1.

INTRODUCTION:The Electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all the electromagnetic waves arranged

according to frequency and wavelength. The total electromagnetic spectrum is divided into
different sections or bands. Each band has a name and boundary which are just convenient
points for dividing the spectrum. The radio waves which are of special interest are the
electromagnetic radiations with frequencies ranging from as low as 3 kHz to around 300 GHz,
also travelling at the speed of light. Naturally occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or
by astronomical objects. Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio
communication, broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, communication satellites,
computer networks and innumerable other applications.
The lowest frequencies are used for special systems that communicate with sub-marines
because of these low frequencies the long wavelengths can penetrate several 100 feet within
water. As the frequency increases the spectrum is used for standard AM broadcasting, radio
navigation, FM broadcasting, satellite systems and many others.
The electromagnetic spectrum spans the entire range of electromagnetic radiation from
the lowest frequency/longest wavelength to the highest frequency/shortest wavelength. Various
segments of the spectrum are useful in exploring the Universe, and enable us to "see" into the
universe beyond what we are able to see from visible light.
FREQUENCY

WAVELENGTH

DESIGNATION

ABBREVIATION

3 30 Hz

104 105 km

Extremely low frequency

ELF

30 300 Hz

103 104 km

Super low frequency

SLF

300 3000 Hz

100 103 km

Ultra low frequency

ULF

3 30 kHz

10 100 km

Very low frequency

VLF

30 300 kHz

1 10 km

Low frequency

LF

300 kHz 3 MHz

100 m 1 km

Medium frequency

MF

3 30 MHz

10 100 m

High frequency

HF

30 300 MHz

1 10 m

Very high frequency

VHF

300 MHz 3 GHz

10 cm 1 m

Ultra high frequency

UHF
Page | 1

3 30 GHz

1 10 cm

Super high frequency

SHF

30 300 GHz

1 mm 1 cm

Extremely high frequency

EHF

300 GHz - 3000 GHz 0.1 mm - 1 mm Tremendously high frequency THF

The lowest frequencies are used for special systems that communicate with sub-marines
because of these low frequencies the long wavelengths can penetrate several 100 feet within
water. As the frequency increases the spectrum is used for standard AM broadcasting, radio
navigation, FM broadcasting, satellite systems and many others.

1.1 VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF) :

Very high frequency (VHF) is the

(International Telecommunications Union) ITU-

designated range of radio frequency electromagnetic wave from 30 MHz to 300 MHz .
Frequencies immediately below VHF are denoted high frequency (HF), and the next
higher frequencies are known as ultra high frequency (UHF).

These names referring to frequency usage originate from the early 20th century, when
regular radio service used the terms LF (low frequencies), MF (medium frequencies),
and HF (high frequencies). These names were standardized by the ITU (International
Telecommunications Union) and extended to higher frequency ranges.

Common uses for VHF are FM radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, land mobile
stations (emergency, business, private use and military), long range data communication
up to several tens of kilometers with radio modems, amateur radio and marine
communications. Air traffic control communications and air navigation systems
(e.g. VOR, DME & ILS) work at distances of 100 kilometers or more to aircraft at cruising
altitude.

Very

high

frequency

(VHF) is

waves from 30 MHz to 300 MHz.

the radio

Common

uses

frequency
for

electromagnetic
VHF

are FM

radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, land mobile stations.

Page | 2

VHF propagation characteristics are ideal for short-distance terrestrial communication,

with a range generally somewhat farther than line-of-sight from the transmitter.

The ionosphere does not usually reflect VHF waves (called skywave propagation) so
transmissions are restricted to the local radio horizon less than 100 miles. VHF is also
less affected by atmospheric noise and interference from electrical equipment than lower
frequencies.

An outstanding feature of the VHF band from above 50MHz is their ability to provide
consistent and interference free communication within a limited range .All the lower
frequency bands are subject to varying conditions that impair their effectiveness for work
over long distances and also suffer from severe interference due to dense population.
VHF bands being much wider can handle large target traffic easily without crowding. In
addition to reliable local coverage they provide several forms of long distance
propagation at times in the 50-160MHz bands.

2. WIRED VS. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION:Wired communication basically refers to the use of a dedicated guided medium for the
exchange of information between two or more devices. Data transmission through cables is the
most common form of wired communication. E.g.: coaxial cables, copper cables, fiber optic
cables, RS-232 cables etc.

Page | 3

FEATURES

WIRED
COMMUNICATION

WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION

Mobility

Mobility is not possible as the Mobility and freedom is the major

cables have fixed lengths and the advantage of wireless
hardware

devices

installed

are communication.

fixed and static.

In wireless communication the data
Data Rate

The data rate is very high ranging rate is limited and imposes a
from several hundred

megabytes restriction on the amount of data

per second and even higher

that can be sent over the wireless

channel

Installation and
maintenance cost

The

cost

of

installation

and

maintenance of the hardware is

very high, including the cable cost
for long distances. Regular repair
and maintenance is needed which

In

wireless

communication

the

hardware is small and cheap and

installation
require

is

very

easy.

comparatively

They
lesser

maintenance and are more reliable.

is tedious and costly.

Data security

As guided mediums such as cables Data security is less here as that in

are used data security is very high. the medium is exposed to all and
It also helps to prevent cross talk also susceptible to interference from
and interference from other signals. other signals. But however various
techniques such as stenography,
cryptography, data encryption etc.
are being used now to enhance the
level of data security.

In wired communication the power

requirement is very high as several
Power requirements

watts are required to run the

In

wireless

communication

very

small amount of power is required

(several milliwatts) and with dis less
power data can be transferred over
Page | 4

transmitting and receiving devices great distances.

and also for signal transfer over
long distances.
The range of wireless
communication is very impressive
The range of wired communication and with the use of suitable
Range

is very limited as it depends on the techniques and devices the entire

length of cable and also on the globe can be covered.
terrain of the land.

3. PROPOGATION OF WAVES:3.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION:Electromagnetic waves are waves which can travel through the vacuum of outer
space. Electromagnetic waves are created by the vibration of an electric charge. This vibration
creates a wave which has both an electric and a magnetic component. An electromagnetic wave
transports its energy through a vacuum at a speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s (a speed value commonly
represented by the symbol c). The propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a material
medium occurs at a net speed which is less than 3.00 x 108 m/s.
Electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) is a form of energy emitted and
absorbed by charged particles which exhibits wave-like behaviour as it travels through space.
EMR has both electric and magnetic field components, which stand in a fixed ratio of intensity to
each other, and which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the
direction of energy and wave propagation. In a vacuum, electromagnetic radiation propagates at
a characteristic speed, the speed of light.
Electromagnetic radiation is a particular form of the more general electromagnetic
field (EM field), which is produced by moving charges. Electromagnetic radiation is associated
with EM fields that are far enough away from the moving charges that produced them that
Page | 5

absorption of the EM radiation no longer affects the behaviour of these moving charges. These
two types or behaviours of EM field are sometimes referred to as the near and far field. In this
language, EMR is merely another name for the far-field. Charges and currents directly produce
the near-field. However, charges and currents produce EMR only indirectlyrather, in EMR,
both the magnetic and electric fields are associated with changes in the other type of field, not
directly by charges and currents. This close relationship assures that the electric and magnetic
fields in EMR exist in a constant ratio of strengths to each other, and also to be found in phase,
with maxima and nodes in each found at the same places in space.
EMR carries energysometimes called radiant energythrough space continuously
away from the source (this is not true of the near-field part of the EM field). EMR also carries
both momentum and angular momentum. These properties may all be imparted to matter with
which it interacts. EMR is produced from other types of energy when created, and it is converted
to other types of energy when it is destroyed. The photon is the quantum of the electromagnetic
interaction, and is the basic "unit" or constituent of all forms of EMR. The quantum nature of
light becomes more apparent at high frequencies (or high photon energy). Such photons
behave more like particles than lower-frequency photons do.
In classical

physics,

EMR

is

considered

to

be

produced

when charged

particles are accelerated by forces acting on them. Electrons are responsible for emission of
most EMR because they have low mass, and therefore are easily accelerated by a variety of
mechanisms. Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a
region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency
electromagnetic radiation observed in nature. Quantum processes can also produce EMR, such
as when atomic nuclei undergo gamma decay, and processes such as neutral pion decay.
EMR is classified according to the frequency of its wave. The electromagnetic spectrum,
in

order

of

increasing

waves, microwaves, infrared

frequency

and

radiation, visible

decreasing wavelength,
light, ultraviolet

consists

of radio

radiation, X-rays and gamma

rays. The eyes of various organisms sense a somewhat variable but relatively small range of
frequencies of EMR called the visible spectrum or light.

Page | 6

3.2 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS:Maxwells equations form the basis of electromagnetic wave propagations. The essence
of Maxwells equations are that a time varying electric field produces a magnetic field and a time
varying magnetic field produces an electric field. A time varying magnetic field can be generated
by an accelerated charge.
Using following electric and magnetic quantities,
E, electric field strength [V/m]
D, electric flux density [C/m2 = As/m2 ]
H, magnetic field strength [A/m]
B, magnetic flux density [Wb/m2 = Vs/m2]
J, electric current density [A/m2]
Js, electric surface current density [A/m]
, electric charge density [C/m3 = As/m3]
Following are Maxwells equations:

Name

Integral equations

Differential equations

Gauss's
law

Gauss's
law for
magnetism

Maxwell
Faraday
equation
(Faraday's

Page | 7

law of
induction)

Ampre's
circuital
law (with
Maxwell's
correction)

There are universal constants appearing in the equations; in this case the permittivity of
free

space 0 and

the permeability

of

free

space 0,

general

characteristic

of

fundamental field equations.

In the differential equations, a local description of the fields, the nabla symbol denotes
the three-dimensional gradient operator, and from it is the divergence operator and
the curl operator. The sources are appropriately taken to be as local densities of charge and
current.
In the integral equations; a description of the fields within a region of space, is any
fixed volume with boundary surface , and is any fixed open surface with boundary curve .
Here "fixed" means the volume or surface do not change in time. Although it is possible to
formulate Maxwell's equations with time-dependent surfaces and volumes, this is not actually
necessary: the equations are correct and complete with time-independent surfaces.

3.2.1 GAUSS'S LAW:Gauss's law describes the relationship between a static electric field and the electric
charges that cause it: The static electric field points away from positive charges and towards
negative charges. In the field line description, electric field lines begin only at positive electric
charges and end only at negative electric charges. 'Counting' the number of field lines passing
through a closed surface, therefore, yields the total charge (including bound charge due to
polarization of material) enclosed by that surface divided by dielectricity of free space
(the vacuum

permittivity).

More

technically,

it

relates

the electric

flux through

any

hypothetical closed "Gaussian surface" to the enclosed electric charge. Gauss's law for

Page | 8

magnetism: magnetic field lines never begin nor end but form loops or extend to infinity as
shown here with the magnetic field due to a ring of current.

3.2.2 GAUSS'S LAW FOR MAGNETISM:-

Gauss's law for magnetism states that there are no "magnetic charges" (also
called magnetic monopoles), analogous to electric charges. Instead, the magnetic field due to
materials is generated by a configuration called a dipole. Magnetic dipoles are best represented
as loops of current but resemble positive and negative 'magnetic charges', inseparably bound
together, having no net 'magnetic charge'. In terms of field lines, this equation states that
magnetic field lines neither begin nor end but make loops or extend to infinity and back. In other
words, any magnetic field line that enters a given volume must somewhere exit that volume.
Equivalent technical statements are that the sum total magnetic flux through any Gaussian
surface is zero, or that the magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field.

3.2.3 FARADAY'S LAW :In a geomagnetic storm, a surge in the flux of charged particles temporarily alters Earth's
magnetic field, which induces electric fields in Earth's atmosphere, thus causing surges in
electrical power grids. Artist's rendition; sizes are not to scale.
Faraday's law describes how a time varying magnetic field creates ("induces") an electric
field. This dynamically induced electric field has closed field lines just as the magnetic field, if
not superposed by a static (charge induced) electric field. This aspect of electromagnetic
induction is the operating principle behind many electric generators: for example, a rotating bar
magnet creates a changing magnetic field, which in turn generates an electric field in a nearby
wire. (Note: there are two closely related equations which are called Faraday's law. The form
used in Maxwell's equations is always valid but more restrictive than that originally formulated
by Michael Faraday.)

3.2.4 AMPRE'S LAW WITH MAXWELL'S CORRECTION:-

Page | 9

An Wang's magnetic core memory (1954) is an application of Ampre's law. Each core
stores one bit of data.
Ampre's law with Maxwell's correction states that magnetic fields can be generated in
two ways: by electrical current (this was the original "Ampre's law") and by changing electric
fields (this was "Maxwell's correction").
Maxwell's correction to Ampre's law is particularly important: it shows that not only does
a changing magnetic field induce an electric field, but also a changing electric field induces a
magnetic field. Therefore, these equations allow self-sustaining "electromagnetic waves" to
travel through empty space (see electromagnetic wave equation).
The speed calculated for electromagnetic waves, which could be predicted from
experiments on charges and currents, exactly matches the speed of light; indeed, light is one
form of electromagnetic radiation (as are X-rays, radio waves, and others). Maxwell understood
the connection between electromagnetic waves and light in 1861, thereby unifying the theories
of electromagnetism and optics.

3.3 POYNTING VECTOR:The electromagnetic waves

carry

energy

with

them.

When the wave passes through a given volume of space, a change in electromagnetic energy
within this volume is accompanied by an out flow or inflow of an equivalent amount of energy.
The Poynting

vector characterizes

the

flux

of

the

electromagnetic

energy.

The change in the EM energy is equal to the flux of the Poynting vector through the surface
bounding the volume under consideration.
In cgs, the Poynting vector is defined as
(1)

where c is the speed of light, B is the magnetic field, and E is the electromagnetic field.
In MKS,

Page | 10

(2)

Where

is the permeability of free space.

For a traveling electromagnetic wave, the Poynting vector points in the direction of the
propagation of the wave.

3.4 POWER DENSITY:The power density at a distance r from the source is

P = Pt /4r2 (watt / m2)
Where Pt is the power in Watts owing from the source and 4r2 is the surface area of a
spherical shell.
For any physical antenna, the energy is focused in a particular direction, and hence the power
density increases compared to an isotropic radiator.
The increase in power density is specified by a parameter called the gain of the antenna, which
is defined as the factor by which the power density is increased above that of an isotropic
radiator. The power density in position (r, , and ) is given by

P = G (, )

P
2
t 4r

(watt/m2)

Where G (, ) is the gain pattern, which is a function of angle.

3.5 POLARIZATION:The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field (E-plane) of the radio
wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the
antenna and by its orientation.

3.6.1 TYPES OF POLARIZATION:Page | 11

There are two types of polarization

Linear polarization
Elliptical polarization.

LINEAR POLARIZATION
Linear

polarization or plane

polarization of electromagnetic

radiation is

confinement of the electric field vector or magnetic field vector to a given plane along the
direction of propagation.
The orientation of a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave is defined by the
direction of the electric field vector. If the electric field vector is vertical (alternately up
and down as the wave travels) the radiation is said to be vertically polarized. If the
electric field vector is horizontal (alternately left and right as the wave travels) the
radiation is said to be horizontally polarized.

(Fig no:- 1)
( Diagram of the electric field of a light wave (blue), linear-polarized along a plane (purple line), and consisting of
two orthogonal, in-phase components (red and green waves)

ELLIPTICAL POLARIZATION
Elliptical polarization is the polarization of electromagnetic radiation such that the tip of
the electric field vector describes an ellipse in any fixed plane intersecting, and normal to, the
Page | 12

direction of propagation. An elliptically polarized wave may be resolved into two linearly
polarized waves in phase quadrature, with their polarization planes at right angles to each
other.

(Fig no:- 2)
(Diagram of the electric field of a light wave (blue), elliptically-polarized along a plane (purple line), and consisting
of two orthogonal, in-phase components (red and green waves)

CIRCULAR POLARIZATION
Circular polarization can be considered as a special case of elliptical polarization. Circular
polarization of an electromagnetic wave is a polarization in which the electric field of the passing
wave does not change strength but only changes direction in a rotary manner.
Page | 13

(Fig no:- 3)

(The electric field vectors of a traveling circularly polarized electromagnetic wave.)

(Fig no:- 4)
(Classification of polarization)

3.6 INVERSE SQUARE LAW:-

Page | 14

An inverse-square law is any physical law stating that a specified physical quantity or
intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source of that physical
quantity. In equation form:

Newton's law of universal gravitation follows an inverse-square law, as do the effects

of electric, magnetic, light, sound, and radiation phenomena.

The inverse-square law generally applies when some force, energy, or other conserved
quantity is radiated outward radially in three-dimensional space from a point source. Since
the surface area of a sphere (which is 4r2 ) is proportional to the square of the radius, as
the emitted radiation gets farther from the source, it is spread out over an area that is increasing
in proportion to the square of the distance from the source. Hence, the intensity of radiation
passing through any unit area (directly facing the point source) is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the point source.

In terms of light and radiation, the intensity (or illuminance or irradiance) of light or other
linear waves radiating from a point source (energy per unit of area perpendicular to the source)
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source; so an object (of the same
size) twice as far away, receives only one-quarter the energy (in the same time period).

More generally, the irradiance, i.e., the intensity (or power per unit area in the direction
of propagation), of a spherical wavefront varies inversely with the square of the distance from
the source (assuming there are no losses caused by absorption or scattering).

Page | 15

(Fig no:- 5)

3.7 DERIVATION OF Friis TRANSMISSION FORMULA:To begin the derivation of the Friis Equation, consider two antennas in free space (no
obstructions nearby) separated by a distance R.

(Fig no:- 6)
(Transmit (Tx) and Receive (Rx) Antennas separated by R.)

Assume that

Watts of total power are delivered to the transmit antenna. For the moment,

assume that the transmit antenna is omnidirectional, lossless, and that the receive antenna is in
the far field of the transmit antenna. Then the power density p (in Watts per square meter) of the
plane wave incident on the receive antenna a distance R from the transmit antenna is given by:
Page | 16

If the transmit antenna has an antenna gain in the direction of the receive antenna given by
, then the power density equation above becomes:

The gain term factors in the directionality and losses of a real antenna. Assume now that the
receive antenna has an effective aperture given by
antenna (

. Then the power received by this

) is given by:

Since the effective aperture for any antenna can also be expressed as

The resulting received power can be written as:

[Equation 1]

This is known as the Friis Transmission Formula. It relates the free space path loss, antenna
gains and wavelength to the received and transmit powers. This is one of the fundamental
equations in antenna theory, and should be remembered (as well as the derivation above).
Another useful form of the Friis Transmission Equation is given in Equation [2]. Since
wavelength and frequency f are related by the speed of light c (see intro to frequency page), we
have the Friis Transmission Formula in terms of frequency:
Page | 17

[Equation 2]

3.8 LINK BUDGET:A link budget is the accounting of all of the gains and losses from the transmitter,
through the medium (free space, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver in
a communication system. It accounts for the attenuation of the transmitted signal due to
propagation, as well as the antenna gains, feedline and miscellaneous losses. Randomly
varying channel gains such as fading are taken into account by adding some margin depending
on the anticipated severity of its effects. The amount of margin required can be reduced by the
use of mitigating techniques such as antenna diversity or frequency hopping..
A simple link budget equation looks like this:
Received Power (dBm) = Transmitted Power (dBm) + Gains (dB) Losses (dB)
EIRP:-

In radio communication systems, equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) or,

alternatively, effective isotropically radiated power[1] is the amount of power

that a

theoretical isotropic antenna (which evenly distributes power in all directions) would emit to
produce the peak power density observed in the direction of maximum antenna gain. EIRP can
take into account the losses in transmission line and connectors and includes the gain of the
antenna. The EIRP is often stated in terms of decibels over a reference power emitted by an
isotropic radiator with an equivalent signal strength. The EIRP allows comparisons between
different emitters regardless of type, size or form. From the EIRP, and with knowledge of a real
antenna's gain, it is possible to calculate real power and field strength values.

where

and

antenna gain (

(output power of transmitter) are in dBm, cable losses (

) is in dB, and

) is expressed in dBi, relative to a (theoretical) isotropic reference antenna

The EIRP is used to estimate the service area of the transmitter, and to coordinate transmitters
on the same frequency so that their coverage areas do not overlap.
For a line-of-sight radio system, the primary source of loss is the decrease of the signal power
due to uniform propagation, proportional to the inverse square of the distance.
Page | 18

1. Transmitting antennas are for the most part not isotropic aka omnidirectional.
2. Completely omnidirectional antennas are rare in telecommunication systems, so almost
every link budget equation must consider antenna gain.
3. Transmitting antennas typically concentrate the signal power in a favoured direction,
normally that in which the receiving antenna is placed.
4. Transmitter power is effectively increased (in the direction of highest antenna gain). This
systemic gain is expressed by including the antenna gain in the link budget.
5. The receiving antenna is also typically directional, and when properly oriented collects
more power than an isotropic antenna would; as a consequence, the receiving antenna
gain (in decibels from isotropic, dBi) adds to the received power.
6. The antenna gains (transmitting or receiving) are scaled by the wavelength of the
radiation in question. This step may not be required if adequate systemic link budgets
are achieved.
A link budget equation including all these effects, expressed logarithmically, might look like this:

where:

= received power (dBm)

= transmitter output power (dBm)

= transmitter antenna gain (dBi)

= transmitter losses (coax, connectors...) (dB)

= free space loss or path loss (dB)

= miscellaneous losses (fading margin, body loss, polarization mismatch, other

losses...) (dB)

= receiver antenna gain (dBi)

= receiver losses (coax, connectors...) (dB)

The loss due to propagation between the transmitting and receiving antennas, often
called the path loss, can be written in dimensionless form by normalizing the distance to
the wavelength:
(dB) = 20log[4distance/wavelength] (where distance and wavelength are in

the same units)

When substituted into the link budget equation above, the result is the logarithmic form
of the Friis transmission equation.

In some cases it is convenient to consider the loss due to distance and wavelength
separately, but in that case it is important to keep track of which units are being used, as
each choice involves a differing constant offset. Some examples are provided below.
Page | 19

(dB) = 32.45 dB + 20log[frequency(MHz)] + 20log[distance(km)] [1]

(dB) = - 27.55 dB + 20log[frequency(MHz)] + 20log[distance(m)]

(dB) = 36.6 dB + 20log[frequency(MHz)] + 20log[distance(miles)]

These alternative forms can be derived by substituting wavelength with the ratio of
propagation velocity (c, approximately 310^8 m/s) divided by frequency, and by
inserting the proper conversion factors between km or miles and meters, and between
MHz and (1/sec).

3.9 PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:When the electromagnetic waves are propagated from the transmitter antenna, it travels in a
free space, up to receiver antenna. The movement of theses electromagnetic waves took place
by different ways. Each way of propagation is explained as below.
1. Ground waves
2. Sky Waves
3. Space Waves / Line of sight (LOS)

(Fig no:- 7)

Page | 20

3.9.1 GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION:When the electromagnetic waves are propagated and if it travels along the surface of the
earth towards the receiver antenna, this type of propagation is called ground waves
propagation, and this type of electromagnetic waves are known as ground waves. The
frequency of these waves is up to 3 MHz this type of waves is also known as surface waves. All
medium wave broadcast, long wave telegraph and telephone communication is carried out by
Ground Wave propagation or Surface Wave propagation .
Ground waves travel between two limits, the earth and the ionosphere, which acts like a
duct. Since the duct curves with the earth, the ground wave will follow. Therefore very long
range propagation is possible using ground waves.
The attenuation of Ground Wave, as they travel along the surface of earth is proportional
to frequency of the wave. This attenuation of waves is reasonable low at the frequency below
15KHz.

Page | 21

(Fig no:- 8)

3.9.2 SKY WAVE PROPAGATION:Radio waves in the LF and MF ranges may also propagate as ground waves, but suffer
significant losses, or are attenuated, particularly at higher frequencies. But as the ground wave
mode fades out, a new mode develops: the sky wave. Sky wave propagation used for point to
point communication, large distance radio communication and short wave radio communication.
We can cover the whole globe by Sky wave propagation.
In this mode of propagation electromagnetic waves reach the receiving point after
reflection from the Ionosphere. Ionosphere is situated from 100km to 400km above the earth
surface. Ionosphere has an ability to reflect electromagnetic wave of 2MHz to 30MHz frequency
range. Electromagnetic wave of the frequency more than 30MHz are not reflected back rather
this penetrate the ionosphere.
Ionosphere contains large concentration chare gaseous ions, free electron neutral
molecules. These large concentrations tend to bend all passing electromagnetic waves. The
angle by which the wave deviates from its straight path depends upon the following factors.

Page | 22

1.
2.
3.
4.

Frequency of radio waves

Angle of incidence at which wave enters the ionosphere
Density of charge particle in the ionosphere at the particular moment
Thickness of the ionosphere at that point

(Fig no:- 9)

3.10.3 SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION / LINE OF SIGHT(LOS) PROPAGATION:When the electromagnetic waves are propagated from the transmitter antenna and it
travels in a straight line without any reflection or refraction. It is known as space wave. This type
of transmission is also called line of sight transmission. The frequency of the space waves is
above 30 MHz and the distance covered by these waves is about 100 miles or 121 Km.
In this type propagation the range of the range of communication can also increase by
increasing yhe heights of transmitting and receiving antennas.

Page | 23

(Fig no:- 10)

3.9.4 EARTHS IONOSPHERE:The atmosphere of our planet becomes less dense with increasing altitude. Because of
this, the energy received from the Sun is much greater at high altitudes than it is at the surface.
High-speed subatomic particles, UV rays, and x-rays cause ionization of the rarefied gases in
the upper atmosphere. Ionized regions occur at specific altitudes and comprise the ionosphere.
The ionosphere causes absorption and refraction of radio waves. This makes long-distance
communication or reception possible at some radiofrequencies.
Ionization in the upper atmosphere occurs in four fuzzy layers. The lowest region is
called theD layer . It exists at an altitude of about 50 km (30 mi) and ordinarily is present only on
the daylight side of the planet. This layer does not contribute to long-distance radio
communications, and sometimes impedes them. The E layer , about 80 km (50 mi) above the
surface, also exists mainly during the day, although nighttime ionization is sometimes observed.

Page | 24

The E layer can facilitate medium-range radio communications at certain frequencies. The
uppermost layers are called the F1 layer and the F2 layer . The Fl layer, normally present only
on the daylight side of the Earth, forms at about 200 km (125 mi) altitude. The F2 layer, which
exists more or less around the clock, is about 300 km (180 mi) above the surface. On the dark
side of the Earth, when the F1 layer disappears, the F2 layer is sometimes called simply the F
layer .
Fig no:-15 illustrates the relative altitudes of the ionospheric D, E, F1, and F2 layers
above the Earths surface. All these layers have some effect on the way radio waves travel at
very low, low, medium, and high frequencies. Sometimes, ionospheric effects can even be
observed into the VHF portion of the radio spectrum. These layers not only make long-distance
wireless communications possible between points on the Earths surface; they also prevent
radio waves at frequencies below approximately 5 MHz from reaching the surface from outer
space.

Page | 25

(Fig no:- 11)

3.10.1 SCATTERING:Scattering is a general physical process where some forms of radiation, such
as light, sound, or moving particles, are forced to deviate from a straight trajectory by one or
more localized non-uniformities in the medium through which they pass. In conventional use,
this also includes deviation of reflected radiation from the angle predicted by the law of
reflection. Reflections that undergo scattering are often called diffuse reflections and
unscattered reflections are called specular (mirror-like) reflections. When radiation is only
Page | 26

scattered by one localized scattering center, this is called single scattering, It is very common
that scattering centers are grouped together, and in those cases the radiation may scatter many
times, which is known as multiple scattering. The main difference between the effects of single
and multiple scattering is that single scattering can usually be treated as a random phenomenon
and multiple scattering is usually more deterministic.

(Fig no:- 12)

3.10.2 DIFFRACTION:Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an
obstacle. In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described as the apparent bending
of waves around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings. Similar
effects occur when a light wave travels through a medium with a varying refractive index, While
diffraction occurs whenever propagating waves encounter such changes, its effects are
generally most pronounced for waves whose wavelength is roughly similar to the dimensions of
the diffracting objects.
Page | 27

Wave passes through an opening, called an aperture. It will diffract or spread out from
the opening. The degree to which the cropped wave will spread out depends on the size of the
aperture relative to the wavelength. In the extreme case where the aperture is very large
compared to the wavelength, the wave will see no effect and will not diffract at all. At the other
extreme, if the opening is very small, the wave will behave as if it were at its origin and spread
out uniformly in all directions from the aperture. In between, there will be some degree of
diffraction.

(Fig no:- 13)

3.10.3 REFRACTION:When the wave enters the new medium, the speed of propagation will change. In order to match
the incident and transmitted wave at the boundary, the transmitted wave will change its direction
of propagation.

Page | 28

For example, if the new medium has a higher index of refraction, which means the
speed of propagation is lower, the wavelength will become shorter(frequency must stay the
same because of the boundary
conditions).For the transmitted wave to match the incident wave at the boundary, the direction of
propagation of the transmitted wave must be closer to perpendicular. The relationship between
the angles and indices of refraction is given by Snell's Law:

ni sin I = nt sin t
When the direction of propagation changes, the wave is said to refract. It is most
useful to know in which direction the wave will refract, not necessarily by how much.

(Fig no:- 14)

3.10.4 REFLECTION:When a plane wave encounters a change in medium, some or all of it may propagate
into the new medium or be reflected from it. The part that enters the new medium is called the
transmitted portion and the other the reflected portion. The part which is reflected has a very
simple rule governing its behavior. Make the following construction:

Page | 29

(Fig no:- 16)

1. Angle of Incidence = the angle between the direction of propagation and a line
perpendicular to the boundary, on the same side of the surface.
2. Angle of Reflection = the angle between the direction of propagation of the reflected
wave and a line perpendicular to the boundary, also on the same side of the surface.

Then the rule for reflection is simply stated as:

The angle of reflection = The angle of incidence

(Fig no:- 17)

Page | 30

If the incident medium has a lower index of refraction then the reflected wave has a
1800 phase shift upon reflection. Conversely, if the incident medium has a larger index of
refraction the reflected wave has no phase shift.

3.10.5 ABSORPTION:Absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the way in which the energy of a photon is
taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom. Thus, the electromagnetic energy is
transformed into internal energy of the absorber, for example thermal energy. The reduction in
intensity of a light wave propagating through a medium by absorption of a part of its photons is
often called attenuation. Usually, the absorption of waves does not depend on their intensity
(linear absorption), although in certain conditions (usually, in optics), the medium changes its
transparency dependently on the intensity of waves going through, and saturable absorption (or
nonlinear absorption) occurs.

(Fig no:- 18)

3.10.6 FADING:In wireless communications, fading is deviation of the attenuation affecting a signal over
certain propagation media. The fading may vary with time, geographical position or radio
frequency, and is often modeled as a random process. A fading channel is a communication
channel comprising fading. In wireless systems, fading may either be due to multipath

Page | 31

propagation, referred to as multipath induced fading, or due to shadowing from obstacles

affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading.
The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and receiver
create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse. As a result, the receiver sees the
superposition of multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a different path. Each
signal copy will experience differences in attenuation, delay and phase shift while travelling from
the source to the receiver. This can result in either constructive or destructive interference,
amplifying or attenuating the signal power seen at the receiver. Strong destructive interference
is frequently referred to as a deep fade and may result in temporary failure of communication
due to a severe drop in the channel signal-to-noise ratio.

A common example of multipath fading is the experience of stopping at a traffic light and
hearing an FM broadcast degenerate into static, while the signal is re-acquired if the vehicle
moves only a fraction of a meter. The loss of the broadcast is caused by the vehicle stopping at
a point where the signal experienced severe destructive interference. Cellular phones can also
exhibit similar momentary fades.
Fading channel models are often used to model the effects of electromagnetic
transmission of information over the air in cellular networks and broadcast communication.
Fading channel models are also used in underwater acoustic communications to model the
distortion caused by the water. Mathematically, fading is usually modeled as a time-varying
random change in the amplitude and phase of the transmitted signal.

SLOW VERSUS FAST FADING:The terms slow and fast fading refer to the rate at which the magnitude and phase
change imposed by the channel on the signal changes. The coherence time is a measure of the
minimum time required for the magnitude change of the channel to become uncorrelated from
its previous value.

Page | 32

Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to the delay
constraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the
channel can be considered roughly constant over the period of use. Slow fading can be caused
by events such as shadowing, where a large obstruction such as a hill or large building
obscures the main signal path between the transmitter and the receiver. The received power
change caused by shadowing is often modeled using a log-normal distribution with a standard
deviation according to the log-distance path loss model.
Fast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative to the delay
constraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the
channel varies considerably over the period of use.
In a fast-fading channel, the transmitter may take advantage of the variations in the
channel conditions using time diversity to help increase robustness of the communication to a
temporary deep fade. Although a deep fade may temporarily erase some of the information
transmitted, use of an error-correcting code coupled with successfully transmitted bits during
other time instances (interleaving) can allow for the erased bits to be recovered. In a slow-fading
channel, it is not possible to use time diversity because the transmitter sees only a single
realization of the channel within its delay constraint. A deep fade therefore lasts the entire
duration of transmission and cannot be mitigated using coding.
The coherence time of the channel is related to a quantity known as the Doppler spread
of the channel. When a user (or reflectors in its environment) is moving, the user's velocity
causes a shift in the frequency of the signal transmitted along each signal path. This
phenomenon is known as the Doppler shift. Signals traveling along different paths can have
different Doppler shifts, corresponding to different rates of change in phase. The difference in
Doppler shifts between different signal components contributing to a single fading channel tap is
known as the Doppler spread. Channels with a large Doppler spread have signal components
that are each changing independently in phase over time. Since fading depends on whether
signal components add constructively or destructively, such channels have a very short
coherence time.

In general, coherence time is inversely related to Doppler spread, typically expressed as

Page | 33

Tc = 1/Ds

where Tc is the coherence time, Ds is the Doppler spread (Doppler shift).

4. ADVANTAGES OF VHF COMMUNICATION

4.1 ADVANTAGES OF VHF OVER HF:1. Minimal Radio Interference- Radio interference has a very minimal effect on the VHF
range. This is one of the reasons that it has seen an increase in usage in vehicles. Police
forces, for example, have switched from HF to VHF for the same reason.

2.The effective antenna height in VHF communication systems is reduced compared to

that in HF systems. The reason for this is that the antenna length is dependant on the
wavelength, which in turn is related to frequency as
C= f X
Where c= speed of light
f= frequency and = wavelength
As in VHF(30-300 MHz )band the frequency is higher than HF(3-30 MHz) the wavelength is
reduced resulting in shorter antennas.

Page | 34

3. VHF provides much more secure communication than HF because in VHF there is
Line-of Sight propagation, whereas the HF radio waves are propagated through sky waves by
reflection from the various layers of the ionosphere. Apart from the signal received at the
receiver antenna multiple reflection causes many stray signals which can be intercepted at
unwanted distances.
4. SKIP DISTANCE- A skip distance is the distance a radio wave travels, usually
including a hop in the ionosphere. A skip distance is a distance on the Earth's surface between
the two points where radio waves from a transmitter, refracted downwards by different layers of
the ionosphere, fall.
5. In HF no information is received within this skip distance, so communication in this
region cannot be done in HF band. VHF being LOS propagation solves the problem of skip.

(Fig no:- 19)

Page | 35

4.2 ADVANTAGES OF VHF OVER UHF:-

1. The VHF equipments are usually cheaper than the UHF equipments.

2. Transmission lines lose is appreciably more for signal at UHF than VHF, because the
frequency range of UHF is much higher.

3 .As loss due to scattering and diffraction is more in UHF than Vhf, UHF signals tend to get
weaker more quickly than VHF signals as they propagate outwards from their transmitters
4. Since environmental loss is more in UHF because factors like rain attenuation,
diffraction by dust particles, absorption by moisture and other gases affects higher
frequencies more. transmitter power requirement is more in UHF.
5.Battery consumption of Transmitter is more in UHF in order to emit greater power in
the transmitted signal to account for the various losses and greater coverage area..
6.UHF Transmitter and other equipments are costlier than VHF because of the high
sensitivity ,power requirement and linear devices that are
used for higher
frequencies.

5. MODES OF COMMUNICATION:5.1 POINT TO POINT COMMUNICATION:A point-to-point connection is a dedicated communication link between two systems or
processes.In telecommunications, a point-to-point connection refers to a communications
connection between two nodes or endpoints. An example is a telephone call, in which one
telephone is connected with one other, and what is said by one caller can only be heard by the
other.
The

term

point-to-point

telecommunications

relates

to

fixed

wireless

data

communications for Internet or voice over IP via radio frequencies in the multi-gigahertz range.
It also includes technologies such as laser for telecommunications but in all cases expects that
the transmission medium is line of sight and capable of being fairly tightly beamed from
transmitter to receiver.

Page | 36

(Fig no:- 20)

5.2 POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT COMMUNICATION :Point-to-multipoint (PMP) communication refers to communication that is accomplished
through a distinct and specific form of one-to-many connections, offering several paths from one
single location to various locations. Point-to-multipoint is generally abbreviated as PTMP, P2MP
or PMP. PMP communication is commonly used in telecommunications.

PMP is usually used for establishing private enterprise connectivity to offices in remote
locations, long-range wireless backhaul solutions for various sites, and last-mile broadband
access. As such, it is widely used in IP telephony and wireless Internet by means of gigahertz
radio frequencies. These PMP networks are employed in distribution amenities, huge corporate
campuses, school districts, public safety applications, etc.
The point-to-multipoint topology consists of a central base station that supports several
subscriber stations. These offer network access from a single location to multiple locations,
permitting them to use the same network resources between them. The bridge located at the
central location is known as the base station bridge or root bridge. All data that passes between
the wireless bridge clients should initially go via the root bridge.

Page | 37

A point-to-multipoint network can be easily deployed when compared to the deployment

of a point-to-point network because the equipment has to be deployed only at the new
subscriber's site. The only condition is that all the remote sites must come within the visibility
and range of the base station. Hills, trees and other kinds of obstructions make point-tomultipoint nods unsuitable for office and residential coverage.

PMP systems are categorized into single system and bi-directional systems. A point-tomultipoint network is suitable for either customers or backhaul operations that are in need of a
high-speed, reliable connection, but worried about paying for unused dedicated capacity. The
drawback of point-to-multipoint node topology is its inability to interconnect with other nodes
because of the directional antenna.

(Fig no:- 21)

5.3 REPEATER:It's a two-way radio system that receives on one frequency, then re-transmits what it
receives on another frequency; at exactly the same time. Handheld transceiver, has a limited
range due to its antenna height with respect to the radio horizon and RF attenuating
surroundings. Repeater systems are used to "transfer" the transmitted and received signals to
Page | 38

much higher levels electronically using large, very efficient high gain antennas, low loss feed
lines and a transmitter and receiver that is rated for heavy or continuous duty.

Repeater basically performs three basic operations:

1) It receives and demodulates an RF signal.
2) It regenerates the audio information.
3) It modulates and retransmits the audio on a new RF carrier.

5.3.1 THE BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF REPEATER:-

(Fig no:- 22)

5.3.2 WORKING OF A REPEATER:

ANTENNA:Page | 39

Most repeaters use only one antenna. The antenna simultaneously serves both the
transmit and receive RF (Radio Frequency) signals that are going in to and out of the repeater.
It's generally a high performance, durable, and very efficient antenna located as high on a tower
or structure as we can get it. Antenna systems of this type can easily cost $500 or more, and
that's not including the feed line. On the other hand, when properly installed and maintained
they can last from 10 to 25 years.

FEEDLINE:The feed line on most repeaters isn't just a piece of standard coax cable, it's what's
called Hardline. This stuff is more like a pipe with a center conductor than a cable. It's hard to
work with and very expensive. It is used for its excellent performance. The signal loss is much
lower in hardline than in standard cable, so more power gets from the antenna to the receiver
and weaker signals can be received. A hard rule is that once any percentage of a received
signal is lost that you can't get it back - ever. The signal at a repeater site doesn't just travel a
few feet to an antenna like in a mobile rig. It may go hundreds of feet up the tower to the
antenna. Hardline also tends to be more durable than standard cable, which increases reliability
and helps us minimize the financial expense, and the tower climbs to replace it.

DUPLEXER:This device serves a critical role in a repeater. To make a long story short, the duplexer
separates and isolates the incoming signal from the outgoing and vice versa. Even though the
repeaters input and output frequencies are different, the duplexer is still needed. This is to
prevent a phenomenon called desensitization, or desense, and it's a bad thing on a repeater.
The receiver gets noisy or gets desensitized to the point of total deafness from the strong RF
signals being radiated in its vicinity and confused about which signal it should receive. The
result is poor receive quality, or in extreme cases, complete lack of receive capability.
Transmitting only a few hundred kHz away in frequency would blow away the input to the
receiver if the equipment was simply connected together with a Tee. That's where the duplexer
comes in; it prevents the receiver and transmitter from 'hearing' one another by the isolation it
provides. And the more isolation the better.
A duplexer is a device that is referred to by several different names like cavities or cans.

duplexer has the shape of tall canisters and is designed to pass a very, very narrow range of
Page | 40

frequencies and to reject all others. There is some loss to the system because of the duplexer
(called the "insertion loss"), however, the advantage of being able to use a single antenna and a
single feed line usually outweighs the drawbacks.

RECEIVER:Receives the incoming signal. This receiver is generally a very sensitive and selective
high performance one which helps weaker stations to be heard better by the repeater. It's also
where CTCSS (Continuous Tone Coded Squelch System) or "PL" decoding takes place.

TRANSMITTER:Most machines have a transmitter composed of two parts: an 'exciter' and a power
amplifier. The exciter created low level RF energy on the proper frequency and then modulates
it with the audio. The power amplifier stages simply boosts the level so the signal will travel
further. Transmitters come in two types: intermittent duty and continuous duty. One that is rated
for continuous duty is preferred.
THE"STATION":The term "Station" is used to describe a stationary two way radio set; which includes the
transmitter, receiver and sometimes the control circuitry. One example is the dispatch radio for
a fire department. A 'Repeater Station' is a station designed to be used as a duplex repeater.

CONTROLLER:This is the brain of the repeater. It handles station identification (through either CW or
voice), activates the transmitter at the appropriate times, controls the auto patch, and
sometimes does many other things. Some machines also have a DVR (Digital Voice Recorder)
for announcements and messages. The controller is a little computer that's programmed and
optimized to control a repeater. The various models of controllers have different useful features
like speed-dial for phone patches, a voice clock, facilities to control a remote base or linking,
etc. The controller gives the repeater its 'personality'. Whenever using a repeater, one is
interacting with its controller. In the early days of repeaters the controller was a large chassis full
of relays and timers. These days a controller is most often a microcomputer based unit.

Page | 41

6. FM TRANSMITTER AND RECIEVER:6.1 TRANSMITTER:In the Armstrong system of frequency modulation as shown in the block diagram, the
transmitter has an oscillator whose frequency is held at a constant value by means of a quartz
crystal at about 200kHz. This constant frequency wave is sent through two channels; one
channel consisting of a radio-frequency amplifier which builds up the amplitude of the wave, and
the other channel which includes a phase-shifting network and a balanced modulator. The
balanced modulator is similar is most respects to the standard modulted stage used in
amplitude modulation transmitters. However, in this case the carrier is not wanted

and is

removed by the action of this modulator. The phase shifting network is needed because when
the side bands set up by this balanced modulator are added to the original carrier after a 90degree phase shift one type of frequency modulation is produced. The deviation ratio is very
small and must be multiplied to reach an useful amount.
The output of the combining network is fed into a series of frequency doubling amplifier
stages. These consists of Class-C RF amplifiers whose plate circuit is tuned to double the
frequency of that to which the grid circuit is tuned. The RF signal applied to the grid is thus
multiplied by two and the deviation ratio is also multiplied by two.

6.1.1 ARMSTRONG`S MODULATOR :

Armstrong's modulator is basically a phase modulator; it can be given a frequency
modulation characteristic by an integrator inserted between the message source and the
modulator. For a single tone message, at one frequency, it is not possible to tell, by whatever
measurement, if the integrator is present (so it is an FM signal) or not (a PM signal). Only with a
change of message frequency can one then make the decision - by noting the change to the
spectral components,
We are already familiar with amplitude modulation, defined as:

AM = E.(1 + m.sint).sint

. Eq{1}

This expression can be expanded trigonometrically into the sum of two terms:

Page | 42

AM = E.sint + E.m.sint.sint
Eq{2}
In Eq{2} the two terms involved with '' are in phase. Now this relation can easily be
changed so that the two are at 90 degrees, or 'in quadrature'. This is done by changing one
of the sint terms to cost. The signal then becomes what is sometimes called a quadrature
modulated signal. It is Armstrong`s signal.
Thus:

Armstrong`s signal = E.cost +

E.m.sint.sint

Page | 43

(Fig No:-23)

6.1.2 FM DEMODULATOR
PLL FM DEMODULATION
The way in which a phase locked loop, PLL FM demodulator works is relatively
straightforward. It requires no changes to the basic phase locked loop, itself, utilising the basic
operation of the loop to provide the required output.
The way in which a PLL FM demodulator operates is quite straightforward. The loop
consists of a phase detector into which the incoming signal is passed, along with the output
from the voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) contained within the phase locked loop. The output
Page | 44

from the phase detector is passed into a loop filter and then used as the control voltage for the
VCO.

Phase locked loop (PLL) FM demodulator

(Fig no:- 24)
With no modulation applied and the carrier in the centre position of the pass-band the
voltage on the tune line to the VCO is set to the mid position. However if the carrier deviates in
frequency, the loop will try to keep the loop in lock. For this to happen the VCO frequency must
follow the incoming signal, and in turn for this to occur the tune line voltage must vary.
Monitoring the tune line shows that the variations in voltage correspond to the modulation
applied to the signal. By amplifying the variations in voltage on the tune line it is possible to
generate the demodulated signal.
PERFORMANCE OF PLL FM DEMODULATOR:The PLL FM demodulator is normally considered a relatively high performance form of FM
demodulator or detector. Accordingly they are used in many FM receiver applications.
The PLL FM demodulator has a number of key advantages:

LINEARITY:The linearity of the PLL FM demodulator is governed by the voltage to frequency

characteristic of the VCO within the PLL. As the frequency deviation of the incoming
signal normally only swings over a small portion of the PLL bandwidth, and the
characteristic of the VCO can be made relatively linear, the distortion levels from phase
locked loop demodulators are normally very low. Distortion levels are typically a tenth of
a percent.
Page | 45

MANUFACTURING COSTS:The PLL FM demodulator lends itself to integrated circuit technology. Only a few
external components are required, and in some instances it may not be necessary to
use an inductor as part of the resonant circuit for the VCO. These facts make the PLL
FM demodulator particularly attractive for modern applications.

6.2 RECEIVER:In electronics, a superheterodyne receiver (often shortened to superhet) uses frequency
mixing or heterodyning to convert a received signal to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF), which
can be more conveniently processed than the original radio carrier frequency. Virtually all
modern radio receivers use the superheterodyne principle.

6.2.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:The principle of operation of the superheterodyne receiver depends on the use of
heterodyning or frequency mixing. The signal from the antenna is filtered sufficiently at least to
reject the image frequency (see below) and possibly amplified. A local oscillator in the receiver
produces a sine wave which mixes with that signal, shifting it to a specific intermediate
frequency (IF), usually a lower frequency. The IF signal is itself filtered and amplified and
possibly processed in additional ways. The demodulator uses the IF signal rather than the
original radio frequency to recreate a copy of the original information (such as audio).

6.2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER:-

Page | 46

(Fig no:- 25)

The diagram at right shows the minimum requirements for a single-conversion

superheterodyne receiver design. The following essential elements are common to all superhet
circuits: a receiving antenna, a tuned stage which may optionally contain amplification (RF
amplifier), a variable frequency local oscillator, a frequency mixer, a band pass filter and
intermediate frequency (IF) amplifer, and a demodulator plus additional circuitry to amplify or
process the original audio signal (or other transmitted information).

6.2.3 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

To receive a radio signal, a suitable antenna is required. This is often built into a
receiver, especially in the case of AM broadcast band radios. The output of the antenna may be
very small, often only a few microvolts. The signal from the antenna is tuned and may be
amplified in a so-called radio frequency (RF) amplifier, although this stage is often omitted. One
or more tuned circuits at this stage block frequencies which are far removed from the intended
reception frequency. In order to tune the receiver to a particular station, the frequency of the
local oscillator is controlled by the tuning knob (for instance). Tuning of the local oscillator and
the RF stage may use a variable capacitor, or varicap diode. The tuning of one (or more) tuned
circuits in the RF stage must track the tuning of the local oscillator.
LOCAL OSCILLATOR AND MIXER:The signal is then fed into a circuit where it is mixed with a sine wave from a variable
frequency oscillator known as the local oscillator (LO). The mixer uses a non-linear component
to produce both sum and difference beat frequencies signals. each one containing the
modulation contained in the desired signal. The output of the mixer may include the original RF
Page | 47

signal at fRF, the local oscillator signal at fLO, and the two new heterodyne frequencies
fRF + fLO and fRF fLO. The mixer may inadvertently produce additional frequencies such as
3rd- and higher-order intermodulation products. Ideally, the IF bandpass filter removes all but
the desired IF signal at fIF. The IF signal contains the original modulation (transmitted
information) that the received radio signal had at fRF.
Historically, vacuum tubes were expensive, so broadcast AM receivers would save costs
by employing a single tube as both a mixer and also as the local oscillator. The penta rid
converter tube would oscillate and also provide signal amplification as well as frequency
shifting.
The frequency of the local oscillator fLO is set so the desired reception radio frequency
fRF mixes to fIF. There are two choices for the local oscillator frequency because the dominant
mixer products are at fRF fLO. If the local oscillator frequency is less than the desired
reception frequency, it is called low-side injection (fIF = fRF - fLO); if the local oscillator is higher,
then it is called high-side injection (fIF = fLO - fRF).
The mixer will process not only the desired input signal at fRF, but also all signals
present at its inputs. There will be many mixer products (heterodynes). Most other signals
produced by the mixer (such as due to stations at nearby frequencies) can be filtered out in the
IF amplifier; that gives the superheterodyne receiver its superior performance. However, if fLO is
set to fRF + fIF, then an incoming radio signal at fLO + fIF will also produce a heterodyne at fIF;
this is called the image frequency and must be rejected by the tuned circuits in the RF stage.
The image frequency is 2 fIF higher (or lower) than fRF, so employing a higher IF frequency fIF
increases the receiver's image rejection without requiring additional selectivity in the RF stage.
To suppress the unwanted image, the tuning of the RF stage and the LO may need to
"track" each other. In some cases, a narrow-band receiver can have a fixed tuned RF amplifier.
In that case, only the local oscillator frequency is changed. In most cases, a receiver's input
band is wider than its IF center frequency. For example, a typical AM broadcast band receiver
covers 510 kHz to 1655 kHz (a roughly 1160 kHz input band) with a 455 kHz IF frequency; an
FM broadcast band receiver covers 88 MHz to 108 MHz band with a 10.7 MHz IF frequency. In
that situation, the RF amplifier must be tuned so the IF amplifier does not see two stations at the
same time. If the AM broadcast band receiver LO were set at 1200 kHz, it would see stations at
both 745 kHz (1200455 kHz) and 1655 kHz. Consequently, the RF stage must be designed so
Page | 48

that any stations that are twice the IF frequency away are significantly attenuated.. The tracking
can be done with a multi-section variable capacitor or some varactors driven by a common
control voltage. An RF amplifier may have tuned circuits at both its input and its output, so three
or more tuned circuits may be tracked. In practice, the RF and LO frequencies need to track
closely but not perfectly.
INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER:The stages of an intermediate frequency amplifier ("IF amplifier" or "IF strip") are tuned
to a fixed frequency that does not change as the receiving frequency changes. The fixed
frequency simplifies optimization of the IF amplifier. The IF amplifier is selective around its
center frequency fIF. The fixed center frequency allows the stages of the IF amplifier to be
carefully tuned for best performance (this tuning is called "aligning" the IF amplifier). If the
center frequency changed with the receiving frequency, then the IF stages would have had to
track their tuning. That is not the case with the superheterodyne.
Typically, the IF center frequency fIF is chosen to be less than the desired reception
frequency fRF. The choice has some performance advantages. First, it is easier and less
expensive to get high selectivity at a lower frequency. For the same bandwidth, a tuned circuit at
a lower frequency needs a lower Q. Stated another way, for the same filter technology, a higher
center frequency will take more IF filter stages to achieve the same selectivity bandwidth.
Second, it is easier and less expensive to get high gain at a lower frequency. When used at high
frequencies, many amplifiers show a constant gainbandwidth product (dominant pole)
characteristic. If an amplifier has a gainbandwidth product of 100 MHz, then it would have a
voltage gain of 100 at 1 MHz but only 10 at 10 MHz. If the IF amplifier needed a voltage gain of
10,000, then it would need only two stages with an IF at 1 MHz but four stages at 10 MHz.
Usually the intermediate frequency is lower than the reception frequency fRF, but in
some modern receivers (e.g. scanners and spectrum analyzers) a higher IF frequency is used
to minimize problems with image rejection or gain the benefits of fixed-tuned stages. The Rohde
& Schwarz EK-070 VLF/HF receiver covers 10 kHz to 30 MHz. It has a band switched RF filter
and mixes the input to a first IF of 81.4 MHz. The first LO frequency is 81.4 to 111.4 MHz, so the
primary images are far away. The first IF stage uses a crystal filter with a 12 kHz bandwidth.
There is a second frequency conversion (making a triple-conversion receiver) that mixes the
81.4 MHz first IF with 80 MHz to create a 1.4 MHz second IF. Image rejection for the second IF

Page | 49

is not a major problem because the first IF provides adequate image rejection and the second
mixer is fixed tuned.
In order to avoid interference to receivers, licensing authorities will avoid assigning
common IF frequencies to transmitting stations. Standard intermediate frequencies used are
455 kHz for medium-wave AM radio, 10.7 MHz for broadcast FM receivers, 38.9 MHz (Europe)
or 45 MHz (US) for television, and 70 MHz for satellite and terrestrial microwave equipment. To
avoid tooling costs associated with these components most manufacturers then tended to
design their receivers around a fixed range of frequencies offered which resulted in a worldwide
de facto standardization of intermediate frequencies.

In early superhets, the IF stage was often a regenerative stage providing the sensitivity
and selectivity with

fewer components. Such superhets were called super-gainers or

regenerodynes.
BANDPASS FILTER:The IF stage includes a filter and/or multiple tuned circuits in order to achieve the
desired selectivity. This filtering must therefore have a band pass equal to or less than the
frequency spacing between adjacent broadcast channels. Ideally a filter would have a high
attenuation to adjacent channels, but maintain a flat response across the desired signal
spectrum in order to retain the quality of the received signal. This may be obtained using one or
more dual tuned IF transformers, or a multipole ceramic crystal filter.
DEMODULATION:The received signal is now processed by the demodulator stage where the audio signal
(or other baseband signal) is recovered and then further amplified. AM demodulation requires
the simple rectification of the RF signal (so-called envelope detection), and a simple RC low
pass filter to remove remnants of the intermediate frequency. FM signals may be detected using
a discriminator, ratio detector, or phase-locked loop. Continuous wave (Morse code) and single
sideband signals require a product detector using a so-called beat frequency oscillator, and
there are other techniques used for different types of modulation. The resulting audio signal (for
instance) is then amplified and drives a loudspeaker.

Page | 50

When so-called high-side injection has been used, where the local oscillator is at a
higher frequency than the received signal (as is common), then the frequency spectrum of the
original signal will be reversed. This must be taken into account by the demodulator (and in the
IF filtering) in the case of certain types of modulation such as single sideband.

7. ANTENNA:An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio
waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a
radio transmitter supplies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna's
terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio
waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in
order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified.

7.1 FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF ANTENNAS:7.1.1 RADIATION PATTERN

An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as a mathematical function or
a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antennas as a function of space
coordinates.
In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the far-field region and is
represented as a function of directional coordinates.

(Radiation pattern of 900 MHz Yagi Uda antenna)

Page | 51

(Fig no:- 26)

7.1.2 DIRECTIVITY:Directivity of antenna is defined as the ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction from
the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The average radiation
intensity is equal to total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4.
D = U / Uo = 4U / Prad

7.1.3 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY:Efficiency of antenna () = power received by antenna / input power

7.1.4 GAIN:Absolute gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as the ratio of the intensity
in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if power accepted by the
antenna were radiated isotropically.
The radiation intensity corresponding to isotropically radiated power is equal to the
power accepted (input) by the antenna divided by 4.
Gain = 4. Radiation intensity / Total input (accepted) power = 4. U (,) / Pin

7.1.5 EFFECTIVE APERTURE AREA:Effective aperture parameter describes how much power is captured from a given plane
wave. Antenna effective area or effective aperture is the functionally equivalent area from which
an antenna directed toward the source of the received signal gathers or absorbs the energy of
an incident electromagnetic wave.
A general relation for the effective aperture in terms of the peak antenna gain (G) of any antenna
is given by:

Factors limiting the aperture efficiency are non uniform illumination of the aperture,
phase variations of the aperture field (typically due to surface errors in a reflector and high flare
angle in horns), and scattering from obstructions. The incident wavefront may also not be
completely phase coherent due to variations in the propagating medium; this results in an
Page | 52

increase in the effective area of an antenna not resulting in a commensurate increase in signal
power, an effect known as 'aperture loss'.

7.1.6 HALF POWER BEAMWIDTH:The half power beamwidth is defined as in a plane containingt the direction of the
maximum of a beam, the angle between 2 directions in which the radiation intensity is one half
the maximum value of the beam.

7.1.7 BEAM EFFICIENCY:Beam efficiency, (BE) is defined as

BE = power transmitted (received) within cone angle 1 / power transmitted (recieved) by the
antenna

7.1.8 BANDWIDTH:The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of frequency within which the
performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a specified
standard.

7.2 TYPES OF ANTENNA:7.2.1 HELICAL ANTENNA:A helical antenna is an antenna consisting of a conducting wire wound in the form of a
helix. In most cases, helical antennas are mounted over a ground plane. The feed line is
connected between the bottom of the helix and the ground plane. Helical antennas can operate
in one of two principal modes: normal mode or axial mode.
In the normal mode or broadside helix, the dimensions of the helix (the diameter and the
pitch) are small compared with the wavelength. The antenna acts similarly to an electrically
short dipole or monopole, and the radiation pattern, similar to these antennas is omnidirectional,
with maximum radiation at right angles to the helix axis. The radiation is linearly
polarised parallel to the helix axis.
In the axial mode or end-fire helix, the dimensions of the helix are comparable to a
wavelength. The antenna functions as a directional antenna radiating a beam off the ends of the
helix, along the antenna's axis. It radiates circularly polarised radio waves.

Page | 53

(A common form of normal-mode helical antenna is the Rubber Ducky antenna used in portable radios. The loading
provided by the helix allows the antenna to be shorter than its electrical length of a quarter-wavelength.)

(Fig no:- 27)

Terminal impedance in axial mode ranges between 100 and 200 ohms. The resistive part is
approximated by:

Where R is resistance in ohms, C is the circumference of the helix, and is the

wavelength. Impedance matching to the cable C is often done by a short stripline section
between the helix and the cable termination.

Page | 54

(Helical antenna for WLAN communication, working frequency app. 2.4 GHz)

(Fig no:- 28)

The maximum directive gain is approximately:

where N is the number of turns and S is the spacing between turns.

The half-power beamwidth is:

The beamwidth between nulls is:

(Radiation pattern of helical antenna)

(Fig no:- 29)

Page | 55

7.2.2 WHIP ANTENNA:A whip antenna is an antenna consisting of a single straight flexible wire or rod. The
bottom end of the whip is connected to the radio receiver or transmitter. They are designed
to be flexible so that they won't break off, and the name is derived from their whip-like motion
when disturbed.
Whips are the most common type of monopole antenna. These antennas are widely
used for hand-held radios such as cell phones, cordless phones, walkie-talkies, FM
radios, boom boxes, Wif enabled devices, and GPS receivers, and also attached to vehicles
as the antennas for car radios and two way radios for police, fire and aircraft.

(Whip antenna)

(Fig no:- 30)

If mounted above a perfect ground plane, a quarter wave whip has a gain twice (3 dB
greater than) that of a half wave dipole, or 5.19 dBi, and a radiation resistance of 36.8
ohms. However without a ground plane the gain is reduced and the radiation resistance
increased. Whips mounted on vehicles use the metal skin of the vehicle as a ground plane. In
hand-held devices usually no explicit ground plane is provided, and the ground side of the
antenna's feed line is just connected to the ground on the device's circuit board.
Page | 56

(Radiation pattern of whip antenna)

(Fig no:- 31)

7.2.3 GROUND PLANE ANTENNA:In telecommunication, a ground plane is a flat or nearly flat horizontal conducting
surface that serves as part of an antenna, to reflect the radio waves from the other antenna
elements. The plane does not necessarily have to be connected to ground. Ground planes are
particularly used with monopole antennas.
To function as a ground plane, the conducting surface must be at least a quarter of
the wavelength (/4) of the radio waves in size. In lower frequency antennas, such as
the mast radiators used for broadcast antennas, the Earth itself (or a body of water such as a
salt marsh or ocean) is used as a ground plane. For higher frequency antennas, in
the VHF or UHF range, the ground plane can be smaller, and metal disks, screens or wires are
used as ground planes. At upper VHF and UHF frequencies, the metal skin of a car or aircraft
can serve as a ground plane for whip antennas projecting from it. The ground plane doesn't

Page | 57

have to be a continuous surface. In the ground plane antenna the "plane" consists of several
wires /4 long radiating from the base of a quarter wave whip antenna.
The radio waves from an antenna element that reflect off a ground plane appear to come
from a mirror image of the antenna located on the other side of the ground plane. In a monopole
antenna, the radiation pattern of the monopole plus the virtual "image antenna" make it
appear as a two element center-fed dipole antenna. So a monopole mounted over an ideal
ground plane has a radiation pattern identical to a dipole antenna. The feedline from the
transmitter or receiver is connected between the bottom end of the monopole element and the
ground plane. The ground plane must have good conductivity; any resistance in the ground
plane is in series with the antenna, and serves to dissipate power from the transmitter.
Gain of ground plane antenna is 3 dB. Radiation resistance of dipole is 75 ohms.

(Radiation pattern of dipole antenna)

(Fig no:- 32)

8. COAXIAL CABLES:Coaxial cable, or coax is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a
tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also
have an insulating outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and
the outer shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and
mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in 1880. Coaxial cable differs from
Page | 58

other shielded cable used for carrying lower-frequency signals, such as audio signals, in that the
dimensions of the cable are controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is
needed for it to function efficiently as a radio frequency transmission line.

(Coaxial cable cutaway)

(Fig no:- 33)

Coaxial cable conducts electrical signal using an inner conductor (usually a solid copper,
stranded copper or copper plated steel wire) surrounded by an insulating layer and all enclosed
by a shield, typically one to four layers of woven metallic braid and metallic tape. The cable is
protected by an outer insulating jacket. Normally, the shield is kept at ground potential and a
voltage is applied to the center conductor to carry electrical signals. The advantage of coaxial
design is that electric and magnetic fields are confined to the dielectric with little leakage outside
the shield. Conversely, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from
causing interference to signals inside the cable. Larger diameter cables and cables with multiple
shields have less leakage. This property makes coaxial cable a good choice for carrying weak
signals that cannot tolerate interference from the environment or for higher electrical signals that
must not be allowed to radiate or couple into adjacent structures or circuits.
Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and
microwave transmission, and computer and instrumentation data connections.
The characteristic impedance of the cable (

) is determined by the dielectric

constant of the inner insulator and the radii of the inner and outer conductors. A controlled cable
characteristic impedance is important because the source and load impedance should
be matched to ensure maximum power transfer and minimum standing wave ratio. Other

Page | 59

important properties of coaxial cable include attenuation as a function of frequency, voltage

handling capability, and shield quality.

8.1 CONSTRUCTION:Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, attenuation,
power handling capabilities, flexibility, strength, and cost. The inner conductor might be solid or
stranded; stranded is more flexible. To get better high-frequency performance, the inner
conductor may be silver-plated. Copper-plated steel wire is often used as an inner conductor for
cable used in the cable TV industry.
The insulator surrounding the inner conductor may be solid plastic, a foam plastic, or air
with spacers supporting the inner wire. The properties of dielectric control some electrical
properties of the cable. A common choice is a solid polyethylene (PE) insulator, used in lowerloss cables. Solid Teflon (PTFE) is also used as an insulator. Some coaxial lines use air (or
some other gas) and have spacers to keep the inner conductor from touching the shield.
Many conventional coaxial cables use braided copper wire forming the shield. This
allows the cable to be flexible, but it also means there are gaps in the shield layer, and the inner
dimension of the shield varies slightly because the braid cannot be flat. Sometimes the braid is
silver-plated. For better shield performance, some cables have a double-layer shield. The shield
might be just two braids, but it is more common now to have a thin foil shield covered by a wire
braid. Some cables may invest in more than two shield layers, such as "quad-shield", which
uses four alternating layers of foil and braid. Other shield designs sacrifice flexibility for better
performance; some shields are a solid metal tube. Those cables cannot be bent sharply, as the
shield will kink, causing losses in the cable.
For high-power radio-frequency transmission up to about 1 GHz, coaxial cable with a
solid copper outer conductor is available in sizes of 0.25 inch upward. The outer conductor is
rippled like a bellows to permit flexibility and the inner conductor is held in position by a plastic
spiral to approximate an air dielectric.
Coaxial cables require an internal structure of an insulating (dielectric) material to
maintain the spacing between the center conductor and shield. The dielectric losses increase in
this order: Ideal dielectric (no loss), vacuum, air, poly tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyethylene
foam, and solid polyethylene. A low relative permittivity allows for higher-frequency usage. An
inhomogeneous dielectric needs to be compensated by a non-circular conductor to avoid
current hot-spots.
Page | 60

While many cables have a solid dielectric, many others have a foam dielectric that
contains as much air or other gas as possible to reduce the losses by allowing the use of a
larger diameter center conductor. Foam coax will have about 15% less attenuation but some
types of foam dielectric can absorb moistureespecially at its many surfaces in humid
environments, significantly increasing the loss. Supports shaped like stars or spokes are even
better but more expensive and very susceptible to moisture infiltration. Still more expensive
were the air-spaced coaxials used for some inter-city communications in the mid-20th century.
The center conductor was suspended by polyethylene discs every few centimeters. In some
low-loss coaxial cables such as the RG-62 type, the inner conductor is supported by a spiral
strand of polyethylene, so that an air space exists between most of the conductor and the inside
of the jacket. The lower dielectric constant of air allows for a greater inner diameter at the same
impedance and a greater outer diameter at the same cutoff frequency, lowering ohmic losses.
Inner conductors are sometimes silver-plated to smooth the surface and reduce losses due
to skin effect.[4] A rough surface prolongs the path for the current and concentrates the current
at peaks and, thus, increases ohmic losses.
The insulating jacket can be made from many materials. A common choice is PVC, but
some applications may require fire-resistant materials. Outdoor applications may require the
jacket resistultraviolet light, oxidation and rodent damage. Flooded coaxial cables use a water
blocking gel to protect the cable from water infiltration through minor cuts in the jacket. For
internal chassis connections the insulating jacket may be omitted.

8.2 CHOICE OF IMPEDANCE:The best coaxial cable impedances in high-power, high-voltage, and low-attenuation
applications were experimentally determined at Bell Laboratories in 1929 to be 30, 60, and 77
, respectively. For a coaxial cable with air dielectric and a shield of a given inner diameter, the
attenuation is minimized by choosing the diameter of the inner conductor to give a characteristic
impedance of 76.7 . When more common dielectrics are considered, the best-loss impedance
drops down to a value between 5264 . Maximum power handling is achieved at 30 .
The approximate impedance required to match a centre-fed dipole antenna in free space
(i.e., a dipole without ground reflections) is 73 , so 75 coax was commonly used for
connecting shortwave antennas to receivers. These typically involve such low levels of RF
power that power-handling and high-voltage breakdown characteristics are unimportant when
compared to attenuation. Likewise with CATV, although many broadcast TV installations and

Page | 61

CATV headends use 300 folded dipole antennas to receive off-the-air signals, 75 coax
makes a convenient 4:1balun transformer for these as well as possessing low attenuation.
The arithmetic mean between 30 and 77 is 53.5 ; the geometric mean is 48 .
The selection of 50 as a compromise between power-handling capability and attenuation is in
general cited as the reason for the number. 50 also works out well because it corresponds
very closely to the drive impedance of a half-wave dipole in real environments, and provides an
acceptable match to the drive impedance of a quarter-wave monopole, as well.
RG-62 is a 93 coaxial cable originally used in mainframe computer networks in the
1970s and early 1980s (it was the cable used to connect IBM 3270 terminals to IBM 3274/3174
terminal cluster controllers). Later, some manufacturers of LAN equipment, such as Datapoint
for ARCNET, adopted RG-62 as their coaxial cable standard. The cable has the lowest
capacitance per unit-length when compared to other coaxial cables of similar size. Capacitance
is the enemy of square-wave data transmission (in particular, it slows down edge transitions),
and this is a much more important factor for baseband digital data transmission than power
handling or attenuation.
All of the components of a coaxial system should have the same impedance to avoid
internal reflections at connections between components. Such reflections may cause signal
attenuation and ghosting TV picture display; multiple reflections may cause the original signal to
be followed by more than one echo. In analog video or TV systems, this causes ghosting in the
image. Reflections also introduce standing waves, which cause increased losses and can even
result in cable dielectric breakdown with high-power transmission (see Impedance matching).
Briefly, if a coaxial cable is open, the termination has nearly infinite resistance, this causes
reflections; if the coaxial cable is short-circuited, the termination resistance is nearly zero, there
will be reflections with the opposite polarity. Reflection will be nearly eliminated if the coaxial
cable is terminated in a pure resistance equal its impedance.

9. THREATS AND SECURITY:9.1 THREATS:9.1.1 JAMMING:-

Page | 62

Signal Jamming is a significant threat which cause the breakage or disruption of the
wireless link between the platform and the outside world. Enforcement Agencies like Police &
Customs report that crime syndicates are already using Jammers

to thwart

enforcement

operations. All types of Jammers are easily available now. FBI considers Jamming as a bigger
threat than the Viruses, Worms and Trojans in a Wireless world. Signal jamming is quite
disastrous to VHF communication system as there is no wireline link as back up.
Multiple types of jammers easily available in the market. Wideband/ multi band jammers
are becoming more common. VHF/Microwave jammers are quite low cost jammers. Jamming is
a low tech, low cost yet highly disastrous threat.
A Jamming attack could be conducted from the land or from the sea by using directional
antennas. Jamming attack from a moving platform ( Car or a boat) is almost impossible to
locate. A land based low power jamming source (in 10s of Watts) with a directional antenna can
bring down the land based Radio terminal easily. The commercially available modems
employing QAM, OFDM or similar techniques are highly vulnerable to signal jamming. Even a
low level of jamming is able to break the link completely.

9.1.2 INTERCEPTION:-

An interception means that some unauthorized party has gained access to an asset. The
outside party can be a person, a program, or a computing system. Examples of this type of
failure are illicit copying of program or data files, or wiretapping to obtain data in a network.
Although a loss may be discovered fairly quickly, a silent interceptor may leave no traces by
which the interception can be readily detected.

In an interruption, an asset of the system becomes lost, unavailable, or unusable. An

example is malicious destruction of a hardware device, erasure of a program or data file, or
malfunction of an operating system file manager so that it cannot find a particular disk file.

If an unauthorized party not only accesses but tampers with an asset, the threat is
a modification. For example, someone might change the values in a database, alter a program
so that it performs an additional computation, or modify data being transmitted electronically. It
Page | 63

is even possible to modify hardware. Some cases of modification can be detected with simple
measures, but other, more subtle, changes may be almost impossible to detect.
Finally, an unauthorized party might create a fabrication of counterfeit objects on a
computing system. The intruder may insert spurious transactions to a network communication
system or add records to an existing database. Sometimes these additions can be detected as
forgeries, but if skillfully done, they are virtually indistinguishable from the real thing.

9.1.3 MASQUERADE:-

In general, a masquerade is a disguise. In terms of communications security issues, a

masquerade is a type of attack where the attacker pretends to be an authorized user of a
system in order to gain access to it or to gain greater privileges than they are authorized for.
A masquerade may be attempted through the use of stolen logon IDs and passwords,
through finding security gaps in programs, or through bypassing the authentication mechanism.
The attempt may come from within an organization, for example, from an employee; or from an
outside user through some connection to the public network. Weak authentication provides one
of the easiest points of entry for a masquerade, since it makes it much easier for an attacker to
gain access. Once the attacker has been authorized for entry, they may have full access to the
organization's critical data, and (depending on the privilege level they pretend to have) may be
able to modify and delete software and data, and make changes to network configuration and
routing information.

9.1.4 REPLAY ATTACK:-

A replay attack is a form of network attack in which a valid data transmission is

maliciously or fraudulently repeated or delayed. This is carried out either by the originator or by
an adversary who intercepts the data and retransmits it.

Page | 64

A replay attack is an attack in which the adversary records a communication session and
replays the entire session, or some portion of the session, at a later point in time. The replayed
message(s) may be sent to the same verifier as the one that participated in the original session,
or to a different verifier.A way to avoid replay attacks is by using session tokens

THREAT

DESCRIPTION

Jamming

Radio communications may be intentionally jammed by a

hostile transmitter

Masquerade

Attackers, acting as Controller, may pose as authorised

personnel and deliberately introduce misleading information

Replay attack

Recorded or modified messages may be transmitted to

confuse or mislead system users

Interception

Sensitive information may be intercepted by unauthorised

personnel

9.2 SECURITY:9.2.1 CONTINUOUS TONE-CODED SQUELCH SYSTEM / CTCSS:In telecommunications, Continuous Tone-Coded Squelch System or CTCSS is a circuit
that is used to reduce the annoyance of listening to other users on a shared two-way radio
communications channel. It is sometimes called tone squelch. Where more than one user group
is on the same channel (called co-channel users), CTCSS mutes the other users if they are
using a different CTCSS tone or no CTCSS.
Receivers equipped with a CTCSS circuit usually have a switch that selects normal
mode or CTCSS mode. When enabled, the CTCSS radio circuit, instead of unmuting the
receive audio for any signal, causes the two-way radio receiver's audio to open only in the
presence of the normal RF signal AND the correct sub-audible audio tone (sub-audible meaning
that the receiver circuitry can detect it, but is not apparent to the users in the audio output). This
is akin to the use of a lock on a door. A carrier squelch or noise squelch receiver not configured
with CTCSS has no lock on its door and will let in any signal. A receiver with CTCSS circuitry
Page | 65

(and with it enabled) locks out all signals except ones encoded with the correct tone. CTCSS
can be regarded as a form of in-band signaling.

9.2.2 SQUELCH CODES:For many years two-way radios have had a feature called by many names including
Motorola's Private Line ("PL"), GE/Ericsson's "Channel Guard", E. F. Johnson's "Call Guard",
RCA's "Quiet Channel." Others simply call it tone activated squelch. A few call it by the most
correct name (probably) of Continuous Tone Coded Squelch System (CTCSS).
A simple explanation: SQUELCH (remember the CB radio days?) says that the signal
'must be this tall' before the radio will play it. SQUELCH CODES say that the signal has to have
a green ticket or is ignored. SQUELCH and SQUELCH CODES used together say that the
signal must first 'be this tall' AND secondly have a green ticket. Tall signals with red, yellow,
blue, gold or silver tickets (or no ticket at all) will be ignored.
All this CTCSS stuff is just a simple low frequency audio tone that is transmitted along
with your voice when you talk, and a receiver with a filter or logic gate that keeps the receiver
silent unless it hears the correct tone. When the receiver hears the correct tone, it opens the
squelch gate and turns on the speaker, otherwise it keeps the speaker silent even though the
receiver may be hearing a strong, clear radio signal.
Human speech seldom drops below 300Hz. Communications engineers realized this
long ago and don't even transmit the un- necessary audio spectrum; in fact both telephones and
2-way radios only handle audio between 300Hz and 3,000Hz. CTCSS takes advantage of the
lower unused bandwidth by mixing one of the many tones into the audio. If you were to listen to
this raw tone/voice combination on a good stereo, you would hear the voice along with a very
annoying low hum. But before the audio gets to the receiver's speaker, the radio filters out the
annoying low frequency tones and only plays the voice portion. 2-way fidelity really does stink
compared to what you expect when you play music, but for passing the human voice over a
radio system it is perfectly acceptable.
There are three very important points to remember about squelch codes:

CTCSS DOES NOT keep your communications private.

Page | 66

CTCSS WILL keep your intended receiver from hearing you unless both radios
are

programmed properly.

CTCSS DOES keep you from hearing unwanted noises or voices unless the
correct code is also received.

9.2.3 COMMONLY USED SQUELCH CODES:-

Page | 67

Page | 68

Page | 69

9.2.4 LIST OF TONES:CTCSS tones are standardized by the EIA/TIA. The full list of the tones can be found in
their standard RS-220; the CTCSS tones also may be listed in equipment manuals. Some
systems use non-standard tones.The NATO Military radios use 150.0 Hz, and this can be found
in the user manuals for the radios. Some areas do notuse certain tones, for example in the UK
the tone of 100.0 Hz is avoided since this is twice the UK mains power line frequency; an
inadequately-smoothed power supply may cause unwanted squelch opening. Squelch tones
typically come from one of three series as listed below along with the two character PL code
used by Motorola to identify tones. The most common set of supported squelch tones is a set of
38 tones including all tones with Motorola PL codes, except for the tones WZ, 8Z, 9Z, and
0Z.The lowest series has adjacent tones that are roughly in the harmonic ratio of 20.05 to 1
(1.035265), while the other two series have adjacent tones roughly in the ratio of 100.015 to 1
(1.035142).

Page | 70

Page | 71

Non-standard numerical codes. Many radios use a matching set of numerical codes to
represent corresponding tones; however, there is no published standard and only partial

industry adoption.
Some radios use 69.4 Hz instead, which better fits the harmonic sequence, and this tone

is often omitted as a choice.

3 Also known by the code SP.
Not actually in this harmonic sequence, but an average of the ZA and 1Z tones used to
fill the gap between the lower and middle sequences. 98.1 Hz would be the tone after

ZA, and the tone before 1Z would be 96.6 Hz, assuming the same harmonics were used.
The 8Z, 9Z, and 0Z ("zero-Z") tones are often omitted from radios that use the M1-M7

series of tones.
Not known to have been used, but included to place the 9Z and 0Z tones in the proper

position in the harmonic series.

Many NATO (military) radio have a switchable 150.0 Hz tone. The lsit includes the
following radios:

AN/PRC-68,
AN/PRC-117F,
AN/PRC-77,
AN/PRC-113,
AN/PRC-137,
AN/PRC-139,
AN/PRC-152,
AN/PRC-119,
AN/VRC-12,
AN/PSC-5.
9.2.5 OPERATION OF CTCSS:-

Page | 72

Radios in a professional two-way radio system using CTCSS always transmit their own
tone code whenever the transmit button is pressed (simultaneously with the voice). This is
called CTCSS encoding. CTCSS continuously superimposes any one of 32, 38 or as many as
50 (depending on which "standard" is used) precise, very low distortion, low-pitched audio tones
on the transmitted signal, ranging from 67 to 257 Hz. The tones are usually referred to as subaudible tones. In an FM two-way radio system, CTCSS encoder levels are usually set for 15%
of system deviation. For example, in a 5 kHz deviation system, the CTCSS tone level would
normally be set to 750 Hz deviation. Engineered systems may call for different level settings in
the 500 Hz to 1 kHz (10-20%) range.

The ability of a receiver to mute the audio until it detects a carrier with the correct
CTCSS tone is called decoding. Receivers are equipped with features to allow the CTCSS
"lock" to be disabled. In professional USA licensed systems, Federal Communications
Commission rules require CTCSS users on shared channels to disable their receiver's CTCSS
to check if co-channel users are talking before transmitting. On a base station console, a
microphone may have a split push-to-talk button. Pressing one half of the button, (often marked
with a speaker icon or the letters "MON", short for "MONitor") disables the CTCSS decoder and
reverts the receiver to hearing any signal on the channel. This is called the monitor function.
There is sometimes a mechanical interlock: the user must push down and hold the monitor
button or the transmit button is locked and cannot be pressed. This interlock option is referred to
as compulsory monitor before transmit (the user is forced to monitor by the equipment design.)
On mobile radios, the microphone is usually stored in a hang-up clip or hang-up box. When the
user pulls the microphone out of the hang-up clip to make a call, a switch in the clip (box) forces
the receiver to revert to conventional carrier squelch mode ("monitor"). Some designs relocate
the switch into the body of the microphone itself. In hand-held radios, an LED indicator may
glow green, yellow, or orange to indicate another user is talking on the channel. Hand-held
radios usually have a switch or push-button to monitor. Some modern radios have a feature
called "Busy Channel Lockout", which will not allow the user to transmit as long as the radio is
receiving another signal.
A CTCSS decoder is based on a very narrow bandpass filter which passes the desired
CTCSS tone. The filter's output is amplified and rectified, creating a DC voltage whenever the
desired tone is present. The DC voltage is used to turn on or unmute the receiver's speaker

Page | 73

audio stages. When the tone is present, the receiver is unmuted, when it is not present the
receiver is silent.
In a professional communications receiver designed for CTCSS, a high-pass audio filter
is supposed to block CTCSS tones (below 300 Hz) so they are not heard in the speaker. Since
audio curves vary from one receiver to another, some radios may pass an audible level of the
CTCSS tone to the speaker. Lower tone frequencies generally are less audible. If the magenta
audio curve shown at right were plotted from a CTCSS-equipped receiver, it would drop nearly
straight down below 300 Hz.
Because period is the inverse of frequency, lower tone frequencies take longer to
decode. Receivers in a system using 67.0 Hz will take noticeably longer to decode than ones
using 203.5 Hz, and they will take longer than one decoding 250.3 Hz.[citation needed] In some
repeater systems, the time lag can be significant. The lower tone may cause one or two
syllables to be clipped before the receiver audio is unmuted (is heard). This is because
receivers are decoding in a chain. The repeater receiver must first sense the carrier signal on
the input, then decode the CTCSS tone. When that occurs, the system transmitter turns on,
encoding the CTCSS tone on its carrier signal (the output frequency). All radios in the system
start decoding after they sense a carrier signal then recognize the tone on the carrier as valid.
Any distortion on the tone encoder will also affect the decoding time.
Engineered systems often use tones in the 127.3 Hz to 162.2 Hz range to balance fast
decoding with keeping the tones out of the audible part of the receive audio. Most amateur radio
repeater controller manufacturers offer an audio delay option - this delays the repeated speech
audio for a selectable number of milliseconds before it is retransmitted. During this fixed delay
period (the amount of which is adjusted during installation, then locked down), the CTCSS
decoder has enough time to recognize the right tone. This way the problem with lost syllables at
the beginning of a transmission can be overcome without having to use high tones.
In early systems, it was common to avoid the use of adjacent tones. On channels where
every available tone is not in use, this is good engineering practice. For example, an ideal would
be to avoid using 97.4 Hz and 100.0 Hz on the same channel. The tones are so close that some
decoders may periodically false trigger. The user occasionally hears a syllable or two of cochannel users on a different CTCSS tone talking. As electronic components age, or through
production variances, some radios in a system may be better than others at rejecting nearby
tone frequencies.
Page | 74

10. OBSERVATION IN PXE:PXE is the main non-Army Proving ground and research establishment for design and
developmental trials of guns, mortars, rockets, RCL, tank guns and their ammunition, including
Naval guns and ammunition.[3] It also conducts technical evaluation trials for imported weapons
and ammunition as well as R&A trials for compilation of Range Tables.
PXE also conducts performance evaluation trials for tank armor and ammunition, as well
as proof of armour plates, tank turrets, ICVs, proximity fuzes, etc. and also weapons and
ammunition produced by Ordnance Factories/PSUs/trade firms. PXE has conducted tests of
the Arjun MBT Armor[4] as well as tests of indigenous Explosive reactive armour. The lab has
also conducted tests of other armaments such as the Indian Field Gun and the Pinaka Multi
Barrel Rocket Launcher System.
PXE also conducts comparative propellant and ballistics parameters testing and is
involved in the establishment of propellant standards, in their periodical check firing and
in Quality Assurance through periodic checks of ammunition that are held in Army and Naval
Depots.

10.1 WHY DRDO CHOSE CHANDIPUR FOR PXE ?

The Chandipur beach is unique in that the water recedes from 1 to 4 kilometers during the ebb
tide, at every 6 hours. Due to the unique circumstances, the beach provides open and
uninterrupted uninhabited land expanse for testing of various weapons and a soft cushion for
the recovery of rounds.
The topography of the coast line is crescent moon shaped providing 50-60 km of open land
mass for firing and testing. In this coastal zone for communication from the base firing points to
the various observation points(OP) , outposts and the search and recovery units wireless VHF
communication system is used which is characterized by short range and very secured
communication.

10.2 DEVICES USED FORVHF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION(130180MHZ):-

Page | 75

1) MOTOROLA GP series handheld transceivers- (i) GP 300

(ii) GP338
(iii) GP 338-plus
2) Repeater- MOTOROLA CDR700(Desktop)
3) Base Station MOTOROLA GM338
4) Mobile whip antenna (in base station)
5) Ground Plane antenna(with pneumatic mast)
6) RG213/217 coaxial cables
7) RG58 cable.

10.3 COMMUNICATION DEVICES:10.3.1 MOTOROLA GP338 (HANDSET):-

(Fig no:- 34)

Page | 76

The GP338 is essential for growing organizations because of its unique versatility. When
necessary the radio can easily be programmed in the field to add or delete features. Irrespective
of the environment where it is used it is the radio of choice. It is ideal when we need:
1)
2)
3)
4)

MDC1200 Signalling
Maximum of 128 channels to organize work groups with ease and efficiency.
14-character alpha numeric dot matrix display.
An easy to read on screen signal indicator notifies users of the signal strength in the

vicinity.
5) Easy to read on-screen LCD display indicator alerts users on low battery strengths.
6) Allows users to access to local landline telephone networks or to make a private calls to
other radio system users within one radio.
Motorola GP338 radio available in frequency bands as shown under:

AZH25KDH9AA6 GP338 Portable, VHF( 136-174 MHz),128 channels, 5W, with keypad.
AZH25RDH9AA6 GP338 Portable, UHF( 403-470 MHz),128 channels,4W , with

keypad.
AZH25SDH9AA6 GP338 Portable, UHF(450-520 MHz), 128 channels, 4W,with keypad.

SPECIFICATION:

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

VHF

Frequency

136-174 MHz

Channel Capacity:

GP338 : 128 channels

Power Supply:

7.5Volts (20% tolerance)

Dimensions with Standard High Capacity

NiNH battery:

137mm X 57.5mm X 37.5mm

With Ultra High Capacity NiMH battery:

Weight:
with Standard high capacity NiMH

137mm X 57.5mm X 40mm

420gm

battery :

with ultra high capacity NiMH battery:

500gm

Average Battery Life@(5-5-90 Duty Cycle)

Low power

Standard High Capacity NiMH Battery:

>11 hrs

High power
>8 hrs

Page | 77

Ultra High Capacity NiMH Battery:

>14 hrs

>11 hrs

Sealing:

Passes rain testing per IP54

Shock:

Meets MIL-STD-810 C,D&E and TIA/EIA 603

Vibration:

Meets MIL-STD-810 C,D&E and TIA/EIA 603

Dust:

Meets MIL-STD-810 C,D&E and IP54

Humidity:

Meets MIL-STD-810 C,D&E and TIA/EIA 603

FCC ID

AZ489FT3794

TRANSMITTER :-

CONSTRUCTION:-

Page | 78

(Fig no:- 35)

Page | 79

Page | 80

FREQUENCY GENERATION CIRCUITRY:-

(Fig no:- 36)

Page | 81

10.3.2 MOTOROLA CDR700 REPEATER:The CDR500 and CDR700 repeaters offer the increased functionality, power and range
necessary to enhance the capabilities of the PRO series mobile radios. The CDR700 can be
used as a base station or as a remote repeater. In addition to the standard repeater operation
which extends the range of the radio fleet, other modes of operation allow an UHF radio to
communicate to a VHF radio within the fleet. It also enables to monitor the transmissions on
frequencies in other bands and also allows to link separate coverage areas.

(Fig no:- 37)

Page | 82

ALL CDR REPEATER MODELS INCLUDE:

-CDR Repeater Housings:
-CDR700 (Desktop Mount)
-CDR500 (Wall Mount)

EACH CDR700/CDR500 HOUSING INCLUDES:

-Power Supply
-Fan Kit
-Repeater Interface Cables
-Service Manual

-Two Year Standard Warranty

FEATURES:FREQUENCY:UHF or VHF

DUTY CYCLE:Continuous Low Power 25W (to duplexer)

Intermittent High Power 40/45W (to duplexer)

POWER SUPPLY:Primary 115/230 50-60 Hz

Input Voltage Standard U.S. Three Prong Plug

DUPLEXERS:Duplexers let you use just one antenna for both transmitting and
receiving signals. The use of a duplexer is more cost effective than
two antennas and feed lines, and can better equalize the transmit
and receive ranges to improve radio communications.

BATTERY REVERT MODULE:Battery Revert Module is available for the Motorola CDR700 (standard in
the Motorola CDR500

Page | 83

10.3.3 MOTOROLA GM338 (BASE STATION):-

(Fig no:- 38)

Page | 84

GM338 FEATURES & BENEFITS:

4 CUSTOMIZED BUTTONS:Easy to use, users have the flexibility to dedicate the most useful operations to these
specific buttons for instant one touch access.

OPTIONAL VOICE STORAGE:Through an optional voice storage board, the GM338s capabilities can be expanded to
incorporate the recording and playback of messages, or personal memos for up to 120
seconds.

128 CHANNEL CAPACITY:With a full 128-channel operating capacity, the GM338 conventional mobile allows users
greater flexibility to program each channel individually for different power output, private
line (PL)/Digital private line (DPL) for privacy call, as well as repeater/talkaround and
busy channel lock out to enhance communication efficiency.

14 CHARACTERS 1-LINE ALPHANUMERIC DISPLAY:The large alphanumeric display with icons such as signal strength indicator and caller
identification makes it easy to read both text and icon displays.

Page | 85

Page | 86

10.3.4 ANTENNA :MOBILE WHIP ANTENNA :Mobile whip antenna type IND1002B is a 3dB gain antenna for frequency band 136-174
MHz. The antenna is D.C grounded. It has a stainless steel whip as radiator. Rubber gasket is
provided to prevent water seepage. It is used along with the MOTOROLA GM338 base station.

(Fig no:- 39)

Page | 87

The length in the cutting chart refers to the length of whip with cap fixed on top. Cut from the
bottom of the whip and fixed.

(Fig no:- 40)

Page | 88

SPECIFICATIONS:
1) Model
: IND1002B
2) Frequency : 136-174 MHz
3) Gain
: 3dB
4) Impedance : 50 ohms (nominal)
5) Radiation Pattern: Omnidirectional
6) Power rating
: 100 Watts
7) Cable
: 3.0 meter RG-58 C/U
8) Connector
: BNC
GROUND PLANE ANTENNA:The GP antenna type IND4004A is a 3dB gain antenna for frequency range 136-174
MHz . The antenna is provided with stainless steel radiator which can cut to length for
frequency. The antenna has a weather proof structure, which enables it to be used at sea side
and contaminated industrial areas without any precautions. The four aluminium radials are
plated to prevent oxidation. All hardware is of stainless steel.

Page | 89

(Fig no:- 41)

Page | 90

(Fig no:- 42)

SPECIFICATION:

1) Model

: IND4004A

2) Frequency

: 136-174 MHz

3) Gain

: 3dB

4) Impedance

: 50 ohms (nominal)

5) VSWR

: less than 1:3.1 (at resonant frequency)

6) Bandwidth at 2.1 : 7MH VSWR

7) Radiation Pattern : Omnidirectional
8) Maximum Power : 100 Watts.

Page | 91

11. CASE STUDY:CASE 1:To provide wireless and secure communication upto 2km along the coast line.

Sol:Frequency to be used=150 MHz

A signal strength test was carried out between 2 parties moving along the coast
in opposite direction and continuous communication was carried out between them using
MOTOROLA GP338 handheld transceiver.
At varying distances from the base point the signal strengths were noted.
OBSERVATION:
DISTANCE(FROM BASE POINT IN KM)

SIGNAL STRENGTH

0.3km

.7km

1km

1.5km

1.8km

2km

2.3km

Receiver sensitivity= 0.3v.

Receiver terminal impedance = 50
Minimum power detected by the receiver = V2/R
= ((0.3 x 10-6)2)/ 50
= -117dBm
Link budget analysis: using MOTOROLA GP338
Transmitted power(Pt) = 5 W = 37dBm
Page | 92

Transmitter antenna gain = 0dB

Free space loss at a distance of 2km =

(/4r)2

= -51dBm
Received power = (37 51)dBm
= 3.98 X 10-5 W.

(Fig no:- 43)

CASE 2 :To provide secure wireless communication from the Ballistics Centre to OP-8
(observation point) during firing.

Sol:For providing communication over such a long distance only MOTOROLA

handheld devices are not sufficient. So elevated Ground plane antennas on Pneumatic
masts connected to repeater MOTOROLA CDR700 are used.
Frequency to be used = 150 MHz
Effective antenna height at Ballistics Centre(ht) = 100ft
= 0.03048km
Radio horizon distance for this antenna height (d) = (2 x r x ht x 4/3) (r= 6474.8km)
= 22.76 km.
Page | 93

Link Budget Analysis:

Transmitted power (Pt) = 45W
= 46.53dBm
Transmitter antenna gain (Gt) = 3dB
Cable loss of RG-213 = 12.8dB/100m
Length of cable used = 50m
Cable loss(Lcable)= 6.4dB
Free space loss (path loss)= (/4r)2
= -64.02dBm
Power received(dB)= Pt (dB) + Gt(dB) Lcable (dB) - path loss(dB)
= -20.89dBm
Receiver sensitivity of GP338 = -117dBm.
CONCLUSION:So on the receiving side only use of MOTOROLA GP338 handset is enough to establish
the communication link.
NOTE:
1. On top of the OP-8 observation tower signal strength = 5
2. Below the tower signal strength = 3
3. Behind the tower at the edge of the forest line signal strength = 3
4. 100 m inside the forest signal strength = 2
5. 150m inside the forest signal strength = 0
6. At about 280m into the sea bed from the OP signal strength = 0 (dead zone).

Page | 94

(Fig no:- 44)

CASE 3:To provide communication from Ballistics centre to OP-24.

Sol:
Frequency to be used = 150 MHz
Effective antenna height at Ballistics Centre(ht) = 100ft
= 0.03048km
Radio horizon distance for this antenna height (d) = (2 x r x ht x 4/3) (r= 6474.8km)
= 22.76 km.
So here we see that the receiving point is out of the range of transmitting antenna. So
elevated antennas must be used at the receiver side to establish the communication link.
Remaining distance(d) = (24-22.76)km = 1.24km.
d = (2x hrx rx 4/3)
hr = 0.36m
Effective antenna height at receiver side = 36cm.

Page | 95

Link Budget Analysis:

Transmitted power (Pt) = 45W
= 46.53dBm
Transmitter antenna gain (Gt) = 3dB
Cable loss of RG-213 = 12.8dB/100m
Length of cable used = 50m
Cable loss(Lcable)= 6.4dB
Free space loss (path loss) = (/4r)2
= -73.36dBm
Receiver antenna gain(Gr)= 3dB
Loss in RG-58 cable= 10.5dB/m
Length of cable used = 50cm.
Cable loss(Lcable)= 5.25dB
Power received(dB) = Pt (dB) + Gt(dB) Lcable (dB) - path loss(dB) + Gr(dB)
Lcable(dB)
= -32.48dB
= 5.65x10-4 W
Here although the received signal level falls within the sensitivity of GP338 but
due to its insufficient antenna height it cannot be used. We have to use MOTOROLA
GM338 base station with mobile whip antenna and RG-58 connecting cable.

12. CONCLUSION:The aim of this project was to familiarize the students to the general concepts of radio
wave propagation and the basics of VHF communication for short range and highly secured
data transfer.The VHF Communication setup at PXE, Chandipur, DRDO was made familiar to
the students and its working was demonstrated in details. The use of practical devices such as
MOTOROLA GP series handheld tranceivers, MOTOROLA CDR700 repeater, MOTOROLA
GM338 base staion, various antenna, Power supply units were explained and Hands-on-

Page | 96

training was given to the students and case studies were performed. The overall aim was to
provide a brief overview of the VHF communication used here at PXE,Chandipur.

13. REFERENCES:

Antenna Theory and Design A Classic Reissue

by Robert.S.Elliot
IEEE press series

Antennas -

by Kraus

Tata McGraw Hill

Introduction to RF Propagation by John S Seybold

Wiley

Microwave and RF Engineering - by Roberto Sorrentino and Giovanni Bianchi

Wiley Series.

Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication System

by Simon R Saunders and Alejandro Aragon-Zavala
Wiley

Fundamentals of Radio and Electronics- by W.L Everitt

Prentice- Hall

Radio Electronics by Samuel Seely , TMH

Handbook of Mobile Radio Networks- by Sami Tabbane

Analog and Digital Communication- by M.S.Roden

Discovery press

Motorola handbook and user guide.

www.evarc.org/Intro%20to%20Radio%20Wave%20Propagation-modified.pdf

www.itu.int/rec/R-REC-P

ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1428346

ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1139054

www.motorolasolutions.com/web/.../GPR_Series_Brochure_0807.pdf

www.airadio.com/motorola-gm-series-brochures

ww.repeater-builder.com/motorola/maxtrac/.../cdr500-cdr700-brochure.pdf

Page | 97

Page | 98