form
the
\302\243
in
to
0)
FIGURE
64)))
there-
vector)
to a
93)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
-+
PoP I on U,
choice for PI
where
is the y-intercept
-+
IP\037I. UI
(-i _
V5
o
of
projection
\302\243. A
(0,
\302\243,
namely
(pru
rather
.i -
- 2j
of
simple
Hence,)
-1).
\037
PoPI)IUII
+ (-1 _ 3)j]
4j)
the
of
\037
- l)i
[(0
is
PI
- 2j
.
the magnitude
any point on
is then
distance
present computation.
is)
vector
The
of our
outset
the
at
vector
unit
Sucha unit
Ipru PoP
II
2j
_ 1-1 +
81
5)
Any
other
of PI,
choice
result:)
[(2 -
d=)
same
2j
70
1+6
5)
o)
Even a generalpoint
i-
the
give
PI
= (Xl,
YI)
l)i +
(Yl
of \302\243
would
the explicit
yield
computation:)
d=
[(Xl
3)j]
.i
\037\037j
IXI
V
But,
since
(Xl, YI) is
2YI
51
5)
on \302\243,
we
know
that
Xl
fore)
d =
!2 +
51
\037
0
5)))
2YI\"
2.
There-
vector
had
we
Suppose
to
perpendicular
jection
be
would
the
of
value
our
same
method
to a formula.
of. vector
standing
of
such
exercises
taking the
the value
is grasped,
the
without
directly,
projection
and
However,a
from (1, 2) to x
the distance
2. Find
the distance
from
(1,
-2)
to x
3. Find
the distance
from
(1,
-2)
to
the
of
=
5, where
of
the
A and
METHOD
ANALYTIC
pro-
computations.
previous
EXERCISES
19.
under-
thorough
And
thinking.
Find
umt
thinking
practicethat
good shareof them!
1.
of the
sign
projection,
simply
any reference
2j as the
we are
since
but
changed;
the
Then
\302\243.
magnitude,or absolute
for d would bethe
as in
As soon as the
of
can
be
made
computations
- i+
V5
With U
begun
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
94)
5.
=
2y
2y
5.
+
and
5 =
O.
segment AB
of the
(1, 1)
projection
B are
-x +
projection
A =
2y
(2,
of segment AB
-1).
on the
OF PROOF
ideas
of
in favor
of
with
working
sides
of a
in
in
tion 15, we
character.
22.
EXAMPLE
similarity)
congruence,
coordinates,
slope, and other
(e.g.,
geometry
synthetic
accordance
view
this
with
as a
midpointsof
and
equal
to
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
95)
y)
B(b,
C))
%)
A (a, 0))
0(0,0))
66)
FIGURE
coordinate
upon it.
system
nate system in
such a
therefore
vVe
to
as
manner
impose
facilitate
example,we
angle
may
and the
= (0,
Next, we
and
in Example
M
midpoint of
M N
slope
(a,
0),
OB, by
B = (b,
of M,
means
c).)
the midpoint
of the
formula
N =
\037
of
AB,
derived
lOde)
(
The
coordinates
the
compute
N, the
0),
of MN
is parallel
and)
\037
,\037))
c/2
- c/2
bj2 _ (a +
to 0 A.)))
b)/2
( 2'
0, whIch
2))
proves
that)
secondpart of
As for the
of
\037
(;
(\037
\037r
each other.
we
Again
elect
the
Let
(a, 0),
coordinates,
and C
say
=
\037 \0372
,
1;1
\037IAOI.
that
Prove
23.
EXAMPLE
position.
=
A
IMNI
bisect
the length
we compute
result,
MN.)
segment
which
the
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
96)
the diagonals
of
parallelogram
to place
If
we
ascribe
d and
three
other
(d, e),
e are
parallel,forcescertain
coordinates
B.
upon
CB is
y)
B(d,e)
C(b,c)
= (a+b,c))
x)
A (a,
0(0,0))
FIGURE
66)))
0))
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
97)
y)
B(b,
C))
%)
A (a, 0))
0(0,0))
M(\037,O))
67)
FIGURE
angle
point.
o =
(0,
of OA,
0),
N the
a
M =
Then
= (a,
ON: y
For
t\\VO
the
in
sho,vn
B=
(b,
AB,
and
Q the
a+ b C
'
N=
( 2 2)
0,
lines
median
the
and
57, where
Figure
the
CaHill
c).
midpoint
midpoint
b
tri-
of
OB.
( 2' 2 )
are found to
be:)
a+b
BM: y =
AQ
of
midpoint
The equationsof
c
=
as
OAB,
0) and
2' )
mediansof
24.
meet in a
EXAMPLE
\037a/2)
c/2
y =
or)
;))
(x
(x
b/2 _ a
point
equations
b_
a))
or)
11
2cx
2b-a
c
b _
of ON and B]1,l,,ve
simultaneous
pair, getting)
of intersection
as a
x=
a+b
3)
and)
-.
3)))
2a
(x
solve
ac
2b-a)
- a).)
the
first
For the
point of
+
\302\253a
point
ON and
of
intersection
third
and
first
at
all meet
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
98)
equations
simultaneously,
Thus, the medians of
b)/3, c/3).
+ b)/3, cj3).
\302\253a
OAB
triangle
P=
}-A +
}-O
= }(Oi +
lB
OJ)
= j(a + b)i+
=
Thus
-i(ai)
+ cj)
+ }(bi
above
the
with
checks
com pu ta tion.
It
handled
of vectors
use
by
the
that
clear
seems
easily
EXERCISES
1. Prove:In
the
triangle
any
sum of
is equal
of
the squares of
the
medians
the
of the
squares
three
sides.
2. Prove:The sum
equal to one-half
twice
the
median on that
of the
sum
The
lelogram is
the
of the
square
3. Prove:
the
of
(Comparewith
vector
of the
squares
of
the
of
5. Prove
the
four
of a
sides
four
of the
squares
paral-
diagonals.
proof.)
4. Prove:
increasedby
side.
times
the
four
the
sides
of any
of the
diagonals
square of the line joining the midsquares
diagonals.
analytically:
form
a parallelogram;)))
parallel
of
to the
the
sides
bases;
of a quad-
99)
GEO.METRY)
ANALYTIC
(c) in any
is
the'
from
\302\2432).
the
7. Discuss
the
lines
of
are
\302\2432
(a)
(b)
(2,
of
slopesof
the
10.If 0
equation
of
lines
(0,
the
counterclockwise
\302\2432
(measuring
using
the result
of Exercise 6 when
perpendicular.
the
triangles
(-4, 13).
(-3;
(6, 0),
6),
9. The slopes
in a
58.
Figure
difficulty
and
\302\2431
the angles of
(5, 0), (8, 4),
8. Find
and
\302\2431
See
segments
intersect
sides
between
angle
to
\302\2431
the
quadrilateral,
opposite
8).
lines
two
that
are given
(V3,
0), A
line bisecting
1), and B =
(2
V3,
1), find
angle AOB.)
y)
\302\2432)
\302\2431)
%)
FIGURE
68)))
the
11. If
is given
by a1X + b 1 y + C1 = 0 and \302\2432
by
=
a linear
of \302\2431
combination
and
+ Cl
0, we define
of the form
equation
is
\302\2431
alX +
b1y
an
as
\302\2432
given
m(alx +
(b)
is the point
If P
P; and
conversely, every
and
\302\2431
\302\2432.
The
over all
range
(c) If
the
\037y
zero?
and
\302\2431
also
\302\2432
\302\2432,
prove
single
is
\302\2431
to
parallel
them
is also parallel to each of \302\2431
and
(51) represents the set of all lines parallel to
a pencil of parallel lines.
called
\302\2431
(or
12.
line
the
of Exercise
results
11,
the
find
\302\2432.
n =
any linear
that
\302\2432,
prove
tion of
Using
through
passes
a linear combination
the
set
of this result is that
vertex
the pencil of lines with
51, where m and n
equation
called
often
(51)
P is
through
consequence
P,
of
combination
a linear
of \302\2431and
line
C2)
intersection
of
b2Y
by
m and n
that
of
described
l\037cus
a line, if
also
lines
n(a2x +
C1) +
b1Y
is the
(a) Why
of two
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
100)
0).
combinacase
this
In
\302\2432),often
the
through
through
inclination
\\vith
7r
14.
lineswhose
0, and
(b)
through
Find
lines whose
triangle
the
through
are
(0,
point
the
meet
(;
point
4 =
the point
2y
8 =
3y
3 =
of
of the
intersection
0 and x
8y
7 =
, 0).
of Exercise
results
0 and 2x +
\037
).
of the
of intersection
point
+
2y
equations are 3x +
0, and through
15. By using
lines
/6.
line
equations
the
representsthe pencil of
n1ediansof
in a point.)
20. CIRCLES
Let Po =
and
P =
(xo,
Yo)
be
the
center
of a
the
circle of
circle
(see
radius
Figure)))
GEOMETRY
ANALYTIC
101)
Y)
x)
FIGURE
vector
the
Then
59).
59)
of the circle is
equation
easily
\037
found
lizing
tor
the
imposing
by
the
vectors
position
of
equation
circle
the
Ip
or
V (P
we
form,
- Po) \302\267
(P
as
- Pol =
Ir
Po) =
as
(52)
rewrite
I(x
- xo)i +
(52)
r. To get the
-
(y
yo)jl
r)
r.)
analytic
or)
Vex
Finally,
by
squaring
(x as
the
whose
of
equation
radius is r.)))
XO)2
both
XO)2
(y
YO)2
members,
+
(y
YO)2
we get
=
2)
(53))
Yo)
and
the
Concerning
is
of
the
coefficients
form
the
in
when
x2
quadratic
y2 both
and
- 2xox+
X02
y2
which is, of
We
+ y2
pose
the
C =
By
of a
equation
write
(x
In.orderto
(
+ Ax
do
form
of
(y2 +
Ax)
A 2/4
add
we
so
We
(53).
how
y2
By
the
in
to
paren-
) =\"\"4
+\"4
members:)
to both
B2
(
we
whether
attempt
By) = -C.
and B 2 /4
+\"\"4)
(54)
a circle,
questionsdependon
in the
(54)
form
the
of
represent
such
of
and radius?
center
the
find
does
it
If
(2)
(54))
0,
circle but
equation
every
can
write this
we may
represent a circle?
we
coeffi-
designating
letter,
- Ax +
and
= r 2.
yo2
and
radius
the
course,
as to
nature
2yoY
form
the
in
we get
equation
it should be
and
y;
(2) it has
circle,
x and
in
(5\037).
(53),
Expanding
the
of
equ\037tion
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
102)
c)
or)
A
x+-
2)
(
which
center
is in
the form
of the
y+-
2)
=-+--C
4
2
')
circle is
(- A/2, - B/2)
and
the
that
radius
the
is)))
.103)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
+ B2/4 - C. The
overlooked is the questionof
real or imaginary. If A 2/4
V A 2/4
For
exists.
circle
example,
one
do
the circle
y2
of x 2
coefficients
the
the equation
y2
2x +
1) +
(x
the locus
radiusis r =
3y +
y2
- 1)2 +
is a circlewhose
in terms
P =
We
therefore
- 6x +
9y
rewrite
= o.)
443
)
2
-3
2)
2
- -,
=-.31
12)
is (1,
center
-j)
and whose
\03703.)
= xi
written
zero,
equals
= 1 + -9
-9
be
3y2
> 0,
/4
get)
If we
can
real
cannot repre2
- C
B
equal, we may
to unity:)
3y
(
or)
equal
- 2x +
3x2
y2 are
and
coefficients
these
with
Hence,
-1
expression
the locus
Examine
25.
-_ 0 .
(x2
A 2/4
this
if
- C < 0, no
degenerates to a point.)
EXAMPLE
Since
+
if
circle; and
a real
have
B 2/4
this
whether
x2
has been
root is
square
that
difficulty
conclude
the
origin
yj)
of its angle of
r cos 8i
at
centered
inclination
8:)
+ r sin 8j.)
that)
X
r cos
8
(55))))
{ y=rsin8)
GEOMETRY
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
104)
Y)
x)
60)
FIGURE
are the
the
parametric
parameter.
y2
from
x2
But cos2
equation
= 1.
x
the
of the
(54)
2 sin 2
adding
8,)
Thus)
+ y2 =
specified
r2)
circle.)))
that
origin,
cos 2 8
r 2(cos 2
y2 =
sin 2 8
or
the
that
we deduce
which
alld
squaring
x2
is
8 is
sin 2 8).
repremay be
as follows:)
105)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
EXERCISES
center
(0,
(c)
center
(-2,
(a)
(b)
passing
2x2
(b)
2
(c) x +
2
(d) 3x
centers and
y2
lOx + 7y
- 4y
3y2 + 8x
origin;
and
passing
9 = 0;
+ 15 =
O.
of the line
the circleswhose
equa-
the equation
and
chord to
common
the following
having
0;
intersection
of
the
contributes
that
12y
circles
of
radii
- 16x +
y2
- 2y 2 = 9x;
the
(2,
the origin.
through
(a) x2
circle
(c) having
equations:
2;
the
of
at
center
3. Find the
radius
with
circle
the
of
are
tions
2
(a) x
x
(b)
y2 + 8y
- 6x
y2
+ y2 +
= 16;
4x
25 = 0
8y
y2
of the
5.
through
Carry
of
equation
3 =
o.
(Hint.
interesectionof
meaning
the
= 64
is
What
the
algebraic
loci?)
the
approach to determine
a given
at
circle
given
point.
gJ
is
vector
represented
(xo
6. Verify
CQ is perpendicular
by the equation)
- a)(x -
the equation
point-slopeequation
perpendicular
to
the
let
point
the
Q =
of the
fact
that
that
line
\037
\037
the
and
of
a)
for
the
tangent
(Yo
- b)(y
gJ given
line
to QP, prove
and
line at
b)
in Exercise
the fact
=.
o.)
5 by using the
that a radius is
the point of
contact.)))
7.
y2 +
2
x
+ y2 x = 2 cos
(b)
(c)
y=2sin8
x
(d)
GEOMETRY)
the equation
Find
(a) x2
at CV2, V2);
}
8
2 cos
at CV2, -V2).
y=2sin8) }
8.
Prove
at
9.
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
106)
that
the
Xo +
r cos
{y
Yo +
r sin
8.)
a parametric
Find
of a
equations
parametric
circlewith
center
radius r is
of the equation
representation
of
the
circle
(a)
+ 3y2
(b)
are
(b)
9y
radius
2 =
2x 2x -
5;
O.
loci whose equations
of the
intersection
of
+ y2 x 2 + y2 -
(a)
2) and
2y
1 =
2y
1 =
0 and x +
0 and x2 +
1;
y2 =
1)
SPHERES
21.
The
which
sphere,
are
three-dimensional
a fixed point.
to be precisely that
from
equidistant
easily
be
may
analogue of the
defined as the locus
recognized
circle is the
of
This
of
the
that
points
definition
is
circle
if the
discussion
same
n-dimensional
and
dimensional,
spheres
(sometimes
called hyperspheres).
Confiningour discussionto
Po =
(xo, Yo,
zo)
the
generalpoint the
(radius the sphere)
of
of
fixed
three
sphere,
between
dimensions,
we
call
point
107)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
2)
.y)
s)
FIGURE
position
Ip
vector
the
Then
precisely the
of Po and P,
or)
r)
vector
the
is
equation
of
have
we
form
(y
the
=r,)
V(P-Po).(P-Po)
coordinate
- xo)i +
of
terms
is)
same as (52),\"\\vhich
the circle. In
I(x
of the sphere, in
equation
vectors
pol =
61)
(z -
yo)j +
zo)kl
r,)
or)
Vex
Finally,
we
XO)2
(y
YO)2
(z
get)
XO)2
as tl1e equatio11of
(y
the
radius
is
sphere
r.)))
(z -
--.:.
YO)2 +
whose
Po = (xo,Yo,
,vhose
ZO)2
r.
by squaring
(x
and
zo)
ZO)2
center
is
The problem
tion
of
(similar
to that form
discussion
in Section
to that
20 on
circles.
shall
We
unit
y2 +
Z2
the components
analyze
matters
whose
radius,
the
for
other
of
the
relegate
an
therefore
We
discussionas
exercise
turn attention to
of such a
details
reader
while we now
to the sphere.
relating
the
a general
at
arriving
a sphere
equations
of
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
108)
center is
1.)
of
(56))
the
vector)
position
P=xi+yj+zk)
of point
P on the unit
If a is
the
angle
P makes
with the
62a.
x-axis, (3
the
angle
the
that
z-axis,)
\302\267
=
with the
P makes
P makes
that
in Figure
shown
sphere,
that
angle
cos a
Ipllil
a)
COS
and)
\302\267
=
yj +
(xi +
zk)
\302\267
=
x.)
= COS a;
similarly, y = cos (3 and z = cos \"I.
cos ai + cos (3j + cos 'Y k .
V (see Figure 62b) in three dimensions
vector
Every
to
the
vector of a point P on the unit
parallel
position
that
so
the
direction
of V is completely
specified
sphere,
P.
with
the vector
\"I associated
by the allgles a,. (3, and
x
Therefore
Hence
is
of V (and
Since Ip!
vector
satisfy
the
of
angles
and
P),
of V (alld
= p \302\267
P = 1, the
the relation
cosines
direction
the
call
also
cos 2
cos
{J +
direction
and
of P).
direction cosines of
cos 2
'Y
1.
cos
\"I
every
(57))))
109)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
z)
y)
z)
x)
y)
x)
(a))
FIGURE
Suppose
which
V is
mj +
li +
nk.
(b))
62)
Then the
to
vector
unit
parallel is
V
Ivl
+ mj + nk \
2
2
2
VZ
+ m + n
li
Thus)
cos a
l2
cos
2)
+ n
13
::::a:
+\"m
n2
(58)
and
COB
'Y
Z2
'
n)))
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
110)
from
designatethe
direction
sa\037e
the
(with
of
pOBsibility
condition
the
opposite sense) and both triplessatisfy
4
to
the
direction
cosines.
proportional
being
26.
EXAMPLE
We
(a)
give
Let V = 2i
three equivalent
the given
From
{2, - 3, 6} form
of
direction
the
cosa =
It should
3t,
2 yields
V.
that
6t}
; e.g.,
t =
-1
12}.
write
(-3)2 + 6
2
= -,
\037i
cos{3
which the
for
immediately
{4, -6,
cosines of V.
we
(58),
!.V
7
from
t =
direction
V 22 +
we see
orderedtriple {2t, -
and
Making use of
of
of direction
can be found
yields {-2, 3, - 6}
Find
sets of directionnumbers
set
- 3j + 6k.
representation
numbers
of
=-,
-3
7
cos 'Y =
6
-.
7)
vector)
.
7J
\037
\037k
7')
directly,
has)
4
it may be advantageous
to have
In
some
a
developments,
V actually
set of direction numbers for a vector
information
impart
about the senseof V. If this were the case, we would impose the
restriction t > 0; for if t < 0, then {tl, tm, tn} .would imply a sense
triple
oppositeto the original
{l, m, n}.
However, our development
of direction
numbers is principally for applications to lines,
in contrast
we make
to vectors, have no sense. Thus,
the
which,
simple restriction that t \037 o.)))
111)
GEOMETRY
ANALYTIC
the same
sense of
as V.
direction
=
-1.V
7777')
However,)
.
J
\037
-\037i
\037k
and
vector
, \037
,
\037
} for
\037
therefore
the vec-
V.)
EXERCISES
a set
Find
1.
of direction cosinesfor
the
position
of
vector
the points
-4,
(3,
(b)
(c) (0,
0, 1),
2.
of Example
method
the
Using
of the
sphereswhose
(a)
4x 2 + 4y2
2
(b) x +
y2
equations
2 =
4z
z2 +
the equation
3. Find
of
4x
the
25,
find
the
center
and radius
are
8y,
6y
sphere
3.
with
22.
sets
of direction
PLANES
is the
locus, or surface, that we discuss
in
in
is
t
o
theline
some respects analogous
plane, which
two
dimensions.
we have several equivalent
Although
our
of the momellt will best
choicesfor a definition,
needs
second
The
be served
by
Definition.
locus
the
following:
If Po
of points
P so
--7
that
PoP
63,
is
we
vector,
the
to N is
perpendicular
N positioned
picture
FIGURE
An
immediate
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
112)
63)
definition is that
Po
P = Po, then PoP is the zero
to N (see Theorem5).
of the
consequence
--7
is on
itself
that
vector
(P
the
vector
in terms
language
of
we have)
vectors,
position
in vector
definition
the
Writing
if
- Po) \302\267
=
N
of the plane
equation
(59))
0,)
Po
through
and
perpendicu-
lar to N.
[(x -
xo)i
(y
- yo)j +
(z
zo)k]
\302\267
(ai
for the
elements
fixed
bj
ck.
plane,
variable
the
Then
ck) = o.
bj +
Expanding
yields
a(x
which
Yo,
zo)
is
and
the
xo) + bey
analytic
perpendicular
Yo)
c(z
of the
equation
to the
numbers are
by
character of the equations
specified
of
{a,
the
zo)
0,
(60)
easily
(60)
113)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
(60)
seen by comparing
may be written
ax +
whered = -
(axo
by
byo +
linear
vectors
(48).
Furthermore,
d =
0,
(61)
cZo), which is the counterpart
shows
that the equation of a
variables.
Finally, it should
cz +
of
coefficients
are
with
the
to
related
variables
the
in both
perpendicular
N.)
27.
EXAMPLE
(a)
What are
the equationsof
the
coordinate
planes?
z)
z=zO)
(XO,
y)
x)
FIGURE
64)))
the equation
is y
xz-plane
(b)
the
for
the
are
What
is x
yz-plane
= o.
for
of planes
equations
nate planes?
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
114)
and
plane parallelto the xy-plane
as shown
in Figure 64. Then,
as in part (a), we arrive
at z = zo,
the
same reasoning
following
which states that for all choices
of x and y, the z-coordinate
of
a point
on the plane is equal to Zo.
(xo,
through
passing
on a
attention
our
fix
We
vector
perpendicular
the plane
the coefficients of the
using
vectors
unit
(b)
What
2i+j-2k
of the
of
the
x-intercept
Intercept by
plane.
of the
the
plane
of
point
placing y
gives 2x
This
is (1,
or
equal to zero,
z-coordinates
variables (see(60)
3)
axes?
x-intercept. Since every
and
to the
the intercepts
are
O.
- 2k.
+ j
perpendicular
+
-
what are
- 2=
to
2i
y-
2z
as)
(61)),
Two
vector
unit
perpendicular
by
written,
find
To
(a)
questionsrelating
is
equation
2x +
discuss several
vVe shall
28.
EXAMPLE
zo),
Yo,
given
the
0 in the
the
have its
x-coordinate
given equation
- 2 = 0 or x =
0, 0).
is,
the coordinate
x-axis must
we solve for
z =
That
locus?
intersects
1.
Thus
the
to verify
The reader can carry
the
through
computation
that (0, 2, 0) and (0, 0, -1) are the other two intercepts.
are the traces of the plane
whose equation
is
(c) What
2x + y - 2z - 2 = 0, in the coordinate
We define
planes?
the trace of a locus oC in a plane II to be the points
of oC that
lie
in II, or simplythe intersectionof oC and II.
If we ask specifically for the trace
in the xy-plane, we are
askingfor the locus satisfying the simultaneous equations
- 2z - 2 = 0
2X
+ y
{z
(xy-plane)
.)))
115)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
z)
>
Trace
y)
in yz-plane)
x)
66)
FIGURE
we would
=
23.
DETERMINING
BY POINTS
PLANE
ON IT
algebraically?
If
four
the
determined.
pletely
the
a, b, c, and d are known,
=
comis
ax
d
0
cz
+
+
+
by
plane
that fOllr, rather than
This
suggests
constants
the
of
equation
for
so
unity.
,ve
can
divide
through
by
However,
of
all
the
of a,
one of
four
our
intuition
constants
b, and c are
them,
say
can
zero,
\037 0,)))
116
and
get)
x +
Making
- =
o.
(62))
a)
(3 =
substitution
the
-b y
a
bfa,
'Y
and 0
cja,
= dja,
(62) becomes)
x+
0 = 0,)
'YZ +
{3y
three
conare
from which we see that there
essel1tially
turn
out
that
stants to determine. In practice,it may
=
was
a
performed
just
0, in which case the division
choose one of the
If this be the case,then
we could
illegal.
until
we hit upon a legitimate
other numbers as a divisor
(2,
the
Find
29.
EXAMPLE
-4).
-3,
Assuming
1, we
solve for a, b,
ax +
By
a +
renders
this system
We can reduce
to two equations in two
is
1 =
(63)
true
- 4c
3b
\037
(63))
renders
first by
6a -
....\\ddition
yields
+ 1=
O.)
of three equations
in
most
unknowns
devoid
already
12c +
4 = 0
9b
12c +
O.)
lOa
3=
7 =
0,)))
three
easily
of c,
8b
yields)
we
0;
4a +
true,
0;
c from
nating
(63)
yields
renders
4)
2a
the
true
(63)
1=
3c +
2b
0)
o.)
that (1, 2, 3)
the condition
imposing
get)
1=
0),
the equation)
c in
and
cz +
by
(1, 2,
plane through
unknowns
by using
the
end, we
multiply
GEOMETRY
ANALYTIC
which,
together
117)
- b +
with
-- 2
a =
1 = 0, implies
b
and)
that)
=-.
3)
these
values
into the original
Therefore the desiredlineis -ix +
Substituting
c = -t.
0, or more
2x
z =
2, 4).
Imposing
tz +
1=
3.
equations gives
ty
stated,
simply
and
1
3)
(0,
points on equation
the three
63
1, 2),
yields
(1,
-1, -2),
the system
b+2c+l=0
a-b-2c+l
first
the
Adding
adding
However,
4a + 3 = 0 or a
r!=
0;
particularly
equations gives a + 2 = 0 or a =
the second equation to the third gives
= \037, an inconsistency.
So we must disthat
d \037 o.
let us assume that
Instead,
that a = 1. Then we seek b, c, d in)
-2.
two
twice
x +
the three
Imposing
4c +
2b +
2a
=0
1 = o.
by
cz + d
O.)
(64))
(64), we
get
the
system)
b+2c+d=0
(65))
I-b-c+d=O
2+
2b
4c + d
= o.
of (65) gives 1 + 2d = 0 or
to the third gives
second
adding
-t;
4 + 3d = 0 or d = -t, which is another inconsistency.
So we
discard the assumptionthat a r!= 0, upon which the form (64)
was based. We now try b \037 0, and use the form of the equaAdding
first
the
d =
two
but
tion with
b =
getting
again
the
the
twice
1)
ax
Once
equations
we impose
cz + d
the given
= o.)
(66))
system)
1+2c+d=0
a-1-2c+d=0
2a + 2 + 4c +
(67))))
d =
o.)
equations of
4a +
3d
Equations
the
(Actually,
\037z
However,
find
find
or)
in
two
equations
a = d = o. Substithat
c = -\037. Therefore
the desired
plane to be)
is
could have
computation
been
have
might
2y
had set d
this
(69))
a system of
which
(66) and
0)
yields)
O.)
= 0 after the
set
and
then
a = 0 after
inconsistency
if we
what
(68))
to the third
second
the
gives
(67)
2d = 0,
a +
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
118)
O.)
been
of the
first
inconsistency.
jumping
some-
simplified
appearance
the second
too fast
for
an illustration.))
24. DISTANCEFROM
A
The problem of determining
point Po =
(xo,
zo)
Yo,
ax +
is
handled
problem
Call
8 the
(x,y,z)
distance
be an
Figure
superseded
in
approach
A PLANE
from
distance
the
a given
given plane)
cz +
d =
0)
earlier
the
to a linein
(see
of
equation
be
in precisely
the same manner as was
of finding the distance from a point
the plane.
P
the
to a
by
TO
POINT
the
66).
vector perpendicular
Then
by +
8=
cz + d =
let
0)
--7
\\prNPopI,
where
N
before-)))
is
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
119)
Po)
FIGURE
use a
Then)
the
determine
bj +
2
a
b2
ai
N=
To
66)
ck
+ c
\302\267
2)
projection we resort
desired
to
inner
product)
--7
\037
\302\267
IPop
Nt
= 8.)
IprNPoP(
Then)
8=
[(x -
xo)i
(y
- yo)j
+ (z -
ai
\302\267
Zo )k]
But
--
ax
axo +
by
2
V a2 + b
ax +
I-axo
by +
cz =
- byo 2
v' a + br
cz -
byo +
+
- d.
-
cZo
+ c
bj +
b2
ck
2
a
2)
+ c
CZo
2)
Therefore,
dl -- taxo + byo
2
V a +
cZo +
2)))
dl
\302\267
EXAMPLE 31.
to
the
plane
equation
x
to our
Conforming
the
2y
from Po
distance
is)
the
find
We
whose
2z +
1=
policy of minimal
GEOMETRY
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
120
= (1, -2,
O.)
we ignore
memorization,
formula
-3)
from
first
principles.
\037
the projection
seek
we
Since
8 =
IprN PoPl
[(-1 -
l)i +
(0
(-2))j
+ (0 .
(-3))k])
i - - 2k
2j
V1
- 4
1-2
61
----12
-3-.)
22 +
2 2)
EXERCISES
1.
and
(a) x +
(b) x -
(c) 2x
=
2y
z
y
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3;
+
2z +
9 =
0;
-3.
2. Find
(a)
their intercepts
in the
traces
(d) y
the
Sketch
through
121)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
z)
ce)
y)
\037)
67)
FIGURE
3. Find
25. THE
IN
LINE
STRAIGHT
Our discussion of
pattern as the
attention
was
Applying
collinear
equation
confined
a line
to
THREE
DIMENSIONS
the same
by specifying
and seek an
P =
Let
-2)
\302\243
by
space
shall
to the
two
plane.
of its
We
therefore
points PI
follow
our
when
begin
(Xl,
YI,
Zl)
of
\302\243
as)
(1
- t)PI + tP2 .)
(70))))
In
xi +
- t)xli +
= (1
zk
yj
= [Xl +
Therefore)
=
=
is the
txli +
t(Y2
Zl +
t(Z2
t(Y2
YI)]j
- zl)]k.)
t(Z2
- Xl)
t(X2
YI +
tZ2k
tY2j
YI)
(71))
Zl).)
in
of line \302\243
form.
analytic
manner
in
t)Ylj
xI)]i + [YI +
+ [Zl +
representation
parametric
Elimina tion
a
Xl
(1 -
- t)zlk +
(1
t(X2
x=
Y
line
GEOMETRY)
of the
terms
in
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
122)
the
getting)
form,
X2
Thus we
Xl
Xl
YI
Y2
Z2
YI
Zl
= t.
Zl
devoid
may write the equationof \302\243
X
X2
which may
Xl)
Xl
Y2
be called the
YI
Z2
YI
Zl
(72))
Zl
line
the
of
form
two-point
t as)
of
in
three dimensions.
a
The reader
that
observe
(72), which describes
locus in termsof coordinates
a11dno
variable,
is not a single equation.
It actually consistsof three
will
auxiliary
equations,of
X
X2
Xl
Xl
Y2
are
two
which
YI
YI
X
X2
Xl
Z2
Xl
and
Y
Y2
It
may
necessary
appear
strange
to describe
a
to deduce
sufficient
Zl
Zl
YI . YI
the third:)
Z2
Zl
(73)
Zl)
is
123)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
makes
sidered
plane in (73) is
but
such
to
define
axes,
In fact,
a line.
be the
need not
planes
special
two
any
only
simultaneous
ones
used
linear
equations)
a1x +
{ a2X
unless
line
define
planes.
have
shall
We
sentationsof lines.
1y
CIZ +
+ C2Z
b 2y
d1 =
d2
0
(74))
0)
\037
P 1P
P IP
vector
The
\037
2 =
(X2
fore has a
is parallel
that
x1)i +
(Y2
Yl)j +
set of direction
numbers
to (or
(Z2
{X2
is
along) line \302\243
Z2
in
\302\243,
58.
and
be
\302\2431
a line
\302\2432
line
with
+ n1
multiple
of
V 2,
say)
V1 =
tV
2,)))
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
124)
z)
,\302\243)
Pl(Xl,Y1,Zl))
Y)
x)
68)
FIGURE
case II
in which
ml
tl2,
II
_-_
m1
l2
m2
Hence
and
a necessary
be
to
\302\2432
and
parallel
tm2,
and n1
or)
tn2
--_en1
(75))
n2)
condition
sufficient
for
their direction
is that
lines
\302\2431
numbers
be
proportional.)
26.
BETWEEN
ANGLE
TWO LINES
is
as the angle
of the given
we may speak
defi11ed
each
to
definition,
even
if the
lines do
not
intersect.
Consideringthe lines
and
\302\2431
we shall
between
and
\302\2431
the
lines.)))
in
\302\2432
terms
as
\302\2432
.specified
the cosine
of the
of
direction
the
earlier,
(J
angle
numbers
of
ANALYTIC
GEOMETRY)
125)
where
2,
VI =
COB0
V I
.V 2
\302\267
V2
VI
Iv11lv
VV
2 1)
\302\267
Using
VI
V' V 2
\302\267
V 2)
or)
lIl2
(J =
COB
Vl
+ mI
mlm2
+ nI
+ nIn2
12
as well,
cos
cos al
If the
(J
cos a2
COS
direction
n2
(76)
cosines
As a
\302\267
m2
COS'Y
I COS 'Y2.
the
two
(77)
are)
lines
z)
\302\2431)
, .)
VI)
y)
x)
FIGURE
69)))
if and
perpendicular
PI
+ nln2
o.)
(78))
Find
32.
-1,3) tOP 2
= (2,
if
mlm2
lll2
EXAMPLE
only
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
126)
\302\243
joining
-5).
(1,0,
(a) Parametric
X =
\302\243:
(1 -
2 +
2)t
y=-l+(O-(-l))t
{ z
= 3
+ (-5
3)t.)
yields)
Simplifying
X=2-t
\302\243:
-1
{ z =
that
We
see
set 0f
..
..
d lrectlon COSInes
x-2
- y+1.
-1
(a)
which
line
x-I
We
set
2
can
be restated
oC
of (72)'we
of
Example
y+3
= z
-1
as a
8
/-
66)
\302\243.)
\302\267
have)
z-3
-8)
1.
of \302\243';(b)
representation
and
\302\243'
between
V 66
66
I-='
1.)
01
EXAMPLE 33\302\267a 1ven 1Ine d...J:
a parametric
/_'
for
numbers
direction
IS
By means
form.
Two-point
8t.)
1, 8} is a set of
{-I,
(b)
the
+ 3
_ 1 = z,
cosine
fi
of the
n d
( a) )
angle
32.)
t ')
parametricrepresentationof
x=I+2t
y =
-3 -
z =
t.)))
\302\243')
(J
(b)
127)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
set
therefore
of
apply
cos O =
numbers for
which
(76),
gives)
direction
\302\243'
is
Y(-1)2 + 1 +
2
Since
\302\243\"
is
to
parallel
zt,
where
\037
is given
as
a point
x-I
are
-1,
+ 1
2)
I} .
-1(2)+1(-1)+8.1
82
y2
(-1)2
=y=
-1
(Xl, YI,
of
Zl) is
\302\243\".
to
of the
\302\243\"
is
\302\243,
We
{ 2,
the
6Y
=t
\302\243\".
32)
Example
form
a point of
Therefore
\302\243
(of
ll)
But
l=Y
YI
\037
(1,
0,
of the
equations
-2)
line
z+2
8
This
number
zero.
direction
ing of, say, the
being
=
=
a
would mean that cosa
1r/2.
implies
0,
The line in question wo1ildthereforebe
to
the
be
or
the
line
x-axis;
equivalently
stated,
a
to (or actually in) the yz-plane. In
parallel
line
is parallel
with a set of direction numbers
m, n}
a
that
to the yz-plane. Similarly, the
can
show
line with a set of direction
is
parallel
{I, 0, n}
to the xz-pla11e;
a set of direction
numbers
and a line
of the direcIf two
{I, m, O} is parallel to the
to one of
tion numbers are zero,
line
the
is parallel
the axes.)
first
which
perpendicular
would
summary,
{O,
reader
numbers
with
xy-plane.
then
35.
EXAMPLE
and (3, 2,
A
set
of direction
that the
Find
equations
-2).
two-point
numbers
form
of the
line through
is easily found
(72)
cannot
to
be
be used.
(1,
2,
-1)
-1}, so
However, a)))
{2, 0,
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
128)
be written
y=2
-1 -
z =
the
of
Elimination
yields
parameter
= Z+l
X-l
-1
2
{
is a
which
we
nonparametric
to writing the
these
representations
z are.
That
x and
both
2,
line
the
of
form
come
may
from
t.
two-point
that
and is
It
form.
2 no
as closeas
to see
is easy
matter
what the
x=
=
Actually,
the line
the equation
is
value,
z =
is what
which
-1
z =
2.
-1
is
superfluous,
quite
the
as
determined
completely
planes x = 1 and
1)
intersection
for
of the
2.
The y-coordinate may take on
may happen in the foregoing
parametric
of the line.
We now return to the
any
form
section
of
course,
been
two
Let us
EXAMPLE
a line
as the interequation 74). This idea has, of
for instance, in Example
throughout;
of a line in terms of two
planes
through
representationof
(see
planes
employed
equation
a line
Given
\302\243
whose
IS)
2x
+ 3y
x
algebraic
z =
1
2,)))
representation)
129)
GEOMETRY)
ANALYTIC
we shall
for the
forms
other
equations
of aC.
adding the two
z by
Eliminating
3x +
the
x from
Eliminating
3z
3z-3
-2 =y=
which
yields
-3.
3x-3
and
3.
allows us to write
of these
each
in
2y
equations
given
5y
Solving for
equations gives
5)
x-I
-(2/3)
a set
Therefore
3:
z-1
(80))
5/3.)
of directionnumbers
By setting)
x-I
-(2/3)
we arrive at a
numerator
is
z-1
= t,
5/3
parametricrepresentationof
x = 1 - it
I
z =
1, i}.
-i,
line
the
1 + it.)
EXERCISES
1.
as
equations,
follows:
through
(b) through
(c) through
(d) through
(a)
= 1;
(e)
through
\037(two
(f)
1, -2)
(-4,
-2)
(-4, 1, -2)
(-4,1,
(3, 2,
(3,
form, of the
in two-point
the
Find
mined
5)
2, -5)
and
and
parallel
and
(5,3,
and
(3,
lines deter-
to z-axis;
-1);
1, 2);
perpendicular
and having
to 3x
cos a =
\037and
2y
cos {3 =
possibilities);
through
(-4,
3, 4, 12;
(g) parallelto 5i -
1, -2)
4j
and
having
6k and through
direction
the
origin.)))
6z
numbers
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
130)
2. Find
of
parametric representations
lines
the
GEOMETRY)
1.
in Exercise
Prove that
3. Let AB, AC, and AD be three edges of a cube.
plane through D and the line joining the midpointsof AB and
AC is tangent to the sphereinscribedin the cube.
4. (a) Find a set of direction numbers for the line)
-
x-
= 0
3y + 7
-
2z
4 = o.)
3x -
6z =
2y
-9
x+4y-8z=-16.)
(b)
6.
a parametric
Find
7. Three
(0,6, 0),
8.
Find
of
the direction
taneously,
triangle:
Find the
cosines of
vertex.
fourth
line
simul-
perpendicular,
to)
--
x-I
y-l
--
z-l
and
Exercise
(a).
part
ill order
parallelogram
1, 4).
(-8,
of a right
-2), (2,4,1).
-4,
(-3,
of the line of
(6, 4, 8);
1, 3),
vertices
and
vertices
are
following
(-2,
-2,4),
(0,
representation
the
angles
made
x- -----.
Y
12)
by the two
lines
of
8.)
27. INTERSECTION
OF
LINE
WITH
A PLANE
of
line may be representedby the equations
there
two planes through it, the point of intersection
(if
a plane
is one) of the line with
may be found by solving
Since a
the three
linear
illustrate
utilizing
equations
simultaneously.
However,
we
AN AL
YTIC
131)
GEOMETRY)
intersection
z =
3y
line
of the
\302\243:
{
and the
plane)
(j-, 1,I)
native
II: x +
of
point
we use
the
as
approach,
2y
2z =
-3.
linear
three
these
Solving
x-y+z=2)
equations simultaneously
intersection.
However, for the
the parametric form of \302\243:
yields
alter-
x=l-jt
y=t
.z
which
found
was
= 1+
in Example
-it,
37.
in the equation
Substitutingtheseequations
(1 - it) + 2t - 2(1 + it) = -3, the solution
give the
that
value of
is also
the point we
on II
seek
the
parameter
of
by x =
This
j-, y
FIGURE
70)))
will
y)
%)
II gives
which
t, which
(see Figure70).
is given
of plane
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
132)
GEOMETRY)
AND
28. ANGLE BETWEEN A LINE
A PLANE
How can we extend our understandingof the angle
of a pair of lines to define the concept of
intersection
angle
between
and
line
If
a plane?
\302\243
is
the
line
of
the
and II
plane II
in the
of lines \302\24311\"
the plane, there are an infinity
that might conceivably be usedto find an angle between
II (see Figure
and
\302\243
of choices
71). Since such an infinity
for the angle between a line and a plane
is undesirable,
the
one usually selected as the
of
intersection
angle
II is the minimum
and
between
\302\243
of
the
{3
infinity
angle
formed
by
the
and
\302\243
lines
a defini-
such
\302\24311'. However,
tion renders
EXAMPLE
line \302\243
and
A
vector
pendicular
plane
parallel
to plane
Find
39.
the
II of
to
II is N
i +
2j
- 2k.
ffi,)
FIGURE
71)))
Thus
the
comple-)
GEOMETRY
ANALYTIC
of (j may
ment
r _
cos
is
+ 2
= \\-2/3
(3
( 2
which
133)
(j =
to sin
equivalent
\037O/3\\
2_
y39)
y9
09/9
2/09.)
EXERCISES
1. In
the
to take
of Example
39, we were careful
value of the numerator in the determination of
computation
absolute
the
COB
Why?
(3).
(;
a general
Find
our definition
that
indicates
This
reader
3.
two
Using
different
of intersection
5.
Find
of the
the
a representation)
y+2
z-3
-1)
the
6.
lOx
(a)
planes.)))
Give
line
z =
2y
and plane
a suitable
+ 2y
3)
6)
- l1z =
3.)
definition
of
the
5.
given in Exercise
intersection
z+3
y+3
2)
and)
is 3x +
of intersection
x+3
angle
3)
point
line and
the
coordinates
with
whose equation
plane
{3 is
where
find the
methods,
2)
the
shorta slight
modificaa
small
by
has
plane.
of line,
x-3
and
{3
of
eliminate
should
for
the
angle
between
two
and)
alx
+ b1y
a2X
b 2y
CIZ
+ C2Z
each
vectors,
angle
d1 =
d2
the
for
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY\"
134)
= o.)
to one
perpendicular
of the given
of the planes
(c) Find the angle made by the intersection
whose equationsare2x + 2y + z = 1 and 2x + 10y - llz = 3.
the
two planes
whose equations
(d) Find the anglebetween
are x - 4y + 8z = 2 and 2x + y - 2z = 18.
7.
Show
that
line given
the
{x
(a)
is parallel
= 0,
fundamental
Apply
3y + 7
2z
plane whose
vector
= 0
4,)
8.
by
equation
is 3x
equation
is 12x
techniques
+ 4y +
to
problems.
of
its
the
diagonal
of a
6y
2z
6z = 1.
the following
cube and one
edges.
of its faces.)))
cube
cube
and
and one
cross
products)
29.
CROSS
PRODUCTS
As we
have seen,
vectors
two
yields
two
between
(as opposed
security
Since,
in
dealing
excursion
of
to the appearance of
by now, the reader
with vectors,
we take
through
the
algebra
of
cross products
vectors,
Then
cross
of
Definition
the
vector)
IAIIBI
where U is
unit
vector
sin
8 U,)
perpendicular
135)))
(81))
to
the
plane of
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
136)
AxB)
B\037
\037\037
A
U \037\037 A
\037)
\037)
BxA)
FIGURE
72)
as to
B,
B through the
emanate from a
then he is always
B,
{A,
being
X B}
vectors
three
the
upright
standing
and lengthsof
Because
are
vectors
the cross
right-handed triple if
as
<
vector
popular-terminologies.
immediate
product
corollary
defines
of the
X B (if
scalars.
a
vector
We
often termed the vector
product.
our earlier policy of utilizing both names
reader will become familiar with all the
An
of
none
nonThis assertion
U.
of U in (81) can1 when 0 < 0 < 1r,
non-negative
product results in
it is
equally
left,
with his
the direction of U.
direction
null) points in the same
follows from the factthat the coefficient
not be negative because0 < sin0
of
both
to U,
parallel
precisely
form a
to his
has
always
terminus
vectors
two
the
(when
direction\"
\"\037pward
Thus,
angle 0
singlepoint 0)
make
observer
the
quantity,
shall
so
continue
that
the
standard-and
a noncommutative
multiplication.)))
CROSSPRODUCTS)
In
137)
the
we have
fact,
Theorem 8.
This result
follows
- B X A.
the
from
simply
quite
observation
for
if
and
is parallel
B are
of
to B
implies
(82)
0;
parallel,
A geometric
true?)
(82)
o.
interpreta-
30. TRIPLE
IAIIBI
sinO
IA
BI.)
SCALAR PRODUCT
operatioll
it should
beginner-to
is performed
(the \"cross\"or the \"dot\")
be noted that such parelltheseswould
\037h)
first,
))
A)
73)))
com-)
be
hl)r\\
A)
FIGURE
which
indicate
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
138)
I
I
I
\037-----------------
\"
\"
/ //B
C)
FIGURE
two
\"Cross\"
operations.
we would have
\"dot\"; otherwise
one possiblelogical
is only
there
for
superfluous,
pletely
74)
must
precede
with a
scalar
crossed
yields
a scalar
scalar
product
us.
quan-
of
tity and thus is alsocalledthe triplescalar
product
A, B, and C (in that order). Callingboth quantities,
A
\302\267
A X
C and
\302\267
C,
the
triple
B,
the
parallelepiped
(See Figure
Proof.
IB X ci =
IAI
IA.
cos
Therefore +
=
were
they
always
see.
generated
the
vectors
the
by
(Theorem
9)
\302\267
B
C represents
C.
and
and
if
soon
would
xci.
74.))
area
of
base
+ altitude
IAIIB
X CI
of parallelepiped.
cos a, which
states that
CROSS
PRODUCTS
139
equal
product
A. B X C = A X B.C.
Since both triple scalar products represent
Proof.
the
same
and since the sign dependsonly
on
volume,
of
the
the
two
orien\037ation
triple {A, B, C},
products
Corollary.
the
be equal.
must
Theorem 11.
vector
The
(i)
(ii)
Proof of
D
Our
proof
C) =
(B
(A
distributive
is
product
is
products
with
That is,)
to addition.
respect
vector
X C
B)
A X
B X
C, and
C.
Let
(i).
= A X
(B + C)
will be
completed
C.)
D is
that
show
can
we
if
scalar
the
take
with an
of D
product
arbitrary
V.)
vector
\302\267 =
\302\267
= V
\302\267
[A
C)
C)
(B +
(B +
\302\267
C]
\302\267
(Theorem
\302\267
(B
C)
\302\267
B
(Corollary
of
Now, using the distributivity
first term of the right member,we
V.D
dot
C
V X A \302\267
to Theorem
10).
on the
product!
get)
-VXA.B
=VXA.B+VXA.C
7)
\302\267
C.)
Hence)
\302\267
O.)
(83))))
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
140)
V is
that
Recalling
statesthat the
Consequently, D = 0
Part (ii) is left as
an
Theorem8.
Weare
in
now
in terms
our
of
i
i
and imposing
are
we
First,
k}-basis.
kXk=
j =
(81), we
O.
(84)
k = i, and k
j X
k,
= -k,
j X i
j X
definition
the
Applying
develop
that
vectors
two
{i, j,
note that
readily
tools to
of sufficient
of
represented
follows
it
for
C.)
A X
B +
exercise,
possession
vector.
have)
we
and
that (83)
to any
is perpendicular
C) =
(B +
A X
we see then
arbitrary,
D
vector
GEOMETRY)
and
yields
(85)
k =
(85)
j,
-j. (86)
Now let)
A
a1i +
a2j +
ask
B =
and)
b1i +
2j
bsk.)
Then
A
a2j + ask) X
(a1i +
= (a1i +
a2j
ask)
(b1i
b 2j +
bsk)
X b1i
+ (a1i + a2j +
+
ask)
b 2j
(a1i + a2j
+ ask) X
b 3k)
= a1i
By using
to obtain)
A X
B =
(84),
(a2bS
(85), and
-
a Sb 2)i
(86), we simplify
+ (aSbl
this
bsk.
expansion
- a1bs)j
(a
1b 2
- a 2 b 1 )k.
(87))))
141)
PRODUCTS)
CROSS
(87)
be
will
to
formula
the
1
Equation
states)
A. X
or, more
B = i a2 a3
b2
-j
b3
simply
ple 28,
b3
of
a2
a3 .
b2
b 3)
a vector
finding
b1
a2
b2
(88)
of the use
to apply
namely, that
al
+k
al
illustration
first
Our
40.
will be
products
a3
b1
1. .
AXB=
EXAMPLE
al
problem
of
cross
of Exam-
to the
perpendicular
- 2 = O.
plane
equation
y
the cross product
of two vectors is a vector perpenSince
dicular
to the
determine
plane of the given two, we need only
in the plane 2x + y - 2z - 2 = 0 and take their
two vectors
cross product.
We therefore select three points,
arbitrarily
in the given plane: A = (0, 0, -1), B = (0,2,0),
C = (1, 0, 0).
\037
\037
AB = 2j + k and AC = i + k.
Then
is 2x
whose
2z
Hence)
\037
AB
\037
X AC
= 0 2 1 = 2i +
j-
2k
101)
is a
in our
first
Although
solution
to
the area
this
of
B,
with
C. (It is
the one found
and
problem).)
a
simple theoretical
task to compute
cumbersome
when given the coordinates
the power
of vector products
triangle
a
problem, it is quite often
an area by the usual formulas
of the vertices. We exhibit
in attacking such a problem
1
A,
is a
as)
\\ve
have
142)
A)
FIGURE
-5, 2), B =
= (1,
---7
AC
3k
-3
4
---7
---7
Since
lAB X ACI
Figure 75),
three
the shaded
Therefore)
of
our
earlier
\037
AC
and
(5, 0,
2).)
whose
i-115i-
= 15i-
desire is
12j+
the
of
are A,
vertices
work we
+ 5j.)
4i
12j
17k.
0)
triangle we
K =
In
of
and
j k
8 -3
---7
---7
AB
(-2, 3, -1),
by)
---7
8j -
Then AB = 3i +
be given
vertices of a triangle
Let the
41.
EXAMPLE
75)
precisely
17kl
(see
parallelogram
B, and
i V
the areaK
C,---7
---7
\037
IAB
ACI.
658 .)
methods,
solved, by analytic
the equation of a plane
The vector approachto
of determining
problem
three
through
given points.
the
thisproblemis
demonstrated
in
the
next
example.)
A = (1, 2,3),
EXAMPLE 42. Find the plane through
B = (1, -1, 0), and C = (2, -3, -4). (The analytic
solution
The vector
to this problem was given
in Example
29.)
---7 ---7
AB X AC is perpendicularto the desired plane and is therefore
to every
vector in the desired plane (see)))
perpendicular
143)
PRODUCTS)
CROSS
Hence P =
Figure 76).
if and
\037
\037
Writing
- l)i +
In terms of
[(x
(y
condition
+
explicitly
+ zk] \302\267
(-3j
l)j
x-I
y+1
-5)
dot
of
31.
we
product,
the
determined
plane
DISTANCE
The
-2x
distance
by
FROM
from
A,
5j
7k) =
o.
becomes)
= O.,
-3
-7)
of the
means
get
X (i -
-3
gives
- 3k)
relation
this
determinants,
or, expandingby
X AC = o.
only if BP. AB
this
a general
z) is
y,
\037
(x,
B,
and
and
C.)
A POINT TO A PLANE
a point to a planewas found
by
pro-
Po
on a
to the
plane of
Example31,which
A,
is
and
B,
the
\037
C.
present
AB x
\037
AC)
P(x,y,z))
A)
B)
FIGURE
76)))
to
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
144)
GEOMETRY)
\037\037
X AC)
AB
----
i
d
---:-\\
1
;:\\\\\037)
B)
FIGURE
vector
77)
to the
given
plane may be found by
\037
AB X AC (see Figure 77, which
perpendicular
\037
cross product
the geometry)
the
taking
symbolizes
\037
\037
AB X AC
a unit
Then
lAB
with
(Compare
Example
3(ti - j
- k).
is)
.!i-j-k
v i + 1+
]
3
1 =!(i-2.-2k)
31.))
= IPoB.
+ 3j
NI
+ 2k) --l(i
- 2j -
2k)1
t(2
+ 6
+ 4)
4.)
DISTANCE
32.
3k =
\037
IprN PoBI
1(-2i
=
ACI
\037
3j
\037
ABXAC
N=
\037
perpendicular
\037
= 2 1 0 = ji
BETWEEN
TWO
LINES
of
elementary
analytic
geometry,
namely,
the problem
of)))
145)
PRODUCTS)
CROSS
space.
to this
refer
We
is usually
student
beginning
means
is the
geometry
analytic
pure
the distance
finding
plagued
by
of
the
analysis,
the
of
problem
visualization
both
with
assists
approach
and
If two lines \302\2431
of
difficulties.
are
\302\2432
the
given,
minimum
distance
and
d between them is the distancebetween
\302\2432
\302\2431
along
in
mutual
the
perpendicular
(QR
Figure 78). Thus,
A and B points of \302\2431
and
we
call
\302\2432,
respectively,)
if
\037
(Readers who
are encouraged
The
jection.)
EXAMPLE
=
(1, 0,
point
of
proin
the
-5);
D = (3, -4,
and
\302\2431
this
have difficulty
understanding
to check back on the definition
procedure for computing d is given
example.
following
IprQRABI.)
1).
We
shall
determine
\302\2432.)
FIGURE
78)))
the
distance
between
that is simultaneously
A vector
\037
= AC
to
perpendicular
\037
X BD
= -1
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
146)
= 55i -
- 8
and
\302\2431
is)
\302\2432
15j+ 5k.
1)
-7)
Then)
---7
d =
=)
ABI
\\prlf
ABo
1N !
- 3k). 5(11i- 3j
5 v'121 + 9 + 1
+ 4j
I(-i
-_
1-11 -.12 -
3\\
131
v'
+'k)1
26
.)
v' 131
EXERCISES
1.
the following
Evaluate
(a) i X (j
+ k),
+ j)
X k,
(i
(b)
(c) (i + j + k) X
(d) (2i - 3j + k)
a tetrahedron,
(b l , b 2 , b a ),
B=
k),
- k),
(2j
j +
(i +
X
(i +
2j +
parallelepiped
determine
4k).
can be sliced into
a formula for the volume
six
3.
Find
of
side
a and
5. Determine
and
parallel
= 0,
the equation of
to
li +
where P = (x,
y,
the
line
.\302\243
through
Po
mj + nk by observing that
z) is any point of cC.)))
= (xo,
Yo,
zo)
\037
PoP
CROSS
PRODUCTS)
6. (a)
If P = (x,y,
the
justify
point of
plane ABC,
AB X AC = 0 as being a vector
an
is
z)
---?
\037
AP.
equation
arbitrary
\037
the
of
equation
147)
plane.
plane
(0, 0,
7.
distance
the
for
be
and
to plane
parallel
II2 .
to plane
parallel
and x =
x =
x-I
(b)
t,
-Y = z
x- = y+2
2
-1)
and
(c) line AB
2t,
z =
-t
2t,
z =
assumption
4),
B)
\302\267
(C
= z.
CD, where
(0, 1,
2), B
D)
the
and
a2X
cross
products.)
33. TRIPLE
b 2y
= (1, -1,
B, prove
that
= O.
direction
whose
planes
+
0), and
(0, 2,
that
- t.
D ;= (-1, 2, 2).
10. If C is perpendicularto the plane of A and
C =
Yare
Wand
while
+ 1
line
and
t,
1
III,
further
Y) = o.
the
Under
methods
the
Using
8. Let U
(A
\037).
formula
(a)
the
of
C2Z
numbers
for the
line of intersection
+ dl = 0
CIZ
bly +
direct
application
of
CROSS PRODUCTS
to more
For the application
of
complex
algebra
problems of geometry and, particularly,to the developthe reader will see in the next
of trigonometry-as
vector
ment
chapter-we
shall
find
\"it useful
to expand
cross products
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
148)
GEOMETRY)
vector
maticians
tions
the
of
in a
appears
problem
VectorTriple
S. Klamkin
from
to bethe originofa
Figure
(i)
79)
(ii) the
(iii)
the
system,
It
with
follows
C =
adopt
A,
C, we conwhich
is taken
0,
B,
and
coordinate
We
system.
way
(see
:)
is taken
x-axis
the
1954).
the coordinate
impose
(AmeriWe
is simplicity.
a point
rectangular
simplifica-
Murrey
by
Product,\"
various
to
contributed
have
who
is
y-axis
from
c1i + C2j.
plane of Band C;
so that the xyz-coordinate
in the
taken
k} as a
is
z-axis
{i,
along B;
taken
j,
(i)
basis, is right-handed.
Since A
B =
that
is
free
from
C =
FIGURE
79)))
any
cli +
(ii)
stipulation,
C\037)
that
it)
149
CROSS
PRODUCTS
must
be written
+ a2j
ali
1. .
B
C =
+ a3k. Then)
bl
0)
o =
CI
C2
0)
blC2k,
and)
(B X C) =
A X
observe that
C, that
is,
We
B
k)
al
Q.2
Q.:\037
0)
coordinate
X
(B
must be
plane.
of
be a linearcombination
fore simplify (89) by factoring
the
it is exhibitedas a linear
combination
Band
right
of
li
C.
We thereso that
member
Band
C. Thus)
- a l b1(cli
C2j).)
\\ve have)
Finally,
(B X C)
A X
an
+ a2c2)b
= (alcl
X C)
(B
\037o
to
(B X C) is perpendicular
the
cross
Thus
triple
product,
of
Band
C.
in the
Hence,
it must
perpendicular
the
must be
X C),
- alb1c2j. (89)
a2blC2i
1c2)
X C)
(B
X
k.
vector
C)B
(A
\302\267
(90))
B)C,
of the
expansion
= (A.
elementary
tern1S.
By using
sho,v that
Theorem
the triple
ca11
X C
easily
has the
expanSIon)
X
(A
EXAMPLE
C = -4i
A
45.
+ k,
(B X
X C
B)
Given
= (A.
A
B)
- j,
and
= 9i + lIj -
(A
2i
C)B - (B \302\267
C)A.
- 3j + k, B = i
X C =
=
=
5k
- 3j +
k)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
150)
EXERCISES
1.
Verify
2.
If A,
B) X
(A X
that
B, and
C = (A. C)B
C are given
(B X C) X
in
as
(B
\302\267
C)A.
45, compute
Example
B X
and
GEOMETRY)
(C X
A).
(A
B) X
D) =
(C X
(A
\302\267
D)C
(A X
B \302\267
C)D
(91))
and)
(A X
4. By
(A
(C X
B) \302\267
D)
making use
of
\302\267
B
= (A.
(91),
- (A.
C)(B \302\267
D)(B \302\267
C)
D)
show
that
(A X
B) X
(A
(92)
C)
C)A.
5. Prove
Lagrange's identity:
(a2 b s - a Sb2)2 + (aSb l - a 1bs)2 + (a1b 2 - a 2b1)2
= (a12 + a2 2 + as 2 )(b 1 2 + b 2 2 + b S2) - (a1b1 + a2 b 2
Use (92), which is, indeed,sometimesreferred
(Hint.
the Generalized Identity of Lagrange.)
6. If A,
B,
C,
and
D are
(A X
coplanar\"
B) X
prove
that)
(C X D) = o.)))
+ a sb s )2.)
to
as
trigonometry)
short
This
of
application
standard
the
chapter is devoted to illustrating
notions to the development of
vector
of
formulas
and
plane
trigonometry.
spherical
PLANE
Law
where
TRIGONOMETRY
of cosines.
= a,
IAI
IBI
and
that)
\302\267
e
c2
gIves)
c2
of
sines.
(B
2
a
\302\267
(B
A)
2
+ b
2
+ b
Here we
2A
A)
\302\267
B.)
get
the
- 2ab cosI')
80,
that
A,)
When we expand
law of cosines)
Law
particularly,
familiar
(93))
the
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
152)
FIGURE
of
sides
angles.
the
triangle
We
therefore
c X C = CX
which implies)
80)
of Figure
employ
o =C
(B
GEOMETRY)
cross product)
-
A),)
C X
A,)
or)
A =
C X
Equating
(94)
the
CX
of left
magnitudes
B.)
(94))
yields)
sin {3 =
ca
which is
law
the
to
equivalent
a
sin
By repeated
the variables,
cb sin
a,
of sines
b)
sin {3
c)
sIn
c)
'
-.
.
a)
sin
\037)))
SIn
'Y)
symmetry
of
(95))
153)
TRIGONOMETRY)
which
the
to
Sum
and
difference
formulas.
sum
and
difference
formulas
requires somewhat
are
fU:fther complicated
eral
cases,
lie.
angles
vectors,
by
Once
by
by the need to
again
means
consider
sev-
on
depending
that
arguments
geometric
messy
simultaneously.
Let
Q and
R be
circle
origin)
as
on a
R =
\302\267
=
R
cos
{3i
sin {3j
cos (a
(3).)
:y)
R)
x)
FIGURE
81)))
circle
in Figure
that)
Then,)
the
(i.e.,
shown
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
154)
Hence)
cos (a
(3)
COS{3
COS a
i
cos
sin
Thus.
which
{3
sin a
cos a
= (sin
sin
(a
(3)k.)
a cos {3
sin
{3
cos
a)k.
0)
- (3)k =
.)
(a
write)
may
sin
{3
(3)k
(96)
of coordinates
terms
In
we
81,
= IQ11RIsin (a .-
Q X R
sin {3.
sin a
(sin
cos
- sin
{3
cos
{3
a)k,
implies
sin
- (3) =
(a
sin a cos{3
sin
a.
cos
{3
(97)
EXERCISES
1. Using
sin
(a
(96)
+ (3),
2.
By
as
requested
and
cos 2a,
methods,
in Exercise 1.
3. Observewhat
(96) and
cos ( -
0)
derive direc.tly
vector
using
(97).
and
Area. The
for
formulas
deduce
(97),
sin 2a.
if {3
happens
- a
is chosenfor
the
area
the
for
formula
familiar
two
terms
(3),
the sameformulas
expansions
of
triangle of Figure 80 in
included angle is an immediate
sides
cos 8
K of
the
and
the
of
consequence
cross
for
products,
K =
\037
\\A
Hence)
Since
cos (a
a triangle
sides,its
area
must
B\\
= lab
sin
is completely
therefore
\037
\\A\\
\\Bl
sin
\"I.)
'Y.)
determined by its
be completely
three
expressible in
vector products
155)
TRIGONOMETRY)
2K
1A
BI.
the scalar
Using
Its
once more
may be written
Consider
area
of
X B,
we have)
4K 2
IA X
= (A.
B\\2
A)(B
B) \302\267
(A
(A. B)2
(A X
\302\267
B)
= a b 2 -. (A . B)2
- A
=
+
B)(ab
B)
(by (92))
derivation
in the
But,
\302\267
(ab
\037f
(98))
B).
- c2
that
we found
of cosines,
law
the
A.B
\302\267
2)
and substituting
4K 2
ab
=
=
Calling
- 2a
t
t
2c
ble
a 2 - b 2 + c 2)(2ab + a 2
+ b + c) (a - b + c) (a + b
\037
(
-a
a +
- a +
= a + b 4K 2
c, we make
b +
c,
half
then)
- 2b)(t -
2c)t,)
c,
c).)
and
c.)
-
\037
(t
2a)(t
4K 2 =
the substitutions
- 2b = a
if we
that
- c2 )
- c)(a +
we observe
resulted
\302\267
2)
\037
(2ab
Thus)
and
c2
a2 + b2
we get
Simplifying,
4K 2
ab +
(28
\037
8 =
i(a +
2a)(28
c),)
- 2b)(28-
2c)28.)))
(99))
have
varia-
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
156)
GEOMETRY)
A)
82)
FIGURE
Hence)
and we
a)(s -
S(S -
2 =
arrive at Hero'sFormul
s(s-
b)(s
the
a for
c),)
area of
a triangle
K=v
are
rhombus
b)(s
perpendicular.
sides of the
as shown in Figure
Let
B,
a)(s
are
the
by
have
we
equal,
rhombus be designated
82. Sinceall sidesofa
IBI.
IAI
(A
B) \302\267
B) =
the
the
quantity
K of
area
=
inside
the
rhombus
the perproduct
= 0,
is. given by
B) X leA
absolute
inner
and
be perpendicular to
B to
the rhombus
21i-(A +
IBI2
IAI2
the diagonalA-B.
Now,
the
take
we
determine
To
value
- B)I,
signs being
twice)))
TRIGONOMETRY
B) X
i-ICA +
K =
Hence
of the
area
the
157
\037
IA
and
center
is
form
the
O.
result.)
triangle.
involving the
We therefore
on a unit
sphere
'Y
the
whose
arcs
circle
great
sides of
B, and
opposite
{3 being
A,
opposite
and
B,
A,
1r
sin
B(
desired
the
is
basic relations
a spherical
C as points
of
angles
consider
- B(,which
the
derive
to
wish
We
B(IA
BIIA -
= i-IA +
B)(
TRIGONOMETRY
35. SPHERICAL
sides.
(A
Then
Since
C.
opposite
\"I
that
being
a,
and
have
\302\267
A
B = cos \"I, B \302\267
C = cos a, and A \302\267
C = cos {3.
As we saw earlier, the angle
is
two
between
planes
determined
most easily by finding
the
between
angle
A
to
Thus
the
interior
the
angle
perpendiculars
planes.
as
is
the
and
OAC
same
between
OAB
the
plalle
plane
A X B and A X C.
Since by equation 92
allgle between
(A
B)
sin
2A
\"I
circle
great
a plane through
globe
(A
on a
shortest
and B
not
distance
C)
antipodal,
\302\267
C
cos a
(A. B) (A
of
great
paths
on the
is along
the arc
A and
great
with
sphere
of
path,
circle arcs.)))
if
Thus,
(unless
points)
we
see
that
A
the
on
lying
unique
Finally,
the
the so-called
sphere.
the
the
than
(other
opposite,
B.
(101))
{3,
the
circles are
the shortest
diametrically
are
latitude
surface of a
a sphere,
or
Great
(100)
C)
Meridian circleson
\302\267
cos
cOS'Y
center
and B are
= B
A =
{3 cos
sin
the
equator) are
sphere
\302\267
great
the
158)
FIGURE
is often termed
which
the
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
83)
law
cosines
of
for
spherical
triangles.
EXERCISE
The perpendicularvectors to
angle equal or supplementary
planes. Verify,
by considering
lars,
that
B and A
the
angle
supplement
of
triangles
by first
(A
(See
X C
equation
the
Taking
does, in
to
angle
the direction
in an
the given
intersect
may
planes
the
between
of the perpendicuthe
scalar
by
product (100)of
A and not the
fact,
yield
angle
A.
now
shall
We
determined
two
B)
derive
the law
of
sines
for
\302\267
spherical
91 or
X C) =
(A
(102)
C)A.
Exercise 4 of Section33.)
magnitudes
of both
members
of (102), we
get)
IA
BIIA
X ci
sin
IA X
BI.lcos
01,)))
159
TRIGONOMETRY
0 is
where
C.
Band
Thus,
we
have)
X
IA
to
is equivalent
which
sin ,8 sin
X (B
A)
yields
IB X
X C) =
(103))
01.)
both membersof
and
Simplifying,
we
(103)
of
BllCllcos
(91)))
(see
of,)
Icos
81.)
have
sin B
(104) we
and
= Icos01
(104)
deduce)
sin,8sin
A,)
an
C)B)
in terms
rewriting
sin a sin B =
which
IA
cl sin B =
sin a
From
\302\267
(A
to)
IB X
triangle,
A((B X ci sin B =
is equivalent
which
law
cos
expression)
(B
by
the magnitudes of
evaluating
Now,
the
= Icos OJ,)
sin A
cl
the
SIn
sin
A)
sin
,8
sin
B)
SIn
'Y
sin
C)))
more
this
devote
We
geometry)
chapter
to a
BY
INEQUALITIES
considerations.)
36.
DEFINED
LOCI
potpourri
of geometric
we
earlier work with lines, planes,and spheres,
discussed
loci that were defined by algebraic
vector)
(and
that
It has no doubt occurredto the reader
equations.
relations
other than equality may be utilizedto specify
a locus.
the
conditions
For example, if P is the
defining
a
in
vector
of
three-dimensional
position
point
space,
< r defines
a
a
that
of
then
locus
consistsof
sphere
Ipl
radius
r and all points interior to the sphere,whereas
> r defines the locus that consistsof the sphere
and
all
I pi
relations
exterior
to it. Analytically, these two
points
In our
be expressed
would
x2 +
y2
x2
and
46.
yv e
y2 +
Z2
>
r,
Further
respectively.
EXAMPLE
Z2 <
-2x - 2 <
160)))
<
x +
1.
MORE
161
GEOMETRY
.\\\\\\ \037\\
y
I
\302\2431
\\
.'
1
Iv
\037
\\II
i\037
r-
,- x)
(a)
y
\302\2432
1
1
(b)
(c)
FIGURE84)
We
first,
consider,
that
locus
line itself
The
locus
consists
is
(but
x +
larger
of points
<
straight
not
by
1.
line,
than
The equation
which
or equal
to x +
including)
= x
+ 1
in
is sketched
reasoning,
the line y
as
1,
the
on the
consists
= -2x +
of
2.)))
84b.
(See Figure
is
\302\2432
a broken
used
have
We
in the
included
not
the
both
\302\2432.
the
does
latter
The
but
\302\2431
boundary
locus
desired
The
of line
portion
the region
simultaneously.
inequalities
shadedin Figure84c.
lower left
may
determine
to
sketches
two
satisfies
indicatethat
two
simulinequalities
be found by combining
the
solution
final
line to
locus.)
taneously, so the
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
162)
that the
\302\2432-portion
of
EXERCISES
1.
(a) x > 0
and
(b) x < y
< 1.
y.
the
is
What
3. Let 0
the
be
x +
2.
shape
vector
the
<
2y
o.
<
(d) 4x
2.
the regions
Sketch
of a
origin
rectangular coordinate
system and
\037
P,
-4
IPQI
= 1.
radius is 3
lie
inside
and
triangle
(0, 1).
6.
(b)
- a = b;
- a < b.
locus
the
is
What
(a) x < I?
(b)
(c) x
(d)
2xl
<
Iy
ABC, where
of points
II?)))
is
2 and
(Assume
y?
< y?
and
of Q?
fact
the
an annular
lie inside
outer
(b)
locus
the
is
What
4. Expressanalytically
(a)
in three
points
Q any
b >
0 in
(1, 0),
B =
geometric
both parts.)
(x, y) suchthat
(1, 2),
inter-
(For assistance
to Section37
5 and
Exercises
with
reader is referred
6, the
c.))
BOOBY TRAPS
A FEW
37.
163)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
the
sketch
we
locus
plane
defined by
the equation)
x+
x +
y?)
because
the
line
glance it appearsto bea straight
is
But
linear.
look
once
of
the
appearance
equation
like terms, that is, by subtracting
By
again!
grouping
x + y from both members, we get)
At first
0=0.)
(105))
locus,
ordered
What
ordered
any
pairs
pair
statement
choice values
for
the
graph consistsof the
of
entire
is the
What
(b)
t ranges
which
Adding
the
line
straight
locus,
for
x=
two
the
- 1!
there
The
is an
every
the
xy-plane.
in
question:
relation? Clearly,
in (105), and the
true.
remains
Let
wrong!
cos
sin
2
t,)
occurred
slip-up
when
2
sin
t
we
blithely
are
ignored the fact that cos t alld
non-negative.
The locus (see Figure 85b) is, therefore,the segment
of
x + y = 1, with the further restrictionsx > 0 and
y > 0, for the given parametricequationsplace such
2
restriction
on
x and
y.)))
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
164)
y)
y)
1)
x)
%)
o)
1)
(a))
(b))
85)
FIGURE
(c) What
It <
Ix
In order to
insight
geometric
gain
2?)
that x-I
or x =
-1.
he
Or,
(ii)
and only if
may
2
to the solution
of
the
aware of the
become
point
point 1.
the
the
(on
distance
In
-2,
axis)
general,
between
fact that
is at
the
this
value,
results
he reasons
in x = 3
=
Ibl
if
problem
equation
- 1)2 =
3 or x
x is
approach
may
which
polynomial
x =
yields
again
relation,
which
For
(x
which
absolute
of
definition
= 2 or x-I
this
into
4,)
= -1.
In
case
either
we
quantity
x and a.
...:..-2
Ix
Thus it is
al
symbolizes
reasoned
that)))
165)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
-'
x
r
A.)
-1)
,r
locus
x
and
1)
2)
86)
2 is
including
3,
arises
the
when
reader
setofall
is that
if
our
(x,
y)
the
< 3,1
Ix
and
- 11<
lines x
the
= -1 and x
now
answer
The
be
may
2.
stated?\"
we seek the
the plane,
is of
that
such
been
has
problem
discussion
-1 < x
L3)
<
I x-II
X
\\
o)
FIGURE
the
A.)
segment
= 3 (see
Figure
and
87).)
)')
I,
\"':I
\037/,
\037\037
\037/
\037
-2
-1
....
\". x)
\037
I'
//,
i%:'l)
FIGURE
1 In
the
sanle set
we
seek
87
{(x, y) Ilx
- 11 < 2},which
is
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
166)
(d) What
Again
ordered
note
that
y) (x
y)
O?)
(106))
that is, if
and
satisfying the
or)
only
given
origin. If point
(x,
from
we resort
x+y=O)
relation
GEOMETRY)
is
b\037th
satisfied.
relations
if y =
-x or y
relation
is a
x.
Thus, the locus
of
lines
through the
pair
one of these lines, the
y) is on either
that this is quite different
(Observe
then
satisfied
simultaneously;
being
the
(107))
x-y=O)
\"and\"
be
between
the
point
the
equations
of intersection
figure.))
y)
x)
FIGURE
88)))
in
of
167)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
to
of
matters
an
we
\"or,\"
locus
the
= -x}.)
{(x,y)ly=x}U{(x,y)ly
the
illustrates
an
simplicity
applica-
elementary
AND CONVEXITY
SEGMENTS
and sufficient
Theorem 4 providedus with a necessary
condition for a vector to have
its endpoint
on a line.
We
now turn to confining
a
the
vector
to
specific
endpoint
segment.
Let A and B be two points and C some point of the
AB.
can be described by stating
This
situation
segment
-4
-4
that BC =
< 1.
< t
where
tBA,
C=
tA
teA
(1
t =
<
That
1.
The
1.
tains
of the
set
all
<
1.)
(108))
form
tA
is
{pIp =
called
tA
convex if and
only
any.
be
points
in
\302\243.)))
rep- t)B,
- t)B}.)
(1
(1
occur when t =
endpoints
the
any two
can be
that
points
is,
segment AB =
Definition.
o<
of the
vectors
position
by
where 0 <
contained
- B),
- t)B.)
Thus
resented
and
B +
some
to
relative
and
B of
S, the segment
it
if
two
con-
points
if,
given
AB is entirely
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
168
EXAMPLE 47.
We
B be any
set.
<
sphereand
its
and
let
origin,
of the
points
IAI
centered at the
set. Then,)
r be
radius
two
of a
the points
that
prove
a convex
form
interior
GEOMETRY
IBI <
and)
r)
r.)
AB is also a
We must show that any point of the segment
distanceof less than or equal to r from the origin. The series
of
inequalities)
ItA +
(1
t)BI
<
ItAr +
=
the
establishes
desired
EXAMPLE 48.
We
1(1 -
tlAI
t)BI
(1
t)IBI
<
tr +
- t)r =
(1
result.)
continue
the
of our ability
consequences
an algebraic
to write segmentsin vector languageby finding
condition that a point lie interior to, or on the boundary of,
triangle.
Let A, B, and
We assume, for the
Figure
where
89)
consists
may
be
r)
C be three distinct
purposes
of the
any point
points
of illustration,
points
not
of segment AB.
(see
segmentsCD,
Again,
c)
A)
B)
FIGURE
89)))
line.
on one
that a triangle
of all the
using)
vectors to
position
tA +
(1
x =
mC
= (1 that (1
Noting
the
ABC,
triangle
sB +
.
whIch
In
tC,
o<
<
m < 1.)
- t)B]
mC.
t)B
t)
m =
r, s, and t
1, we draw
or boundary
interior
of the
point
r + s+
0 < r <
0 < s <
(1
- m)(1 -
are scalars
there
0 <
- m)(1 -
(1
Conclusion. If X is ariy
of
(1
m)t
write)
may
where
m)[tA
m)tA
we
m)D,)
(1
< 1.)
mC + (1 -
x =
V\\Te
consideration,
0 < t
where
t)B,)
under
point of
is any
if
represent points
D of
point
any
represent
Thus,
169)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
X =
that
so
rA
1,
1,
1,
1.)
EXERCISES
1. Justify
2.
Graph
(a)
(b)
each step
y2
4. Representthe
5.
1)(x
points
to the
similar
What
y2
condition
on
2) = 0
2) = 0
those
the
of
coefficients
be
on
the
ABC?
and
prove
the
at the origin
centered
of a tetrahedron
and of a square in
one exhibited in Example 48.
6. State
47.
(c) (x + 2y + 1)( -x + y +
3. Prove that all spheres-not only
-are convex.)
manner
in Example
of inequalities
series
the
loci
the
x 2 --- y2
2
(x
of
converse
of the
A,
B,
and
boundary
conclusion of
C would
of triangle
Example
48.
the result
the
otherwise.
the four vectors
indicates
example
between
(Hint.
point?
auxiliary
the
of
relation
the
why
1.)
8. What
Example
That
is,
B =
(1, 0),
its
(1, 1),
point M
rA
and
=!,
the
follows:
(0, 1)
8B +
t = t.
tC.
associatedwith
i\037tersection
is inside,
of the
in the form
these
of
values
of ABC,
the
outside, or on
boundary
of the
altitudes
triangle.
10. Let
A
of intersection
(point
and
vector
position
M =
vertices as
by its
defined
be
of
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
170)
(0, 0,
by
its vertices
(0,1,0)
as follows:
and
(0, 0,
1).
an
necessary conditions,
(a) Write
stipulating
expression,
for point X to be on the face ABC of the tetrahedron.
(b) Do likewise for X to be on the face BCD.
(c) How would you guarantee that X be inside (not on the
of
boundary)
39. LINEAR
the
meat
(beef
tetrahedron?)
PROGRAMMING
Considerthe
A hospital
given
following
problem.
its
in
suggested by a Jack Spratt problem
Problems for First-Year Algebra\"
by
in The
Donovan
and Marilyn Zweng,
published
is recomfine
article
Mathematics Teacher, March 1960. This
in the details of a successful
mended to the readerwho is interested
experiencein the teaching of linear programming to high school
2
This
\"Linear
students.)))
problem
was
Programming
Lichtenberg
MORE
171)
GEOMET:ay)
and
of fat
1.5 pounds
requires 2 pounds of lean meat
which
meat per person per week.
costs
The
$1.00
beef,
The pork,which
is 0.2 fat and 0.8 lean.
costs
pe\037 pound
is 0.6 fat and 0.4 lean. If the hospital
$.75
per pound
has200 patients
on this
diet, and if it cannot purchase
more than 900 pounds
of meat
per week because of
refrigerator space,find out how many pounds of beef
programming.
involving
program
we
that
fact
will
programming
determine a
the
Here
operations.
optimum
hospital
of
seeks a program(for the purchasing
meats)
in
that
it
would
the
sense
the
satisfy
optimum
the hospital while minimizingthe cost.
Let's
the
extract
which
needs
the
from
data
pertinent
so
is used because
be linear rela-
The word
are trying to
see.
soon
we
linear
variables
the
purchased
elementary problemsof
word
The
the relations
shall
tions as
stems from the
for
of the
is typical
problem
linear
be
should
pork
is
of
hospital
problem. Let
B = poundsof
to
beef
purchase
each
week,
each
week.
The restriction
>
of
O)
rest
of the
space
refrigerator
B + P
The
and)
<
and
> o.)
(a))
tells
us
that)
900.)
(b))
be
in
summarized
table)
Fat
,.,'
\"'.
Lean
CostjIb
$1.00
Beef
0.2
0.8
Pork
0.6
0.4
0.75)))
the
172)
200
a total.of
Since
required,
0.8B
is required,
0.2B
of
we
the
tions
meat
(d))
(a)
yields
(d)
is
then,
problem,
a
minimum
(e))
turn
of
ordered
0, P >
0,
2B + P
pairs
is)
set
This
given
to finding,
attention
our
we
+ :P .)
Band
= B
P)
the earlier
with
involving
inequalities
R =
of fat
pounds
> 300.)
0.6P
an expression
write
accordance
that
300
(c))
purchase)
C(B,
Our
\302\267
1.5
In
> 400;)
have)
we
Finally,
meat is
of lean
pounds
+ JP
of 200
a total
since
and
400
that)
see
we
\302\267=
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
P <
900,
> 1000,
B
3P
> 1500}.)
in Figure 90.
The set R is the darkest
shown
We
region
have thus narrowedthe choiceof orderedpairs to those
number
of
of
the
triangle
R, but we still have an infinite
too many for a trial and error prochoices-certainly
cedure
unless
we were willing to settle for an approximate
answer.
however,
Fortunately,
assist us in narrowing
Theorem
12.
search
the
Let f
be
linear
of definition is a
polygon.
of f(x, y) is attained at a
to
considerably.
function
The
convex
vertex
a theorem
is
there
of
the
whose domain
value
minimum
polygon.
(The)))
173)
MORE GEOMETRY
P)
1000)
500)
B)
1000)
(0,0))
90)
FIGURE
word \"maximum\"
without
disturbing
to
Returning
vertices of
the
as:
U = (300,400).
original
S =
Theorem
Applying
narrowed
1500)
our search to
determine the
(600,300), and
12,
the pointsS,
T,
has
which
and
U,
we
evaluate)
giving
pounds
'.gram
C(100,800)
= 1 \302\267
100
C(600,300)
= 1 \302\267
600
C(300,400)
= 1 \302\267
300
\302\267
800
$700
\302\267
$825
\302\267
$600,)
4
300
\037
3
+
400
400
the conclusion that 300 pounds of beef and
of pork make up the optimum purchasing profor
the
hospital.)))
174)
P 2 (X2,
show
We
Y2).
the end-points
the
of
is con-
when
y)
= (Xl, YI)
where
and
PI
under this restriction, the
values
of f(x, y) are attained at
2
segment.
leari1ed that
38 we
Section
c.)
that,
minimum
and
maximum
In
P 1P
to the segment
.fined
by
of f(x,
values
the
consider
first
linear
the
of
by)
given
= ax +
f(x, y)
We
of Theorem 12.
at P = (x, y) be
Proof
function
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
the segmentP IP
if
belongs to
(x, y)
2 , then)
X =
(1
lYl +
(1
0 <
l <
y
in
which
= aX2 +
= (ax2 +
= f(X2,
Hence
values
the
l)X2
l)Y2
X2 +
l(XI
Y2 +
l(Yl
j(x, y) = a[x2+
o < l
lXI
l(XI
bY2
l(axi.
+
bY2
Y2)
X2)] +
b[Y2
aX2
l[(axi +
c) +
YI)
l[f(XI
of
Y2),
f at
l(Yl
bYl
bYI
P is
f(X2,
bY2)
Y2)]
c)
- (ax2 +
bY2
c)]
Y2)].
and
f(x, y) ranges between f(Xl, YI)
f(X2, Y2) as
< 1. The extreme
and
(maximum
minimum)
of the function are attainedat the endpointsof
segment.
What
Query.
amine
the
an exercise
for
tionsof
the
polygon
and
expressions
to
exhibit
of
\"linear.\)
proof
of
your
proof
reader,
convexity
with
answer
f(X2,
12 is
Theorem
the hint that the
are essential.
for
Ex-
Y2)?
is substantianted.
left as
defini-
this
speaking,
Strictly
if f(Xl, YI)
happens
proof to see if
The remainder of the
X2),
175)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
ADDITIONAL EXERCISE
the
Make
in the
replacements
following
statement
Theorem
of
12:)
for
\"polyhedron\"
\"f(x,
y, z)\"
and
\"polygon,\"
for\" f(x,
y).\
EXAMPLE
for
moving
cents
per
pound
A moving
furniture
-<F<-,
Then)
-4
4-
1
3
-<C<-.
4- -4)
and)
since
Furthermore,
we have
crates,
a load
consists entirely
furniture
of
and
the additionalrelation)
F
+ C
= 1.)
a segment,
These three relations define
as shown in Figure 91.
of cost on a one-dimenOur problemreducesto a consideration
are (-1-, : ) and (i, \037
sional set, a segment whose
).
endpoints
the
relation
The cost K(F, C) is given
by
K(F, C) = .25F +
.15C.
K 1' 4
3
(
Hence,
pound,
= 0.25
)
3' 1
4
= 0.25
1
+
4
( )
3
0.15
4
( )
1
+ 0.15 4
( 4)
( )
be
22!
0.70= 0.175
0.90
\037
4
be
17
cents per
0.225.)
\037 cents
pound.)))
per
ELEMENTARY
176)
VECTOR
GEOMETRY)
c)
1)
(i,t))
3
4\
1
'2)
1
4\"
(f,t)
(0,0)
'2
91)
FIGURE
bats
A sporting
50.
EXAMPLE
which are
bats,
to size and then
softball
and
4)
dries, polishes,
6 minutes to
a softball
produce
ates
operto
for
because
3 minutes
of loading
The
b =
the number
of baseballbats produceddaily,
8 =
the number
of softball
restriction
(4
\302\267 minutes
60
glves)
6b
+ 38
bats produceddaily.
per day)
< 240 or
2b +
on the lathe
8
<
80.)
operation
(a))))
177)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
The restriction
machine gives)
3b +
180
60.)
(b))
data are
the relation
the
all
and
o.
(c)
8 >
o.
(d))
8)
PCb,
Thus
finishing
b >
day would
8) per
PCb,
profit
(a)-(d)
8 <
b +
or)
the
also that)
We know
The
<
38
on
day)
be
b +
:8 .)
(e))
summarized in terms of
(e). We seek to maximize
inequalities
restrictions
PCb, 8) on
(a)-(d).
of
vertices
The
the
polygon are
o = (0,0),
Evaluating
would
maximum
bats
(40, 0),
the
profit
at
B =
these
achieved
be
(20,40),
four
by the
and
points
(0, 60).
shows that a
production
softball
of
only.)
s)
80)
40
B)
20)
b)
0(0,0)
20)
60)
FIGURE
92)))
80)
GEOMETRY
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
178
amounts
makes
concern
chocolate.
bitter
that
for the
can be
various
sold are
as follows)
milk-400
per day
pounds
semisweet-300
bitter-200
If the
for
is 80
profit
semi-sweet,
the
per day.
pounds
the program
determine
maximize
would
profit.
two
for
8 =
pounds
b =
pounds
of bitter
pounds
varipur-
of milk
Then)
< 500
m+8+b
0<
The
m
\037
profit
:8 +
function
b
\037 (in
The graph
An algebraic
A
P is
400
o < 8
< 300
o<
<
(b)
(c)
200.)
(d))
b)
dollars).
in
93.
of restrictions (a)-(d) is shown
Figure
solution for the vertices of the polyhedron shows
B =
(400,0,100),
D = (200,300,0), E
and
(400,0,0),
(0,
(300,
<
(a)
producing
only
is
The latter alternative
500 pounds would
always
concludethat two kinds
So the searchis confined
300,
C = (400,100,0),
F =
(0, 0, 200),
achieve
a maximum
200),
0, 200).
concernwould
or one type of
types
because
excluded
producing
two
in a loss.
of chocolate
should
result
to
an
investigation
chocolate.
less than
We may therefore
be manufactured.
of the profit at)))
179)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
b)
E)
400
:> 8)
500)
m)
FIGURE
points
m
A, C, D, E, and G-the
b = 500.
93)
a plane
of
points
8 +
The computation
cise
for
the
of
these
at
profit
vertices is
represented
by
left as an exer-
reader.)
EXERCISES
problem.
that
restriction
that
can be
the
sold is 100
day.
pounds
per
2. Find
- 1
the minimum
on the set defined
4y
variable
the
and
values
maximum
by
the
- 2x +
inequalities
3y
< 2
x+y
x+
<
2y
>
3.)))
of I(x, y)
= 2x +
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
180)
3. The delivery
trucks
capacityof 1000
least 400 gallons
On each trip a
gallons.
of regular
gasoline, at
owned
by
GEOMETRY)
company have a
truck must carry at
least 200 gallons of
oil
an
high
If the
done with
4. Assume
What kind
5.
two
only
variables.)
mountain
climbing
an
per
unit
expedition.
of carbohydrate
Units of
protein
Units of
fat
units,
of the
ARISING IN
40. THEOREMS
The
the
study
same
measurements,
the
minimum?))
MORE
GEOMETRIES
of projective
Euclidean
in
discussed
entities
climbers.
mountain
that
the convex region
(Observe
in this
case.
How do you know that
GENERAL
1
$1)
carbohydrate units, 18
the minimum
cost
diet
and
the requirements
satisfying
3
4
are 10
requirements
6 fat units.
Find
minimum
The
1
3
$2
Cost
protein
A-rations
and costs
wishes to purchase
The food values
party
Units
capacity.
as follows:)
classified
are
to
discards
and
the
focuses
notions
However,
geometry,
projective
of distance and
attention
on incidence
angle
prop-
181)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
and
Courant
H.
S.
M.
by
Robbins, and to
Coxeter.
We
the
Real
Plane
Proiective
into
look
shall
of the
two
theorems
of
and Pappus.
Desargues' theorem.
If
two
have
triangles
corresponding
vertic\037s
by concurrent
lines, then the intersections of
joined
are collinear
sides
(see Figure 94).
correspond\037ng
that
the theorem
The readershouldobserve
is devoid
with
of metric concepts. It is concerned
neither
lengths
of
of sides nor with the sizeof the angles
the
triangle.
One of the axioms of projective geometrystatesthat
that is, parallelism is ruled out.
two
lines
every
intersect,
Consequently,
the
intersections
to in Desargues'
exist in pro-
referred
may
with
the existence
P,
projective
generalized
s)
FIGURE
of
94)))
hypothesis
of
parallelism
Q, and
R.
version
We
of)
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY.
182)
o)
/)
//
./
/
//
A')
B')
96)
FIGURE
theorem with a
Desargues'
Euclidean
geometry.
D.
Theorem
AB parallel
AA', BB',
A' C' .
In terms of
have
the
to
triangles
AC
A' B'
to
parallel
=
is
vectors
position
collinearities:
following
of
These imply
0, B, and B'.
=
=
B
sB' and C. tC'. And AB
implies B - A = l(B' - A'). But
and
- rA'.
sB'
C
B =
with
lines
to
parallel
while
B'G'
A';
A = rA',
respectively:
we
two
be
Then
use
standard
our
emanating from 0,
0, C, and G'; 0, A,
B-
Hence, r = s =
m(C' -
l.
B') = tC' -
Similarly,
sB',)))
GEOMETRY)
MORE
implies 8 =
= m = r =
which
l
have
183)
C -
in
(Note that
same plane.
to prove.
be in the
out
set
not
may
both
we
result
the given trianglesmayor
The vector proofis
to A'G', the
is parallel
AG
that
states
which
t = m. Combinillg
these
results,
s = t.) Now,)
= tC' - rA' =
r(C' - A'),
we
valid
cases.)
the assumption
Under
vector
present
proof
theorem.
in Figure
As
two
A'B'G'
lines
current
sections
of
intersection
the
use
we
Again
point 0
not
(which
rA +
This triple
Noting
members
(1
appear
that
r)A'
sB +
(1
the
implies
equality
sB =
(1 -
s)B' -
sB
tC =
(1 -
t)C' -
tC
the
sum
in each of
(1
- r)A'
of the
three
(1(1
tC
following
of cor-
pair
every
- s)B'
rA
rA
A'.)
in the
C'
vectors
position
does
con-
inter-
and
B'G',
intersection of CA and
R the
and
A' B'
and
AB
ABC
be
triangles
- (1 -
coefficients of
(1
- t)C'.)
relations:)
r)A'
s)B'
t)C'.
left
and
right
have the
B =
r-s
r-s
8 B_
s-t
t
C
s-t
r
C-
t-r
t-r)
to 1.
equal
1 - 8
1B' _
1C' _
- t
- r
1A' _
t-r)
t-r
from
vector
(109)
B'.
(110)
C'.
(111))
emanating
on
and
A'.
s-t)
s-t
1
r-s)
r-s
and
dividing
by
4,
coefficients
the
of
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
184)
AB,
simul-
is,)
r)
p=)
r -
s)
s)P =
(r -
or
A-
rA
B
s)
sB.
(112)
(113))
and)
(t
(r
the
(114)
= - (s -
- s)P
the
establishes
coefficients
r-s
Q +
collinearity
us
r r-s)
sir - sand
(114))
rA.
give
t)Q
p =
or)
tC
Finally,
which
- r)R =
(t
- r)R,
R,
of P,
Q, and R, for
r - tlr - s
sum
to
unity.
EXERCISE
tIle
divisions
What justification is there in performing
by
r - 8, 8 - t, and
t - r to obtain (109), (110),and
(Ill)?
of these
denominators
What would be implied by any
being
zero?)))
MORE
185)
GEOMET.RY)
theorem.
Pappus'
was
the last
A.D.)
of antiquity.
ticians
that
theorem
devoid
categ9ry
metric
of
of
Pappus
Alexandria
(3rd
century
theorems.
projective
If alternate
of
of the remarkableGreek
mathemaAmong his original contributionsis
can be stated as a pure incidence
theorem,
and
therefore
into
the
concepts,
falling
on
lie
two
lines,
and B'G,GA',
and
G' A
are
collinear.
out
point
to
intersect
once
in
projective
Proof Pappus'
we call U a
Theorem.
of
unit
vector
along
certain
intersections
Referring
and
\302\2431
FIGURE 96)))
(see
to Figure 96,
a unit vector)
GEOMETRY
ELEMENTARY'VECTOR
186
along
a'V
is
collinear
4 to
write)
Since
Theorem
,)
0', we
with Band
lbU
invoke
may
- l)e'V.)
(1
B' and C, we
collinear with
is also
since
eU
B' =
bU,)
(1 - l)C'
L = lB +
And
B =
aU,
A'
and)
write)
we may
Thus
\302\2432.
may
also
write)
(1 -
L = XC +
two
These
X)B'
XeU +
(1
X)b'V.)
imply)
representations
lb=Xe
l)e' = (1 -
(1 which
bb'
Thus)
L =
and)
To
seek
it
can
r,
X,
- ee'
b'e
l=
Similarly,
l and
for
solving
yields)
and)
ee')
bb' -
be'
ee')
X=
bb'
be(b' - e') U
+
bb' - ce ,
ae(e' - a') U
ee' - aa'
- b')
aa ,
bb'
determine
whether
8, and
t, such that)
rL +
(b
bb'-
e)
ee)
V.
U +
a'e'(eee' -
a)
V,
aa')
L, M,
8M
b'e'
\302\267
that
be shown
ab(a'
X)b',)
tN
a'b'(a - b) V.
, -) bb'
aa
and N are collinear,we
=
O.)))
187)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
other algebraic
(What
satisfy
conclude collinearity?)
we may
before
Perseverance
with
the
yields
algebra
elementary
solution)
r = aa'(bb' -
ee'), s
bb'(ec'
aa'),
=
from
linear.
zero
we
which
do
know
we
do
(Now,
that
that
conclude
ee'(aa'
L, M, and
r, 8, and t
- bb'),
?)
theorem
The
Since
German mathematician, Karl G. C.von Staudt.
time much creative work has been done on the
that
of
foundations
and
geometry
with
its interrelationship
that
systems
can
law
valid
number
a.
in
related
system
b = b
the
\302\267
and
if
geometry.
be
by
the
to a
here
\"dot\"
stands
for
multiplication.))
The geometry
we have beenworking
with
is Euclidean,
Pappus' theorem;and,
conversely,
if
we
had
developed
theorem,
a
its
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
188)
GEOMETRY)
in this
short
closing
by
work,
the
with
hfts resulted
which
dis-
a detailed
into
in the
as
as
well
discovery of many strange numbersystems
There are geometries for which the coorgeometries.
dinate
number
has
system
1 + 1 = O. There are
theorem nor
Pappus'
And
stranger
their
accompanying
variety
of
in
other
and
\037
2;
in
geometries
number
applicat\037ons
agricultural
in
fact,
which
where
neither
is
yet
1 +
fou11d a wide
as the designof
military logistics,
have
systems
as diverse
fields
experiments,
of mathematical
machines.
psychology, and the study
The theorem
of Menelaus. Menelaus of Alexandria,
a treatise on spheres and actuallymade
who
wrote
some
in spherical
in the 1st century
discoveries
trigonometry
is also
noted
for having discovered an interesting
A.D.,
theorem
transversals.)
concerning
ABC
triangle
a transversal
If
in the
AL
LB
BM
MC
CN
of
(115))
-1,
NA
then
We
shall
L,
]f,
prove
and N
only
MC
-1
NA)
,)
are collinear.)
the first
part
as an exercisefor
of
the
the
theorem,
reader.)))
leav-
189)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
A)
B)
M)
FIGURE
all
Consider
point
A,
emanating from
of points
vectors
position
and
These
97)
ratio l: 1 -
AB in the
divides
- m
1 - n.)
M dividesBC
in
the
ratio
m: 1
N divides AC
in
the
ratio
n:
state)
conditio11s
CN
AL BM
_e_e_
LB
N A)
]lifC
1-
l-ll-m)
n)
n)
Then)
\037
lB,
N =
nC,
\037
and BM = mBC=
m(C
B).
(116))
l < 1, n < 1, and
(Figure 97 illlistrates the casewhere
- B = mC - 11\037B a11d)
M
m > 1.) Tllerefore
M = (1 - m)B + mC.)
( 117))
Now,
since L,
exists
a real
we
It.1,alld N are collinear,
know
that
there
rL +
(1
- r)N.)
(118))))
From (116),
(1
Hence)
wh
IC
deduce)
\302\267
h Imp
l =
Iy
- m
in a
now
Weare
r)
terms
in
ratios
three
1l
1-
I-n
l 1-
(1r
- r)n
.)
(1
r)
the
GEOMETRY)
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
190)
I -
I-
r)n
(1 -
r)n
- r)n
(1
- (1
- 1+
1 - (1 -
r)n
which
result
is the
(1
(r - 1)(1-
we wished
n)
I-n
r)n
1 - (1 -
r)n
r)n
(1 -
(1
- r)(l
I-n
r)n
-1
,)
n)
to prove.)
EXERCISES
1.
a + b
aL
= 1, by
(You might
converse
the
Prove
Hint: M
using
try
solving for it in
to
the
relation
eliminate
terms of
one of
and
1 _ l.
n.))))
\037
Prove that
I-n
-1.
by
first
n
l,
GEOMETRY
MORE
191)
A'
A)
\"
\"
\"
\"
\"
\"
\"
\"
\"
\"C)
B)
C')
B')
FIGURE
98)
B'C'
lines
while
be
must
theorem,
with
AB
parallel
AA',
to
3.
Prove
sets
the
following
of three points
parallel to CC'.
Why
41.
is
this
a special
APPLICATIONS
special
PARAMETRIC
EQUATIONS TO LOCUSPROBLEMS
wheel
set
An
on
a line
interesti11g
and perproblem,)))
192)
FIGURE
and
ing
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
point
Figure
P on
is the
the rim
99)
results
whose
one
problems,
GEOMETRY)
following:
as the wheelrollsalong
the
line?
(See
99.)
To simplify matters
allow
the
line to be the x-axis
and let P beginat the
of
the
coordinate
system.
r the
We call C the center
radius
of the wheel. The
which
the
the
parameter 8 isusedto denote
through
the)
radius
CP has rotated. Referring to
100,
we
origin
and
angle
Figure
y)
x)
F)
M(x,O))
FIGURE
100)))
193)
GEOMET.RY)
MORE
......-...)
OF
distance
horizontal
assumption
that
the
trigonometry
we
know
in
......-...
fact in determining
x =
from
r8.
PQ
= r
x
sin 8,
=
to
referring
Again,
Hence)
PQ
-.
PC
r)
r(8 - sin8).
100, we
= CF -
CP
cos 8
- r cos8 =
note
=
QC
that)
- QCj
= r cos 8.
r(l -
cos
8),)
we have)
=
{Y
as
PQ
- r sin 8 =
Figure
PQ.)
of P is
and the x-coordinate
= FQ
= MP
but)
and
r8
P.)
see that)
PCQ we
.
important
of
- MF = r8 -
SIn 8
Thus,
this
use
shall
We
triangle
FP =
that
OF =
Thus
radians.
But
is equal to
wheel does
the
parametric
is
which
called
r(8
r(l
- Sill 8)
- cos 8))
representation
of the
desired locus,
a cycloid.
Involutes.
of
use
field
Consider
zero
thickness)
of
instrument
idealsort,
with
circular
post,)))
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
194)
GEOMETRY
Y)
x)
(b))
(a))
FIGURE
101)
circle
is the
being heldtaut).
Letthecircleof
radius
r be
origin, and
(r, 0) on
to take
unwinding
at the
centered
be
at
Since the
TP
sin
unwound
string
......-...
arc
AT,
we
have
GT
and)
8)
TP =
TP
= .TP
is equal
cos 8.
in length
(119))
to the
......-...
AT = r8, which
permits
us
to)))
(119) in
rewrite
are
the
GP
We-
195)
GEOMETRY)
MORE
now
form)
r8 sin
GT = r8 cos8.)
and
to determine
ready
coordinatesof P in
terms
of
the
OF + GP = r cos8 + r8 sin
and y = FT - GT = r sin8 x =
8 =
a parametric
Thus
X =
=
{ y
Vector
8 + 8 sin
resin
the
- 8 cos 8).)
involute
of
8)
the
(120))
- 8 cos 8).)
of assistance in determining
therefore
We
considered.
just
type
r(cos
are often
methods
lociof the
resin 8
of
representation
.)
8),
cos
r.8
8 + 8 sin
r(cos
circle is
8.)
parameter
attempt
in the
of view
point
reader.
the
yj
\037
\037
OT
r cos
TP)
\037
8i +
r sin 8j +
TP.)
\037
We
call
= ai
TP
= Va 2
ITPI
\037
TP
and
Since
r!= 0,
\037
\302\267
OT
we may
ar cos
8 + br
divide by r,
a cos
or)
+ b2
8 + b
a = -b
r8,)
sin 8 ::cO.)
getting)
sin 8 = 0
tan
(J.)))
b.)
(121))
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
196)
Substituting
in
(1 21)
2
2
V b tan 8
b
or
which
+ b2 =
sec 8 = r8,
b =
implies
r8 cos
GEOMETRY)
yields
r8)
a = -r8 sin
and
8.)
\037
now
are
We
an
\037
getting
for OPe)
\037
OP
to the problemof
to return
equipped
formulation
explicit
sin 8i + r8 cos8j.
= -r8
TP
Thus
r cos
8i +
r(cos
r sin 8j -
- 8 sin 8)i
r8sin8i+ r cos
8j)
resin
8 +
8 cos 8)j.
Therefore)
X =
{ y
differs
which
from
the
- 8 sin 8)
r(cos
resin
8 +
parametric
(122))
8 cos 8),
form
(120)!
Why?
EXERCISES
1. The
careless
error
of
parametric
algebra
and
give
a circle.
2. (a)
Find
wheel
the locus
MORE
197)
GEOMETRY)
(a))
(b))
102)
FIGURE
42. RIGID
MOTIONS
motions
are
generally
edges, size of angles). Such
or comtermed
rigid motions and consist of two types
called
binations of these two types. The first,
transB=
a
a
to
fixed
refers
figure by allo,ving
displacing
lation,
B=.
vector T to act on each point of the given
figure
P is translated
That
point
is, if P is a point of B=, the
to Q, where)
\037
\037
OQ
OP
1'hesecond
of
type
figure
is
104
an
shows
ellipse
rigid
about
rotated
+ T.
shall
obtain
for these
expressions
analytic
rigid
motions.
Supposeit isdesiredthat
the
of the
translation to the origin
To keep matters straight we
Ilates of a point with
primes.
translation
(h, k)
point
(x,
designate
nl0ved by
y)-coordillate
system.
(h,
k) be
the.
Thus)
) (h',
k') = (0,0),)))
new
coordi-
GEOMETRY
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
198)
Y)
x)
Q)
103)
FIGURE
in terms
which,
lation
vector
Hence)
the trans-
the effect)
hi + kj +
T = O.
- kj.)
-hi
moves
y)
to
point
(x', y'),
and)
y)
y)
x)
FIGURE
x)
104)))
MORE
GEOMETRY)
their
relationship
199)
or)
(x
h)i + (y
x'i + y'j,
- k)j =
x'i +
yj.
X'=X-h
Thus)
y'=y-k)
{
are
T =
yj +
equation)
the
equations
of translation.
a rotation
In order to discoverthe equationsdescribing
the origin of the coordinatesystem,let P = (x, y)
clockwise through the angle 8 to its new
rotate
position
=
p'
For purposes of our analysis,let a be the
(x', y').
that
vector P makes with the positive
the position
angle
about
x-axis
x =
(see
\302\267
i =
Then)
105).
Figure
Ipl cos
a =
Ip/l cos a
(since
y = P
\302\267
=
Ipl sin a
Ipl
(123)
'p/l)
y)
P(x,y))
P'(x',y'))
x)
FIGURE
105)))
GEOMETRY)
ELEMENTARY.VECTOR
200)
and)
=
X'
\302\267
i =
P'
cos(a
Ip/t
(J)
\\p/\\ COS
y' =
P'
\302\267
=
sill(a
Ip/l
(J)
a COS(J
\\p/l sin
a cos
-
Ip/l cos
a sin 8.)
(124),
at)
arrive
X' =
{ y' =
which
(J
right members of
in the
(123)
equations
Imposing
we
(124)
(J
a sin
sin
\\p/l
x cos (J
y sin (J
- x sin
(J,)
rotation
the
describes
analytically
y cos
(J
(125))
stipulated
above.)
EXERCISE
are
Rotations
usually
from (125) by
follow
by a
described
solving
x and
for
pair
y.
of
that
equations
52.
EXAMPLE
We discuss the
circle
the
is at the origin.
The
the origin
under the
Thus,
the
x-I
y' =
circle is
translated
unal
all,
the
circle's
- 1)2+
so that
-2).
2)2 =
(y
4.
The
(1,
point
-2)
translation)
X' =
the algebraictransformation
after
at (1,
is centered
circle
given
becomes
(x
circle
the
of
translation
did
metric
+
X'2
not
2.)
property
that was to
remain
tered.)
EXAMPLE
30\302\260)clock\\vise,
(1, -2)'?)))
53. If
the points of
what
will
the
be the
plane
are rotated
new location
of
7r/6 (or
the
point
MORE
The
201)
GEOMETRY
of the
equations
x'
-x-
1
2
y'
-v
- 3+
2
\037
13
\037
2)
Therefore)
X' =
- 1 = approximately
V3
-0.13
2)
y' =
which states
- v/\037
.3
-2.24,)
approximately
that)
rotation
) (-0.13,
-2)
(1,
-2.24).
?r 16)
thru
EXERCISES
2.
the
Find
coordinates
(2,
4).
of
through
\302\267
4
the
angle
'5.
rotation
the
the
y2 =
axes
are rotated
counter-
r 2 is unchanged by any
axes.
5. A cylindrical
way
termed
(a)
circular
as
to
right
be always
circular.
Provide
cylinder.)))
a reasonable
definition for
the
radius
of a
right
202)
(b)
loose-with
analogy-perhaps
By
(Seethe first
the
of
axis
Miscellaneous
the equation
of the right
methods,
(c) Find, by vector
in the eircle (x - 1)2+
circular cylinderthat cutsthe xz-plane
(z +
1)2 = 1 and whoseaxisis parallelto the y-axis.
6. Let
Po = (xo, Yo, zo) be the center of a sphere that has
=
PI (Xl, YI, Zl) as one of its points. Using vector techniques,
that
prove
(x
- ZO)(ZI.-ZO)
equation of the planetangent to the sphereat Pl.)
-
XO)(XI
is the
XO)
(y
a line
line
fixed
is
said
at
Yo) + (z
vector
is represented
=0
EXERCISES
always intersectsa
angle j-a( < 1r/2), then X
cone with axis cC,vertex V,
a way that it
a fixed
angle
the
in such
varies
to generate
Prove by
vertex
cC in
vertex
and
YO)(YI
GEOMETRIC
MISCELLANEOUS'
1. If
point V
a right circular
a (see Figure 106).
at
methods
origin,
that
axis the
by the equation
an
z-axis, and
X2
y2
3z
vertex
2 =
cone, with
angle
21r/3,
o.)
.\302\243)
FIGURE
106)))
MORE
203)
GEOMETRY)
= (x, y,
of P
vector
vector equation
is the
the cone.
z) on
the
of
cone.)
3. Find
the equation
the z-axis, vertex is at
(0,0, 2),
vertex
and
\037
If AR
(Hint.
\037
sin
but
be determined from
that (i) the equation
8 may
Observe
5.
Prove,
by
vector
of
the
of
one
of
the
sin
IARl
AB.)
is never
AB
and B
that the
methods,
line
of A
the'roles
\037
8;
\037
AR
of
for the
formula
is
is 2?r/3.
angle
find
axis
is
needed;
yields a check.
area of
formed
a triangle
sides of a
the nonparallel
half
that of
side is
opposite
trapezoid.
6. Prove
inclined
to
plane.
7.
Prove:
sum
The
hedron
is equal
of the midpoints
8.
Find
regular
the
to
of the
four
times
squares of the
the
sum
edges of
of the
tetra-
any
squares
of
joins
of opposite edges.
angle
tetrahedron.)))
between
two nonintersecting
edges
of
appendix-
expansion
of
determinants)
the
For
we
determinants,
method
is unfamiliar
a brief
provide
\\vho
reader
of determinant
not attempt to
expansion.
mathematical
communicate
insight
device
theory but merely provides a mnemollic
of
a
compact
ing with cross products by means
The
for
notation.
written
:\037
sents
The
a quantity
three
a2
b1
b 2)
by three
into
deal-
::
repre-
expansion:)
= a 1b2
determinant
204)))
a2b 1.
is expanded as fo110v,\"s:
OF
APPENDIX-EXPANSION
al
a2 ag
b l
b2
bg
Cl
C2
Cg
+ ag
al
b2
b g
C2
Cg
b 1 b2
- a2
a 1b 2C3
C2
Cl
b1
bg
Cl
Cg
- a 1b 3 C 2 - a 2 b 1c3
+ a2bgCl
that
(Observe
205)
DETERMINANTS)
expression
-B X A.)
There are
various
to
\037pproaches
minants,
of
equivalent
algebraic
B =
2 Cl.)
aab
interchanging
leadstoal1
which
is the
have computed. This is the
A X
aab 1C2
several
deter-
expanding
devices
by
one
which
is not
the expansion. However, the readerwho
familiar
with determinants
would be wise to stickto the
in this volume.
of cross products
particular
expansion
In accordance
we view the
with
the
expansion,
given
recalls
cross
product)
(ali
as equal
i
a2
aa
b2
a2j +
aak ) X (bli +
2j
bak))
to)
al
b1
i
\\
b a)
-
a2
a3
b2
(a2 b 3
- a3b 2)i
al
a3
b l
bg
(agb l
al
+ k b
\\
- a1ba)j
(a
1b 2
a2
b2
- a2b l)k.)))
answers)
4.
6.
l =
(a)
SECTION
3)
SECTION
6. 1000.)
.y 89 .
'3
5.
\"5'
(b) l =
SECTION
6.
7.
\"7'
(c) l =
5-3
2'
2.)
6)
are equal.)
They
SECTION 8
- 10k,
C
4i
10j + 4k.
(c) 4i + 12j- 6k.
\037
= 6i + 6j + 14k.
BD
(d) A
(f)
(-18,
4, -30).
(g) (-18, 4, -30).
2. (a) 4i - 8j. (b) 3i + 6j. (c) -7i + 2j. (e) Yes. (f) Yes.
1.
(b)
(2,
+ 4j
+ 10k,B
-6i
- 10k,D =
B = 12i + 20k,
- 6j
(g)
= 6i
3).
-3,
(a) No.
3. No.4.
4
/-
\037
\037
\302\267
(31 + 2J) or
13
- 4
/-
\037
\037
(b)
158
A +
B + C.
14
SECTION
3 \302\267
+ 4j
(31 +
.
2J.)
13
206)))
.y2i
4\302\267
7
0 (a-II.
)
\302\267
1.
207)
ANSWERS)
(b)
-11 V6
(c)
16
(c) 5x +
2y
33.
5-
(b) x =
+j).
+t(3i
+4j)
t)(5i
_ .
2
= 1.
2t,
33 33
-5
2. (a)
\037
5t.
4 +
SECTION
? = (1 -
1. (a)
V29
29
11.
4 units.
(d)
(2i + j - k).
29
;;\037
Because the dot product is distributive.)
-11
and
-.
-,
(b)
5 2
3. (a) 9x + 5y + 25 = o. (b) y = 2x + 6. (c) 2x - y = 1.
4. (6, 0). 6. (a) (2, -1) (b) x + 3y + 1 = o.
(c) x = -2 + (7 V 34 + 5v'58)t, y = 1 - 3(V 34 + V 58)t.
(a) 3y = V3
9. (c) x = o.)
7.
- (6 + V3).
(b)
bj. 2. (a)
. .
(21 - J ).)
ai +
VS
2y =
x +
o. 3. x
. 2.
6.
4. o.
O.
3.
O.
9. -7
14.
5x
ml
\302\267
8.
(a)
mlm2
\037\037
+V
50.
m(x
(a)
m2
1 +
13. (a)
4y
6.
11
5\"\
19
SECTION
6. tan 8
-2.
18
SECTION
1.
17
SECTION
1. N =
(c)
10.
1) + n(y
+ 4y
- 2=
5V3
9 1r
25
-,
arc tan -,-.
9
25 2
arc tan
+9V2
x.
12. x
8y
O.
- 2) = o.
O.
(b)
SECTION
7x
(b)
- 32y
= V3
x + b.
- 3 = O.
20
1. (a) x 2 + (y
1)2 =
5.
208
10.
4 2
3' 3')
(d)
7. (a) 9z + 2y
9. (a) x = -1
x
= 1
10.
(1,
(b)
(a)
V65
3
40.
_/-
\302\267
4.
(c)
141 9,
\037V
(0, 1).
0) and
(a)
5V2
/_'
0) and
(1,
/_
5V2
and
2. (a) 6x +
4y
+ 7z
(e) 4z -
12z
1)2 +
26
(c)
- z+2
2+2
x+4
LIne
3+4
2+5
-5
and
9
4.
1 +
-5
(a)
t.
6_
-4 _ 0
- 0
z =
1.
(g)
2t,
+ t.
-2
- 6t. (f) x = -4
6, 2,
7.
:1. 6.
(b)
in this
non-existent
is
x-3 = y-2 =
3 - 2 2 - 10
(e)
2.
-1).
an d
x-3
3
- 2
(b)
(c) x = 3
3t,
- 34 +
8.
y-2
-4
20t,
/_
/_
14
2t,
-2
/-
181'V
+ 12t.
+ 18t,
V 181' V
==
39
z+5
+ 9t,
Z
10 -5 + 1
= 2
+ 4t,
-12
_
1i
3t,
= 1
y
1.
2-
7\"
(-12,4,
4.
SECTION 24
(c) 2x - y - z = O.
19
88
= 76. 3.
. (a) -.13 (c)-.
5)
... IS gIven
eXIStent.
Z2
= 17.
Two-point form
by x = -4, y
1)2 +
(y
(m ;:C0).)
-m
m,
3m,
(x
SECTION
given
1. (d) 0, 1, O.
0, 0,
(c)
\"'\" j_.
5V2
4. (a) 3, 1, -1
1. (a)
(0, 1).)
SECTION 21
3y
(b)
431
1.
-x
= 2
+ 2 V2.
5
+ COB 8.
31.../+ V 1418.
2
6
COB 8, Y
= 24.
3x + 4y
(a)
GEOMETRY
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
181.)))
209)
ANSWERS)
28)
SECTION
1.
In order
3.
(9,
10
Use vectors
first
be
(3
- 33'
6.
12).
-5,
6. (a)
1r
to have
69'
20
to the
normal
angle.
quadrant
- 39 SIn.
'
20
8.
(3
21
(c) cos 9
planes.
13
_ .
V45)
8. (a) cos9
'
(c)
.
8m
fJ
V3
1.
(a) k - j.
V3)
32
SECTION
O.
(c)
- 4k.
(e) -8j
2. Usetriple
\037
6. (b) x
+ z
7. d =
= 1.
AB
(c)
11.
3.
blC2
b2 C l,
cross
their
is the
product
product.
(a) o.
9.
Acl
a2bl-)
33
SECTION
X
\037
- alC2, alb2 +
a2Cl
- 7j + 5k. 6. A
2. -13i
X AC
\037
lAB
2
scalar
\037
Band
C X D
zero vector.)
are parallel.
Hence
SECTION36
2.
the bounding
Annular
centered at origin
(including
(a)
region
circles. (b) Spherical shell including
the
spheres.
bounding
3. A torus
whose circular cross-section has a radius of
(doughnut)
4. (a) 4 < x 2 + y2 < 9.
one.
(b) 0 < x < 1 and 1 - x < y < x + 1.)
4. If
T4D,
TaC +
6. At
is
ABCD
with
SECTION 38
a tetrahedron
or a square then
0 < Ti < 1 and Tl + T2 + Ta
equals
zero.
T4
9. (a)
(\037,
j-A +
10. (a)
and Tl +
=
T2
iB +
-lC.
TlA +
+
Ta
(b)
(1,
= TlA
= 1.
\037).
1).
1.)))
T2
VECTOR
ELEMENTARY
210)
GEOMETRY)
SECTION 39
1. (a) Note
that
= r8
sin
- a sin
8,
8,
y
- a cos8.
- a cos 8.)
y = r
= r
42
SECTION
1. (a)
6.
(c)
(6, 2).
-
(x
1)2 + (z +
2.
(c)
(a)
e51
1)2= 1.)
y2
z2.
\037
\037
4.
d =
\\AR
3.
3(z -
ARI .
\037.
8 \302\267
2)))
IABI
,\037}
EXERCISES
MISCELLANEOUS
2. x 2 =
test,
41
SECTION
2. (a) x = r8 (b)
2)2
y2.
6.
( 5
58}
index)
Absolute
value,
Addition
of
14, 57-9
9, 11-13
vectors,
Altitudes, 75
technique
')
30
Axioms, 1
196
Cylinder,
Bound vector,
201)
9,
Commutativity,
Dimension,
187
63,
Direction
73
68-70,
Distance,60-1
Coxeter,
76
methods,
vectors, 27,
R.,
Courant,
34
181
H. S.
product,
147-50)
M., 181
135
108-10,
cosines,
Direction numbers,
Convexity, 167-9
Coordinate-free
appendix
141,
49
Cone, 202
Coplanar
21 fi.
191
54-9
Complex plane,
science,
Determinants,
Components,
Deductive
Dependence,
Desargues'theorem,181fI.,188,
19)
lemma,
Bypass
66-7
perpendicular,
Bisectors,
triple,
196
Prolate,
46-9
Basis,
Cross
191-3
Cycloid,
Curate,
point
Auxiliary
Distributivity,
Division
125
110-1,123-5
139
65,
of segments,
Dodecahedron,54
Dot product, 62 fi.')
27-9, 34
ff.
Equilibrium,
10,
20)
211)))
212)
INDEX)
7-8, 10,
Force,
Freevector,
20, 73
Parallel
6-7,
Parametric
11
Galileo,
(= spans), 48
Great circle, 157)
Pencil of
146, 191
100
lines,
63, 89
Perpendicularity,
Planes, 111ff.
19
D. W.,
87
Point-slope
Positive triple, 43
\"If
16
146)
Radial vectors,
Law of
Left-handed
Linear
triple, 43 fi.
Rigid motions, 197-201
Right-handed
43 fi.
Donovan,
170
170 fi.
programming,
Scalar, 4-5
20-21,
combination,
Linear dependence,
7-8,
Mechanics,
Menelaustheorem,
Model,
Negative
Newman,
21 fi.)
10, 68-9,
73
43
40
theorem,
Parallelism,86)
12 fI.)
fI.
Set theory,
21,
Slope,
165, 167
35, 85,
19
81
Slope-intercept
form, 83
Space,49
Span,
Sphere,
unit,
Statics,
ff.
48
106 fi.
108-10
10
Staudt, K.
185,
63
137-43
Shortcut lemma,
43 ff.
triple,
J. R., 53)
Orientation,
Scalar,product,
triple,
188-90
by scalar,
Ordered set,
Pappus'
35
Multiplication
197, 199-201)
Rotation,
Length, 57-9
Linear
181
H.,
Robbins,
7-8
action,
156-7
Rhombus,
150-1, 158-9
triple,
Lichtenberg,
Resultant, 10, 20
158
150,
Law of sines,
Line of
of, 150
identity
cosines,
56
52-4,
43
Radians,
Lagrange,
196
cycloid,
Pyramid,
S., 148)
Murray
170 fi.
64-6
Projection,
Involute, 193-6)
Klamkin,
linear,
Programming,
81
87
additive,
fi.
parallel,
Postulates, 1
46, 49
vector,
Postulate,
only if\", 6
Incidence,
180, 185
Intercept form,
form\037
Position
and
78-
representation,
80, 122,
Generates
Hall,
postulate,
Parameter, 78
9)
188, 191
Stevin,
G. C. von,
Simon,
Straight line, 77
187
10, 11
fi.,
121
fi.)))
213)
INDEX)
16-17
Subtraction,\"
Terminus (= endpoint), 5, 9
Traces,114-15
147-50
Trochoid,
80, 126)
form,
Two-point
Uniqueness of
34
Unit
representation,
magnitude
dependence
of,
of, 4, 6
origin
of, 6
108
Unit vector,
radial, 52-3
subtraction of,
Vector(s),
of,
9, 11-13
zero,
definition
of,
5, 12,
of, 4,
6,..13)
14, 22
136 fi.
product,
Vector
product, triple,
Weyl,
Hermann,
Work,
73)
Zero vector,
16
Vector
bound, 9
direction
7,
unit,
5)
addition
21 \302\243f.
ff.
sphere,
20 ff.,
35
sum of,
Union, 167
of, 7-8
action
197-9
cross product,
Triple
10
free, 6-7, 9
line of
Translation,
of, 6,
equality
Vec.tor(s),
53)
Symmetry,
Zweng,
147-50)
53
5, 12,14,22
Marilyn,
170)))
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primarily
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text
it offers
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into
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Appropriate
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undergraduates,
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algebra as a
of vector
Dealing
proofs.)
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Starting
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Subsequentchaptersexamine
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technique
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book, with solutions at the end.)
trigonometry,
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TO
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& Sons,
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81f2. Paperbound)
available
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segments
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edition published-byJohn
of the
republication
1962.
York,
224pp. 53/8 x
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New
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ExercIsesappearthroughout
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416pp.
53/8
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