Heatengines

g
Heatenginesarecyclicdevicesandthattheworkingfluidofa
heat engine return to its initial state at the end of each cycle.
heatenginereturntoitsinitialstateattheendofeachcycle.
Workisdonebyworkingfluid duringonepartofthe cycleand
ontheworkingfluid
h
ki fl id duringanotherpart.(Deferencebetween
d i
h
(D f
b
thesetwoequaltonetworkdeliveredbytheheatengine).
Tomaximizeefficiency:delivermostworkandrequiredleast
work.

Internal combustion Engines: History,

History engine types and operation
of 2 & 4 stroke engines

Maximumefficiencyisgivenbyidealreversiblecycle.

Dr. Primal Fernando

wpd@pdn.ac.lk
d@ d
lk
Ph: (081) 2393608
1

Historyofinternalcombustion(IC)engines
y
g

History of IC Engines
HistoryofICEngines

Both
Bothpowergenerationandrefrigerationareusuallyaccomplished
power generation and refrigeration are usually accomplished
bysystemsthatoperateonathermodynamiccycle:powercycles
andrefrigerationcycles.

1860Lenoirsengine(aconvertedsteamengine)
combustednaturalgasinadoubleactingpiston,
usingelectricignition.Efficiency=5%
i
l
i i ii
Effi i
5%

Powerproducingdevises:engines
Refrigerationproducingdevices:refrigerators,airconditioners
andheatpumps.
Steamengine 1700(externalcombustionengines)
l
b

History continued
History

Classification of Engines
ClassificationofEngines

1876
1876NikolausOttopatentedthe4cycleengine,itusedgaseous
Nikolaus Otto patented the 4 cycle engine it used gaseous
fuel
1882GottliebDaimler,anengineerforDaimler,lefttoworkon
his own engine His 1889 twin cylinder V was the first engine to
hisownengine.His1889twincylinderVwasthefirstengineto
beproducedinquantities.UsedliquidfuelandVenturitype
carburetor,enginewasnamedMercedesafterthedaughterof
his major distributor
hismajordistributor
1893RudolfDieselbuiltsuccessfulCIenginewhichwas26%
efficient(doubletheefficiencyofanyotherengineofitstime)

ExternalvsInternalCombustion
SparkIgnitionSIorCompressionIgnitionCI
Configuration
ValveLocation
2 Stroke or 4 Stroke
2Strokeor4Stroke

VEngine
g

Engine Configurations
EngineConfigurations
In Line
(Automobile)

Horizontally
Opposed (Subaru)

Radial (Aircraft)

V
(Automobile)

Opposed Piston
(crankshafts geared
together)

WankelRotaryPistonEngine
y
g

Rotary Wankel
Rotary
Wankel Engine
Engine

Ref. Internal combustion engines and air pollution, E. F. Obert

9

10

Basicconsiderationsintheanalysisofpowercycles
y
p
y
Cyclesencounteredinactualdevices
y
aredifficulttoanalyzebecauseofthe
presenceofcomplicatingeffectssuchas
friction etc.
frictionetc.
Consideracyclethatresemblesthe
actualcyclecloselybutitmadeup
t l
l l l b t it
d
totallyofinternallyreversibleprocess
(idealcycle)

Thermal efficiency, th
11

Wnet
Qin

or

wnet
qin
12

Networkofthecycle

Idealizationsandsimplifications
p
Cycledoesnotinvolveany
fi i
friction:nopressuredropinthe
d
i h
workingfluid.
Expansionandcompression
process:quasiequilibrium.
Pipesconnectingvarious
componentsarewellinsulated.
NeglectingchangersinKEand
PE

13

14

Airstandardassumption
p

Carnotcycle
y

Gaspowercycles(workingfluidgas):sparkignitionengines,diesel
engines,conventionalgasturbines,etc.
Alltheseenginesenergyisprovidedbyburningafuelwithinthesystem
boundary.
Workingfluid(air)mainlycontainsnitrogenandhardlyundergoingany
chemicalreactionsinthecombustionchamberandcanbeclosely
resemblestoairatalltimesinthechamber.
Assumptions: workingfluidasair,behavesasidealgas,internally
y
p
p
y
p
reversiblecycle,combustionprocessreplacebyheatadditionprocess
byaexternalsource,exhaustprocessreplacebyheatrejectionprocess
thatrestoresinitialstateofworkingfluid,specificheatvalues
determinesatroomtemperatures(callcoldairstandard
assumptions)
assumptions).

TheCarnotcycleisthemostefficientcycle
that can be executed between heat a source
thatcanbeexecutedbetweenheatasource
andaheatsink.

th,Carnot 1

TL
TH
15

16

ReciprocatingEngines

Partsofanengine
g

TopDeadCenter(TDC)
p
:Uppermostposition
pp
p
BottomDeadCenter(BDC) :Lowermostposition

Exhaust
valve

Intake
valve

Stroke :Lengthofpistontravel
TDC
Stroke
Bore
BDC

Bore :Diameterofthecylinder
ClearanceVolume(Vc) :VwherepistonisatTDC
Displacement Volume (Vd):SweptVolume(V
DisplacementVolume(V
) :Swept Volume (VmaxVmin)
CompressionRatio(rv)=(Vmax/Vmin)=(VBDC/VTDC)
MeanEffectivePressure(MEP):
Wnet =(MEP)x(DisplacementVolume)

ReciprocatingEngineisINTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINE,andisClassified
into2types:
1.
SparkIgnition(SI):GasolineEngine,Mixingairfueloutsidecylinder,
ignitesbyasparkplug(Autocycle)
2
2.
Compression Ignition (CI): Diesel engine fuel is injected into the
CompressionIgnition(CI):Dieselengine,fuelisinjectedintothe
cylinder,selfignitedasaresultofcompression(Dieselcycle).
..
17

Mean Effective Pressure, MEP Concept

18

Four Stroke Engine spark ignition engine

Intake

Actual Processes
P

C
Compression
i

Power

Exhaust

Equivalent by MEP

Equivalent

Wnet

1. Intake Stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC,

drawing in fresh air-fuel mixture.
2. Compression Stroke piston moves from BDC to
TDC, compress air-fuel mixture.
3. Power Stroke piston at TDC, spark plug ignite
the air-fuel mixture. the combustion occur
very fast
f t that,
th t in
i theory,
th
the
th piston
i t still
till att
TDC. After that the piston is pushed to BDC.
4. Exhaust Stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC,
ppushes the combustion gases
g
out.

MEP

Wnet
vmin
TDC

vmax v

vmin

vmax

BDC

Wnet = (MEP) x (Displacement Volume)

= (MEP) x (Vmax-Vmin)

19

20

Actualandidealcycleinsparkignition
engine
i

Two Stroke Engine

Compression

Intake &
Exhaust

Power

1.CompressionStroke pistonmovesfrom
BDCtoTDC,compressairfuelmixture.
2.PowerStroke pistonatTDC,sparkplug
p
p
p g
ignitetheairfuelmixture.Afterthe
pistonispushedtoBDC.Meanwhile,
abouthalfway,combustiongasesare
discharged and fresh air fuel mixture is
dischargedandfreshairfuelmixtureis
drawingin.
g
g
y
2strokeenginesgenerallylessefficientthan4stroke
enginessincepartialexpulsionofunburnedmixture
withexhaustgas.Ithashigherpower/weightratio.
21

AirStandardOttoCycle(NikolausA.Otto1876)

22

T
Energybalance
gy
Ottocycle(I)
y

Ideal cycle of spark ignition engine, comprises of 44 Process:

Process 1-2 Isentropic Compression (piston moves from BDC to TDC)
Process 2-3 v = constant, heat added (piston stays still, represents combustion)
Process 3-4 Isentropic expansion (piston moves from TDC to BDC gives POWER)
Process 4-1 v = constant, heat rejection (piston stays still, represents EXHAUST and INTAKE stroke)

NeglectingchangesinKEandPE
2

(qin qout ) ( win wout ) u (kJ

k / kg
k )

There are only 2-stroke of all 4-processes,

P

Heattransferto/fromthesystemisunder
constantvolume(nowork)

qin u 3 u 2 c v (T3 T2 )

wout
2

win
v2=v3

TDC

1
v1=v4

s1=s2

q out u 4 u 1 cv (T4 T1 )

qout

s3=s4

qout

qin

qin

th ,Otto

BDC

w
q
net 1 out
qin
qin

Evaluateatroom
tem:calledcoldair
standard assumption
standardassumption

T T1
1 4
1
T3 T2

s1=s2

s3=s4

wout

T1 4 1
T
1

T3

T2 1
T
2

win
v2=v3

1
v1=v4

What is the different of Otto cycle from Carnot cycle, the most efficient cycle
23

24

T
Energybalance
gy
Ottocycle(II)
y

th ,Otto

T1 4 1
w
q
net 1 out 1 T4 T1 1 T1
qin
qin
T3 T2
T3

T2 1
T2

Processes12and34areisentropicandv
Processes
12 and 34 are isentropic and v2=v3
andv4=v1(Pvk=constant)

T1 v 2

T2 v1

k 1

v
3
v4

k 1

qout

s1=s2

s3=s4

T4
T3

wout

V
V
v
r max 1 1
Vmin V2 v 2

th ,Otto 1

th ,Otto 1

Compression ratio
Compressionratio

ThermalefficiencyofaOttocycle(I)
y
y
()

qin

win
v2=v3

v1=v4

r k 1

1
r

k 1

Highcompressionratios:temperature
ofair/fuelmixturerisesaboveauto
ignitiontemperature(premature
ignition)producesaudiblenoiseis
k=1.4
calledengineknock.
Improvementofthermalefficiency
wasobtainedutilizinghigher
compressionratios(upto12)gasoline
ble d ith tet aethyl lead (i
blendwithtetraethyllead(improving
o i
octanerating)butithasbeen
prohibitedtousesincethehazardous
Octanerating=measureoffuel
g
of lead to health
ofleadtohealth.
quality(measureofenginesknock
resistance)

25

ThermalefficiencyofaOttocycle(II)
y
y
( )

26

CompressionIssues
p

Monatomicgas(He,Ar)

Most
Mostcompressionratiosarearound10:1,
compression ratios are around 10:1,
meaningthatthegasletintothecylinderis
compressedto1/10timesitsoriginalsize.

air
CO2
k=1.2

Efficiencyisbetterwithahigher
compressionratiobutonlytothelimits
ofthefuelquality.

ethane

Molecularweightofthe
workingfluidincreases

Problemscanoccurduringacycleifthereis:
Problems can occur during a cycle if there is:
LackofCompressioncausedfromgassesleakingpastthe
piston,aholeinthepiston,ortheintakeorexhaustvalves
i t
h l i th i t
th i t k
h
t l
arenotsealingproperly.
LackofSparkcausedbymalfunctioningsparkplugs,dirty
sparkplugs,mistimedfirings,orbadconnectionsbetween
plugsandthebattery.

Thermalefficiencyofactualsparkignition
efficiency of actual spark ignition
Thermal
engine~2530%

27

28

HowFuelisHandled

ChemicalEnergyofGasoline
gy

StructureofGasoline
Ismostlycomprisedofhydrocarbonmoleculeshaving
Is mostly comprised of hydrocarbon molecules having
fromsixtotencarbonatoms.

The
Thechemicalenergyofonegallonofgasolineis,ontheaverage,
chemical energy of one gallon of gasoline is on the average
125,000BTUpergallon(132106 Jper3.8L).

Octane
Octaneisameasureoftheresistancetodetonation.The
is a measure of the resistance to detonation The
octanenumberassignedtogasoline(87,89,93,100,114,
120)representstheratioofheptane,whicheasily
detonates, to isooctane, which does not want to detonate
detonates,toisooctane,whichdoesnotwanttodetonate
(bettertosayoctanenumberabove100asperformance
number.Itiscalculatedbydifferentway.Oftenitsdone
bypureextrapolation.).Eightysevenoctanegasolineis
yp
p
)
g y
g
gasolinethatcontains87percentoctaneand13percent
heptane(orsomeothercombinationoffuelsthathasthe
sameperformanceofthe87/13combinationof
octane/heptane).
t
/h t
)

Onlyabout25%ofchemicalenergyingasolineisconvertedto
mechanicalenergy.
Basicallyoutofaonedollargallonofgasoline,75centsis
wasted.

29

30

Dieselcycle:Theidealcycleforcompression
ignition (CI) engine (Rudolph Diesel 1890)
ignition(CI)engine(RudolphDiesel1890)

Cylinder
y
Configurations
g

Similartosparkignitionenginedifferingmainlyinthemethod
ofinitiatingcombustion.
fi ii i
b i
Insparkignition(SI)engines(gasolineengines),airfuelmixture
p
g
g
g
g
compressedbelowautoignitiontemperatureoftheair/fuel
mixtureandcombustionstartsbyfiringsparkplugs.
Straight Configuration

V Configuration

Flat
Configuration

Incombustionignition(CI)engines(dieselengines)air
compressedabovetheautoignitiontemperatureoftheairfuel
mixtureandthenfuelinjectintotheair.

Displacement refers to
the volume inside each
piston chamber.
chamber For
example: a 3.0 Liter
engine with 6 cylinders
will have 0.5 liters per
cylinder.

SIengineshasacarburetoranddieselenginehasafuelpump.
Thecompressionratioofdieselenginestypicallyhigher(1224)
31

32

Energybalance Dieselengine(I)

Dieselengine
g

(qin qout ) ( win wout ) u (kJ / kg )

Thefuelinjectionstartswhenthe
p
pistonreachestoTDC.

q in P2 (v 3 v 2 ) (u 3 u 2 ) h3 h2 c p (T3 T2 )

Combustionprocesstakesplace
over longer interval.
overlongerinterval.

q out u 4 u 1 c v (T4 T1 )

Becauseofthislongerperiodthe
heat addition process can be
heatadditionprocesscanbe
approximatedasconstant
pressureheatadditionprocess.

th , Diesel
Di l

wnet
q
1 out
qin
qin
(T T1 )
1 4
1
k (T3 T2 )

Otherpartsarecommonforboth
SIandCIengines.

T1 4 1
T
1

T3

kT2 1
T
2

33

Ottovs.Diesel

Energybalance Dieselengine(II)
th , Diesel

q
w
(T T )
net 1 out 1 4 1 1
k (T3 T2 )
qin
qin

T1 4 1
T

1
T3

kT2 1
T
2

th ,Otto 1

1
r k 1

th, Diesel 1

1 rck 1

r k (rc 1)
k 1

th ,Otto th , Diesel (when both cycles operate on the same compressio n ratio)

V3 v3

Define new quantity; cutoff ratio rc

Definenewquantity;cutoffratio
V2 v 2

Limitingvalueofrc=1;whenefficienciesofbothOttoandDiesel
cyclesareidentical.

Utilizingdefinitionofisentropicidealgasrelations
g
p
g

th, Diesel

34

Di
Dieselcycleoperatesmuchhighercompressionratios,therefore
l
l
h hi h
i
i
h f
thermalefficiencyofDieselenginesareusuallyhigherthanSI
engines(35to40%).

1 rk 1

1 k 1 c
r k (rc 1)

Dieselenginesburnsfuelsmorecompletelythangasolineengines.
r isthecompressionratio

Energycontentof1gallonofdieselonaverage,147,000BTUper
gallon(15510
ll (155 106 Jper3.8L).
J
3 8 L)
35

36

Dualcycle
y
More
Morerealisticwaytomodel:
realistic way to model:
Combinationofheattransfer
processesingasolineanddiesel
cycles.
l
Therelativeamountofheat
transferduringeachprocesscan
beadjustedtoapproximate
actualcyclemoreclosely.

37