Original Article

Pre-service teachers
attitudes towards children
with disabilities: An Irish
perspective

European Physical Education Review

116
The Author(s) 2014
Reprints and permission:
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DOI: 10.1177/1356336X14556861
epe.sagepub.com

Daniel Tindall
University of Limerick, Ireland

Whitney MacDonald
San Diego Unified School District, San Diego, CA, USA

Edith Carroll
Colaiste Dhulaigh Secondary School, Dublin, Ireland

Brigitte Moody
University of Limerick, Ireland

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a 10-week adapted physical activity programme on the attitudes and perceptions of 64 Irish pre-service teachers (aged 1925) towards
teaching children and young people with physical, intellectual, and learning disabilities. Data were
collected through written pre-programme expectations, weekly reflective logs, and a final written
reflection. Data were analysed qualitatively through reading and rereading the data sources, identifying similarities and differences, themes, and patterns. Results revealed a positive change in attitude and perception toward both the idea of inclusion and working with persons with disabilities.
Specifically, pre-programme anxieties diminished, confidence increased, and the benefits of the
programme design (combining theory and practice) were realised. The findings of this study support the continued implementation of this type of lived learning experience as an integral part of
physical education initial teacher education programming in Ireland.
Keywords
Physical education, initial teacher education, attitudes, disability

Corresponding author:
Daniel Tindall, Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences, PESS Building P1-024, University of Limerick, Limerick,
Ireland.
Email: Daniel.Tindall@ul.ie

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Introduction
The education of all students, regardless of their ability, within a physical education (PE) class
represents a relatively new philosophy within the Irish education system. Despite the trend to
include most students with disabilities into regular or mainstream classes, university-level
teacher education programmes have been slow to modify their curricula (Smith, 2004; Smith and
Green, 2004). A study by Morley et al. (2005) found that physical education initial teacher education (PE-ITE) programmes need to improve their training focus by including more practically
orientated inclusive education modules. This is certainly true within Ireland, as PE teachers have
indicated that the undergraduate training they receive during their initial teacher education is inadequate in preparing them to work with children with disabilities (Crawford, 2011; Kearns and
Shevlin, 2006; Meegan and MacPhail, 2006).
Numerous Irish-educated pre-service teachers (PSTs) in PE may not experience contact with
students with disabilities or even teach these students until they have begun employment within
schools (Travers et al., 2010). As such, there is a strong need to promote positive attitudes and perceptions among physical educators toward teaching students with disabilities as well as improve
initial teacher education and postgraduate pre-service training (Drudy and Kinsella, 2009). The
purpose of this study is to examine how the attitudes and perceptions of PSTs in physical education
change as a result of participating and reflecting upon a semester-long teaching experience with
children with disabilities.
For this study, attitude is defined as an opinion or general feeling about something, while
perception is defined as the awareness or understanding of something; in this case persons with
disabilities and inclusion within the PE setting (Avramidis and Norwich, 2002; Rust and
Sinelnikov, 2010).

Background
Attitudes and perceptions towards persons with disabilities in Ireland
In 2006, the National Disability Authority (NDA) conducted a research project entitled Public
attitudes to disability in Ireland. This was a follow up survey to one conducted in 2001, reassessing attitudes after large legislative changes to disability rights were instated in 2004 and 2005.
The general publics attitudes and perceptions towards persons with disabilities consistently differed between two subgroups within the population. These groups were (a) those who knew
someone with a disability or were disabled themselves, and (b) those that did not know someone
with a disability and were able bodied. Persons who knew someone with a disability were more
likely to have a positive attitude about disabilities. Key findings from the survey reveal 61% of
respondents agree that it is society which disables people by creating barriers, with less than half
thinking that people with disabilities are treated fairly in Ireland (NDA, 2007). This reflects a
more social rather than medical model approach towards disability. The medical model of disability defines disability in terms of individual deficit or a problem that belongs to the person
with the disability whereby they are viewed by their disability and the treatment of their condition
(Connors and Stalker, 2007; Shakespeare, 2013). From this perspective, disability is conceptualised as something that can be prevented, cured, or rehabilitated (Shakespeare, 2013).
Conversely, the social model view of disability defines it as a social creation, drawing on the idea
that it is society which disables people or creates barriers for them. As such, social model thinking
tends to focus on equal rights legislation, independent living, and the elimination of physical
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Tindall et al.

barriers in the physical and non-physical environment (Shakespeare, 2013). Today, Ireland continues to move away from this medical view of disability and embrace a more social model of understanding. However, from an educational perspective, there is a considerable amount of work to be
done.
Until recently, most students with disabilities were educated in segregated special schools
(Feerick, 1996). Results of the NDA survey revealed that 52% of respondents believed persons
with disabilities did not receive equal opportunities within the Irish educational system (NDA,
2007). When asked if those polled would be open to having children with disabilities attending the
same school as children without disabilities, 75% expressed acceptance of children with physical
disabilities and 36% acceptance of children with mental health difficulty. However, 21% would
object to having children with mental health difficulty attending the same school as children
without disabilities. Given these findings, how can attitudes towards persons with disabilities
change for the better in the Irish educational system? One contribution is through the effective
training of Irish PSTs that allows for a more inclusive learning environment (McCormack and
OFlaherty, 2010; Shevlin et al., 2012; Travers et al., 2010) as teachers have the ability to shape the
attitudes, perceptions and practices of their students in relation to inclusion beyond the school
setting and into the community.

Physical educators attitudes and perceptions towards inclusion

Inclusion is the philosophy of supporting the educational needs of students with disabilities in
general education classrooms, including general physical education (Block, 2007). The attitudes of
physical educators towards students with disabilities is a not a new topic of discussion. According
to Folsom-Meek and Rizzo (2002), attitude plays a significant role in explaining how teachers
engage and facilitate students with disabilities in their physical education classes. Research consistently suggests that teachers have positive attitudes towards the idea of inclusion but feel unprepared to deal with the many issues that may come from teaching students with disabilities,
citing lack of time, lack of support, insufficient training, ineffective teaching strategies, and
poor equipment/facilities as areas of concern (Avramidis and Norwich, 2002; Block and
Obrusnkova, 2007; Doulkeridou et al., 2011; Fejgin et al., 2005; Hodge et al., 2004, 2009;
Westwood and Graham, 2003).
From an Irish perspective, the attitudes of educators towards teaching persons with disabilities
and inclusion are similar to those echoed in the international literature. Findings suggest that the
attitudes of secondary PE teachers toward teaching students with disabilities were somewhat
favourable depending on the type of disability. For example, research conducted by Meegan and
MacPhail (2006) found that attitudes were more favourable towards students with physical disabilities than students with severe emotional disorders or intellectual delays. The reason given was
that teachers felt they could actually instruct to students with physical disabilities more effectively
than students with other types of disability. However, opportunities on how to teach PE to students
regardless of their disabilities at both initial teacher education and postgraduate levels were found
to be limited, ineffective or in some instances not offered (Fitzgerald, 2012).

Physical education pre-service training

In a review of literature conducted by Block and Obrusnkova (2007), research suggests that PE
teachers do not feel adequately prepared to include students with disabilities in their programmes.
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At present, given the various disability categories (physical disabilities, intellectual disabilities,
learning disabilities), current training programmes offer very little depth in terms of content or
practical experiences that help teachers to assist or include students with disabilities in the PE
setting (Hardin, 2005). According to Rust and Sinelnikov (2010), although modules (courses/
classes) in adapted physical education (APE) have been shown to improve PSTs attitudes towards
teaching students with disabilities, many of those modules are unable to provide useful information
and teaching strategies for them to effectively teach disabled students. They argue that well
planned coursework and exposure to practical hands-on experiences play a crucial role in fostering
favourable attitudes and perceptions of pre-service physical education teachers towards working
with students with disabilities. Similar findings were revealed in research examining the learning
experiences of PSTs in special education teacher education (Conderman et al., 2013) and general
teacher education programmes (Sokal et al., 2014). In both instances, researchers found that PSTs
who experienced in-depth coursework and relevant practical experiences working with students
with disabilities felt better prepared to provide an inclusive learning environment than those PSTs
who did not receive the same experiences. However, Hardin (2005) noted that participation in at
least one course in APE and an adapted teaching experience have only a somewhat positive impact
on teachers attitudes towards students with disabilities.
In Ireland, the need for training that provides strategies and ideas at both the primary and postprimary level is of the utmost importance (Crawford, 2011; Kearns and Shevlin, 2006). A report
conducted by Travers et al. (2010) to the Research and Development Committee of the Department
of Education and Skills suggests that newly qualified teachers in Ireland lack the confidence, competence, and teaching and communication skills required to meet the needs of students with disabilities at the post-primary/secondary level. Similar findings were also reported by Lambe and
Bones (2006) in Northern Ireland, highlighting the need for better prepared teachers to facilitate
students with special educational needs. Currently, three universities in the Republic of Ireland
and one in Northern Ireland offer PE-ITE programmes at the post-primary level. In each of these
institutions, PSTs are required to take only one adapted or inclusive PE module (ranging from
1224 hours of lecture), thus experiencing limited training in working with students with disabilities. Moreover, only two offer a practicum experience (24 hours across the term). Given the lack
of research in the area of initial teacher education and adapted/inclusive physical education from
an Irish perspective, the purpose of this study was to explore the pre-, during, and post-experience
attitudes and perceptions of PSTs as they engaged with children with disabilities during a semesterlong adapted physical activity (APA) programme. In so doing, participants went beyond a surface
level understanding of disability and inclusion towards a more applied experience as part of their
professional development (Stewart, 1990). Identifying the impact of such a learning experience
will help to inform and improve PE-ITE programming in Ireland, thus producing more confident,
competent, and better prepared physical educators as well as more inclusive learning environments
(Sharma et al., 2006; Vickerman and Coates, 2009).

Methods
Participants and setting
Upon ethical approval, 64 PSTs (34 females and 30 males aged 1925) agreed to take part in the
study. PSTs were third year students participating in a module entitled Introduction to Adapted
Physical Education, offered as part of their four year PE-ITE programme. As a component of the
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module, PSTs were required to participate in an on-campus APA programme designed to facilitate
a disability teaching experience. This 10 week programme aimed to engage children, youth, and
young adults (five to 21 years of age) with disabilities in physical activities such as dance, games,
and health-related activity. These weekly activity sessions were held in the physical education
building and occurred on consecutive Thursdays for one hour. Every participant (52 in total) was
paired with a PST (in some cases two for those children requiring more assistance) for the
10 weeks, receiving individual attention, support, and encouragement. In this paper, PSTs are identified by number (i.e. PST-01) whilst the children and young people participating in the APA programme are identified using pseudonyms. It should be noted that as students were not recruited to
participate in the study during their participation in the module, consent was obtained the following
semester.

Theoretical framework
This qualitative research study primarily relies on a combined situated learning and action research
framework to examine the lived experience as recalled by PSTs through reflective journaling and
purposeful sampling.
According to Stroot and Ko (2011: 431), situated learning theory assumes learning is a function
of the instructional activity as well as the context and culture in which the activity is situated. First
posited by Lave and Wenger (1991), situated learning theory is considered the social aspect of
learning within an appropriate and relevant instructional setting or environment. Thought of in
simpler terms, for the learner, knowledge is built socially rather than in isolation. This theory
guided the understanding and insight into the lived experiences and reflections of the PSTs as they
underwent weekly practical sessions in this programme. Together, PSTs were placed in a learning
environment that allowed them to gain access to sources of understanding through direct
involvement with each other and their students (Lave and Wenger, 1991: 37).
Action research is the reflective process promoting the value of human interaction and seeking
to improve practices of interest (Brydon-Miller and Maguire, 2009). As the goal of this research is
to facilitate reflection and positive change in practitioners, an action research framework provides
the structure needed for a fruitful process. Reflective practice is the element that most strongly
underpins this research. According to Attard (2007), reflective practice allows one to scrutinise
ones past experiences in order to understand and change their current and future practices. By
reading and processing written reflection cards and the final reflective summary from each participant, the researchers were able to record and expand upon broadly experienced themes in order to
better understand the overall experiences of the PSTs (Standal and Moe, 2013).
Purposive sampling was used for this project. A purposive sample is a non-representative subset
of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. Though a
researcher may have a specific group in mind (i.e. all Irish PSTs in PE), it may be impossible to
identify the exact population as they would not all be known, and access might be difficult. As
such, the researcher may choose a sample, or smaller subset of the population, that is accessible
(Patton, 2002). The advantage of purposive sampling is that it allows the researcher to decide
on people or events to examine what will be critical for the research (Teddlie and Yu, 2007). For
this study, researchers chose a convenience sample of Irish PSTs who participated in the Introduction to Adapted Physical Education module as they could provide direct insights on the effectiveness of the learning experience as part of their overall PE-ITE programme.
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Data collection
Data were collected on a series of written artefacts submitted by the PSTs in the form of preprogramme expectations, weekly logs, and final post-programme reflections. These artefacts had
also formed part of an assessment for the module on inclusive physical education. Researchers dissected the reactions and thoughts of PSTs, examining their attitude and perceptions as well as their
perceived confidence and competence towards working with children with disabilities. Thematic
representations of changes that emerged throughout the semester were identified. By gathering
multiple reflections at different stages of this particular learning experience a greater understanding of those shifting experiences could be achieved than through a final reflection alone. The
assignment for this module required the students to complete the following:
1. Pre-programme expectations (PPE) (weeks 12 of the semester). PSTs participated in
pre-placement disability workshops (two hours each) conducted by the researchers and
submitted their pre-programme expectations. Here, PSTs were asked to identify any fears/
anxieties or confidences they had prior to beginning the learning experience. These preprogramme expectations were sent via email to the researchers for collection and analysis.
2. Weekly log entries (weeks 312 of the semester). As part of their reflective assignment for
the module, PSTs completed weekly log entries for weeks 19 of the APA programme.
PSTs were specifically asked to respond to the following two prompts: How am I changing? and Whats causing me to change? Here, PSTs were asked to reflect on their attitudes and perceptions towards children with disabilities, noting any changes that
occurred during the course of the programme.
3. Final reflections (week 13 of the semester). In order to complete the assignment, PSTs submitted their final written reflection addressing the two previous prompts (reviewing their
weekly reflection cards) and considered a third prompt, After having this experience, do I feel
more or less confident as a future professional in teaching children with disabilities in my PE
class? It should be noted that these reflections were used to inform the researchers on how best
to improve the module for the following year. Permission for the use of these reflections was
sought and obtained after final grades for the module were submitted and ratified. It is worth
noting that self-reflection as part of a class assignment may not be the most exact method of
assessing attitudinal change (Cousin, 2003) and could be considered a limitation of the study.

Data analysis
Data were analysed through the method of selective coding (Morley et al., 2005). As part of this
process, researchers identified reoccurring words and incidences from the pre-programme expectations, logs, and final reflections. Doing so allowed the researchers to identify changes in the attitudes and perceptions of PSTs as they worked with their child or young person. Using the NVivo
software system, abstraction (the creation of codes) was used to identify and sort general categories
and themes emerging through content analysis (Elo and Kyngas, 2008). In order to minimize
experimenter bias and make certain that the themes under investigation had occurred, a further process of cross-analysis was conducted. Here, a second researcher was enlisted to separately code the
pre-programme expectations, weekly logs and final written reflections. A comparison of themes
produced by NVivo was undertaken at all three stages of analysis (pre, during, and post) allowing
elements to be merged or divided appropriately (See Figure 1).
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Perceptions of
PSTs

Pre-programme
Expectations

Final Reflection

Weekly Logs

Fears/Anxieties
-Adapting
Activities

'Am I Changing?'

'What's Causing Me
to Change?'

As a Future
Teacher

-Communication
-Parents

Confidences

Comfort

Understanding

Benefits of the
programme

-Previous teaching
experiences
-General
Excitement

Confidence

Observation

Expectations

Figure 1. A summary of themes that emerged across the three stages of the learning experience.
PST: pre-service teacher.

Results and discussion

The purpose of this study was to explore the pre-, during, and post-experience attitudes and perceptions of Irish PSTs as they engaged with children with disabilities during a semester-long APA
programme. Results suggest there was a noticeable and positive change in these outlooks across the
three phases of the learning experience.

Pre-programme: fears, anxieties, and confidences

When asked how students felt going into the learning experience, PSTs often reported nervousness,
anxiety, feelings of inadequacy, and fear of the unknown as part of their pre-programme expectations. At times they divulged that this would be their first exposure to a person with a disability and
were unsure of what to say to their child or how to communicate in general. This is consistent with
the findings of Meegan and MacPhail (2006) and McCormack and OFlaherty (2010) in their
examinations of Irish PSTs preparing to work with students with disabilities. Specifically, PSTs
identified the following as areas they were most anxious about: adapting activities, communication, the expectations of parents (would the child learn or improve), lack of experience and whether
or not the child would like them or enjoy the experience. Of these areas, adapting activities, child
enjoyment, and lack of experience were mentioned on more than one occasion. Of the 64 PSTs,
many questioned their ability to adapt activities in order to provide suitable and challenging
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experiences that their children would enjoy: One area I am slightly concerned [about] but will help
with this concern deals with adapting an activity to make it suitable for the individual (PST-10,
PPE). Another wrote, Im fearful that the child wont like me or wont want to come back the following week due to my lack of knowledge of how to challenge them or help them to succeed
(PST-17, PPE). With regard to lack of experience, an equal number of PSTs noted this was another
area of concern. Several were fearful or anxious about the reception from, or reaction to, a child
with a disability when trying to impart knowledge or give instruction. One PST wrote, Ive had no
real experience of interacting/dealing with those with special needs. For this reason, Im worried
about how well Ill be able to interact with and teach them (PST-54, PPE). Another concurred,
stating: Im nervous about the fact that I have absolutely no experience when it comes to teaching
children who have disabilities and I fear that this will affect my approach, mind-set and overall
success of my teaching (PST-03, PPE).
Vis-a`-vis confidences prior to heading into the learning experience, PSTs noted the following as
positives: they knew a person with a disability (family or friend); overall teaching ability (having
completed their first school placement); and their expectation that the experience would be a
success. Results highlighting the importance of personal interactions and previous teaching
experience align with earlier research suggesting that contact with people with disabilities both
improves ones comfort level in general as well as attitudes towards the inclusion of students with
disabilities in regular or mainstream classes (Carroll et al., 2003). Similarly, since the PSTs had
completed a school placement (student teaching) experience in the spring semester of year two of
the training programme, for many their confidence was recorded as high. These findings are
similar to those of Hodge and Jansma (2000) and later Sharma et al. (2006), who found that PSTs
with some previous teaching experience were more confident about including students with disabilities in their classrooms compared with their counterparts who had no experience. Other PSTs
stated they were either excited or looking forward to the experience, or felt it would be a success
regardless of their fears and anxieties. PSTs conveyed such things as I am very excited to get
started as I feel it will be a successful programme (PST-19, PPE) and I feel it will be very rewarding (PST-22, PPE). One PST, however, had a very unique take on this notion, stating: Im fearful
that this might not work out like I hope, but I am confident that it will be a success (PST-07, PPE).

During the programme: how am I changing? and what is causing me to change?

Data analysis revealed three themes which represent the experiences of PSTs during the programme, emerging from the prompt How am I changing? These themes included: (a) Im more
comfortable, (b) Im more confident, and (c) I expect more. Regarding the second prompt,
What is causing me to change? two themes developed: (a) I understand, and (b) Ill watch.
Overall, weekly reflections showed a positive change in attitude and perceptions toward working
with children with disabilities. Likewise, an increase in PSTs levels of confidence in their skills as
physical educators working with children with disabilities was evident.
How am I changing? (Im more comfortable). Prior to the first activity session, PSTs often described
themselves as anxious, uncertain, and fearful of their initial encounters with their child or young
person. However, as the PSTs became increasingly familiar with their students, many noted how
they felt more comfortable as the weeks progressed. These results are parallel to those of previous
research conducted by Hodge and Jansma (2000) as well as Sharma and his colleagues (2006) in
exploring the comfort level of PSTs prior to working with students with disabilities. In their study
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of 704 PSTs from 40 institutions across varied geographic regions of the United States, Hodge and
Jansma (2000) examined how different contextual factors affected PSTs attitudes towards
teaching students with disabilities. Results of the study showed that with relevant experience, PSTs
exhibited a higher comfort level and thus more positive attitudes towards teaching students with
special needs. More recent research conducted by Sharma et al. (2006) also found significant
differences in comfort level between PSTs in eastern countries (Hong Kong and Singapore) and
western countries (Canada and Australia), noting these differences were primarily due to a lack of
experience in working with persons with disabilities. In the current study, this theme uncovered an
increase in PSTs comfort levels as the weeks progressed. One PST shared in their first reflection:
I began tensed up and nervous but was more relaxed by the end of the session with Michael. I think I
was extra nervous due to the fact that I had little experience of children with disabilities before this so
didnt know what to expect (PST-15, week #1).

The same PST reflects later in week seven regarding their developed comfort:
As I approach the end of my sessions with Michael I think about how much more relaxed around him
now compared to the first few weeks. I realise the importance of acceptance and while we can help
people this doesnt mean we can change the way they are.

Another PST shared a similar experience, asserting:

Before I started the programme I found that I was very intimidated by people with mental and physical
disabilities. Over time I began to become more comfortable around them and relate with them on a
more personal level. I didnt see their disabilities as so much of a barrier as I did at the start of the programme (PST-31, week #6).

How am I changing? (Im more confident). This theme also reflects the positive growth PSTs
experienced regarding their levels of confidence in working with children with disabilities.
According to Travers et al. (2010), teachers continually cite their lack of confidence and competence in teaching students with disabilities as a barrier to including these students in their regular
or mainstream classrooms. Several times the PSTs questioned their readiness and ability to meet
the challenges presented them in this setting. However, analogous to their level of comfort, with
time PSTs felt more confident in both their ability to work with the children and developing their
skills as future teachers. These findings support the conclusions of Smith and Green (2004), Hardin
(2005), and Vickerman and Coates (2009) in that exposure to students with disabilities increased
the confidence level of PSTs and lessened their anxiety. The results suggest that teacher training
combined with hands-on experience is more likely to improve PSTs confidence than training
without such an experience. One PST wrote the following about their initial apprehension and
increased confidence during the programme, stating:
I feel that I have more confidence now to talk to people with disabilities. This might sound bad, before
this I wouldnt have been able to. I dont think I would have known what to say. However I feel every
week I spend with James I gain more confidence (PST-02, week #9).

Reflecting upon the experience as a whole, another PST shared this reflection about her increased
confidence:
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I wasnt sure if I possessed the required skills, personality, patience, teaching style or sufficient knowledge on disabilities to deliver enjoyable and safe lessons for my student. After every lesson with my student I began to feel more confident, relaxed and comfortable with the programme (PST-13, week #9).

How am I changing? (I expect more). Within this theme, entries generally revolved around the issue
of student behaviour. Comments gleaned from the pre-programme expectations revealed that several of the PSTs had genuine fears that their students would not like them or fail to follow their
instructions. Initially, PSTs attempted to befriend their students but quickly learned that being a
buddy was not enough. As the expectation was for the child to be active and learn new skills,
PSTs needed to gain an understanding of their students abilities and needs and began to implement
appropriate behaviour management strategies. The need to be firm and set boundaries became a
skill many PSTs developed over the course of the term. For some, there was a strong sense of frustration about managing very challenging behaviours and their potentially negative effect on the
learning environment. According to Shevlin et al. (2012), challenging behaviours are cited as a
major reason why some students with disabilities continue to be segregated in school. Findings
suggest the main reason for this separation is that teachers felt they lacked the training and/or support needed to deal with behaviour problems unique to students with special needs. Given this
issue, it was promising to see PSTs in this study understand the need for effective behaviour management strategies and techniques; ones that were relevant for both the child or young person and
their particular type of disability (for example, intellectual disabilities or students on the autism
spectrum). One PST noted the following on their weekly reflection card:
This week I feel that I developed more authority when working with Sean [Aspergers]. Before we let him
do what he wanted to do but this week I decided that we would set boundaries. Up to now, we were happy
once he was active but I have realised that he is well able to carry out activities and take instruction on
board if we are more authoritative with him. I am changing in the way that I am interacting with him and I
am constantly trying to think of ways that will better his experience overall (PST-11, week #4).

Later, this same PST encountered more challenging behavioural issues from his child and shared
this entry: I realise that I need to be assertive when I give commands to students. I also know that I
am allowed to be very assertive in the actions that I use with the children without being rough
(PST-11, week #5).
What is causing me to change? (I understand). Within this theme, the mention of theory and
knowledge gained from in-class lectures and parental consultations were identified by several participants as relevant to the learning experience. As part of the module, lecture sessions focused first
on the overall idea of inclusion as well as relevant legislation within Ireland advocating for equal
education for all. The remainder of the module focused specifically on various disability categories
such as learning disabilities, intellectual delay, autism spectrum disorder and physical disabilities
(Auxter et al., 2010). It should be noted that lectures were given prior to each activity session (on
the same day). As a result, having control over the scheduling of both the lectures (morning) and
activity sessions (late afternoon) allowed the PSTs to better understand the issues and concepts
related to inclusive physical education in a more connected and logical way. Utilising such a
design supports previous research identifying the importance of offering students a balance of theoretical and practical learning experiences (Stewart, 1990). During an investigation of beginning
special education teachers perceptions of their training programme, Conderman et al. (2013)
found that applicable courses and student teaching had the greatest impact on their preparation.
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11

Specifically, PSTs noted that student teaching provided the opportunity to understand the realities
of the profession and their future roles and also try various instructional methods with a supervising
teacher before using them in their own classroom (Conderman et al., 2013: 70). Similarly, Sokal
et al. (2014) found that PSTs who experienced a practicum in an inclusive setting developed
greater teacher efficacy in classroom management than those students with no practicum experience. This was certainly evident in some of the responses given by PSTs in the current study:
After a few of our lectures earlier in the semester, I have become aware of the difficulties people with
disabilities encounter every day, activities which are second nature to the able-bodied. It has made me
realise that there are many ways that people with disabilities can partake in physical activity and how
important it is for them. I now have a few ideas on how best to help my child in todays session (PST08, week #5).

Another PST had a similar response, writing on her weekly reflection card:
This week we had a lecture on autism spectrum disorder. I really noticed how some of the participants
did not look like they had any disabilities at all. Take William for example. If I were to just look at his
physical experience during our sessions I would not know that he had any disabilities. I was really
taken aback by the severity of his autism and yet to look at him, he looks perfectly normal. This really
showed me how some disabilities can be physically hard to spot (PST-21, week #7).

With regard to parental consultation, according to Frederickson et al. (2004), the importance of
establishing effective systems of communication between teachers and parents is essential to the
further development of inclusive practices within the school setting. Results from this study reinforce this, noting that parental consultation and support was acknowledged as key to PSTs in their
understanding of the children they worked with during the semester. Often reflecting on the helpful
nature of interactions and conversations with parents, participants would implement strategies
learned from parents or gain encouragement from them. During the third week, one PST recalled
gleaning a communication strategy from a parent:
Ritchies father was sure to make sure that him and Ritchie were making eye contact anytime he was
talking to him, he also used minimal language and focused on repeating key words such as run, hit,
again, well done. In the next lesson I implemented a similar strategy in which I would explain the activity in as few words as possible so Ritchie was able to focus on the basic instruction (PST-14, week #3).

Another wrote:
The main thing that is helping me to change my attitudes and outlook is interacting and chatting with
Michaels father. Today upon reflection with him, as I felt we had regressed from the previous week, he
pointed out that its not about the end result. The quality of the interactions is nearly more important
(PST-15, week #3).

Such revelations were reinforced as a different PST mentions the importance of parental interaction in the following entry:
Graces mother is always positive and encouraging for me to try new things with Grace and to push her
further. She is therefore pushing me to push her further which is helping me to adapt my lesson to
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Graces needs and its helping me to get better and better as I think can be seen through Grace and how
she is improving (PST-14, week #4).

What is causing me to change? (Ill watch). Over the course of the programme, attitudes and perceptions for many of the PSTs improved as a product of observing and helping peers as they
implemented new and different types of communication and teaching skills with their own child or
young person. These results strongly align with conclusions drawn from the work of Utley (2006),
highlighting the influence of others in preparing future educators for successful inclusive practice.
Viewed from a situated learning perspective, Utley (2006) identified three interconnected
dimensions of the theory as it related to teacher training: (1) learning results from complex social
interaction; (2) it occurs in authentic settings; and (3) it involves a community of learners. Findings
suggest that for students completing a course on instructional strategies for children with disabilities, all three aspects of situated learning were viewed as key to their learning. However,
students identified the value of learning from peers and cooperative learning as integral to their
professional development (Utley, 2006). This was noticeably prevalent in the reflections offered
by a number of PSTs who spent one or more days without their designated child due to absenteeism. One PST shared the following in their reflection:
Today John did not attend the programme and this provided me with some time to help and observe the
other coaches work with their children and I began to draw some comparisons. I feel that I am not progressing as poorly as I thought as I took some encouragement in the fact that I am not the only coach
who is facing this problem four weeks into the programme (PST-25, week #4).

Another wrote:
Today, because Sarah was absent, I got a great opportunity of assisting the rest of the class group and
their partners where needed. Ive got to see the very broad range of disabilities the children have. I got a
great amount of ideas from the other people in the class and how they work with their children (PST-14,
week #5).

Post-programme
Through this final reflection, PSTs were again prompted to look back on the experience and
identify things that may or may not have caused their attitudes and perceptions to change. However, a further question was added: As a result of participating in this programme, do you feel
more or less confident as a future professional in teaching children with disabilities in your PE
class? Entries summarising the overall impact of this programme were overwhelmingly positive
in nature. Examples of changes in attitude and overall confidence in the ability to successfully
teach children with disabilities were reported by all participants, barring one PST who shared a
mostly neutral reflection. Participants in this study noted the importance of having a hands-on
experience as part of their training in teaching students with disabilities. These findings are akin
to those uncovered by Rust and Sinelnikov (2010), who noted the importance of providing modules
that utilise a combination of relevant knowledge, information, and hands-on teaching experiences
throughout the entire PE-ITE programme. To illustrate this point, one PST stated:
I definitely feel that I would be more confident in teaching kids with disabilities in the future from the
experience I have gotten in the programme. The chance to see what teaching methods worked and what
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13

didnt and the variety of different communication methods that can be used will definitely stand to me
when I go out teaching. The ways in which I have learned to interact with kids with disabilities will
make me more comfortable around them and more comfortable in a teaching environment. The adaptations of skills I have learned so far along with the skills I have developed in coming up with adaptations
will definitely benefit me if there is an activity that I am doing and there needs to be a unique adaptation
made for a student with a disability (PST-18, final reflection).

Conclusions
According to investigations conducted by Kearns and Shevlin (2006) and Crawford (2011),
undergraduate training in preparing teachers to work with children with disabilities in Ireland is
inadequate at best. Research highlighted earlier in this paper by Smith and Green (2004), Morley
et al. (2005), Lambe and Bones (2006), Meegan and MacPhail (2006), Vickerman and Coats
(2009), Rust and Sinelnikov (2010), and Shevlin et al. (2012) has consistently echoed the need for
teacher training programmes to embrace practically orientated education modules and learning
experiences that seek to promote positive attitudes and perceptions within PSTs towards inclusion,
alongside a strong foundation of pedagogical content knowledge. A key finding of this study
reinforces this notion as attitudes and perceptions of PSTs towards inclusion improved through
participation in the learning experience, integrating theoretical lectures on disability and inclusion
with an immediate and prolonged practical experience. In this controlled and structured environment PSTs were able to develop a deeper understanding of how to engage children with disabilities through direct contact with the children themselves and assistance from parents,
caregivers, teacher educators, and their peers. For many, through this lived learning experience
the unknown became known as the PSTs felt better equipped to create, implement, and facilitate
physical activities for children with disabilities as a means to include them in regular or mainstream PE classes.
These findings add to the present literature supporting the continued implementation of this type
of learning experience to better prepare PSTs in providing an inclusive PE environment. Changes
in attitude and perception have been recorded through the reflections of these PSTs. As such,
further examination of the themes comfort, confidence, expectations, understanding, and observation as a means to inform other PE-ITE programmes is suggested. Additionally, researchers
might also consider utilising an approach similar to that used in this study. By identifying, strengthening, and utilising the factors that influence positive change in attitudes and perceptions towards
children with disabilities, physical education in Ireland can move closer to more safe and supportive practices in creating inclusive environments. Doing so reflects a more social model approach
towards disability as defined by Connors and Stalker (2007) and Shakespeare (2013), allowing for
the philosophy of inclusion to further develop within the general physical education setting.
Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to Deborah Tannehill, Emeritus Professor, and Melissa Parker, Senior Lecturer, both
at the University of Limerick, for their feedback on this paper. We are also deeply grateful to the two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful and insightful comments. The paper is significantly better because of
their input.

Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit
sectors.
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Author biographies
Daniel Tindall is a Lecturer within the Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences, and Co-Director
of the Inclusive Play & Leisure Activities for Youth (iPLAY) Programme.
Whitney MacDonald is an Adapted Physical Education Specialist within the San Diego Unified School
District.
Edith Carroll is a Physical Education Teacher at Colaiste Dhulaigh, located in Coolock, Dublin.
Brigitte Moody is a Lecturer within the Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences and Co-Director
of the Inclusive Play & Leisure Activities for Youth (iPLAY) Programme.

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