American University of Beirut

Biol 201

Chapter 3 : Cell Structure

I.
II.

Prokaryotic cells

III.

Eukaryotic cells

IV.

The endomembrane system

V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

Marita Yaghi

The cell theory

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

The cytoskeleton
Extracellular structures
Cell junctions: Cell-Cell interaction

I. The cell theory

Cells were discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke and Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek with the invention of the first microscopes.
Early studies concerning cells were conducted by :
- Mathias Schleiden in 1838 study of plant cells
- Theodor Schwann in 1839 study of animal cells
Schleiden and Schwann proposed the cell theory
Cell Theory: Unifying Foundation of Cell Biology
The cell theory states the following three principles:
1. All living organisms are composed of cells
2. Cells are the smallest living things basic units of life
3. Cells arise only from pre-existing cells inheritance, mitosis
All cells today represent a continuous line of descent from the first living
cells:
IG: Eukaryotic cells evolved from Prokaryotic cells
Cell Size:
A cell size is limited
Having a lot but small cells is an advantage for organisms
They have a quicker rate of diffusion (small surface area)
Do not synthesize as much macromolecules as big ones less energy
needed
Removal of metabolic waste + exocytose of molecules for energy and
biosynthesis is faster little distance to the membrane that is of small
area
Surface area-to-volume is another important advantage: if a cells size
increases, its volume increases much more that it surface.
(radius
x
10
=
volume
x
1000)
BUT - a cells membrane is the only exchange platform with the external
milieu, as substances enter and exit via the membrane
- The membrane plays a key role in controlling the cells function.

 Small cells, having more surface by unit of volume, are more easily
controlled
Still, some cells remain big
An eukaryotic cell varies from 10 to 100 m while a Prokaryotic cell varies
from 1 to 10 m
Microscopes:
Are essential to view cells because of their small size and the eyes
resolution limitation
They work by magnification using lenses
Light microscopes
- Operate at visible light
- Have two magnifying lenses
- Aim to achieve very high magnification and clarity (the higher the
magnification, the higher the resolution)
- Resolve structures up to 200 nm apart
- We have
i.

Bright-field microscope use stains on cells, fixing them, which

can distort or alter their components 1

ii.

Dark-field microscope light is only directed at the specimen,

giving a light specimen against a dark background 2

iii.

Phase-contrast microscope wavelengths are sent out of phase,

improving the contrast and brightness when they recombine 3

iv.

Differential-interference microscope polarized light is split in

two beams with two paths, giving a great contrast around edges 4

v.

Fluorescent microscope fluorescent stains absorb a wavelength

and emit another that is absorbed by the filters 5

vi.

Confocal microscope laser light is focused on a point and

scanned across fluorescent dies in two directions giving images
of one plane of the material; by superposing different images of
different planes we get a 3-D image 6;

 Electron microscopes
- Employs electron beams that have shorter wavelengths (the shorter the
wavelength, the higher the resolution)
- We have two types:
i.

Transmission Electron Microscope TER Resolve structure up to

0.2 nm apart by sending light into the material exposing films.
Dark areas absorb the e- and false coloring improves contrast 7

ii.

Scanning Electron Microscope SER Electrons can be sent only

on the material surface and reflected, and their image is recorded
by

topography,

and

also

using

false

coloring.

Using stains or dyes help us increase the contrast between different cellular
components.

In

fact,

some

stains

only

bind

to

specific

molecules.

IG: antibodies, that bide only certain proteins, can be used. This is
Immunohistochemistry, where purified antibodies are injected in a living
organism with fluorescent or radioactive stains, and they bind to cellular
structures with the target molecules, making them observable by a microscope.

4
7
5
2

8
3

Common Structures in all Cells:

General plans of cells vary between organisms but a lot of fundamental
structures are common among all cells
1. Nucleus or Nucleoid
Place where genetic material is recorded hereditary molecule DNA
that codes for the cells protein synthesis
Is called Nucleoid in Prokaryotic cells near the center of the cell
where a single circular molecule of DNA resides. It is not separated from
the rest of the cell by membranes
Is called Nucleus in Eukaryotic cells it is surrounded by a double
membrane called nuclear envelope and contains the complex DNA
2. Cytoplasm
Semifluid matrix (aqueous medium that is like jello)
It fills the inside of the cell
Contains all the carbs, sugars and lipids that the cell uses for its
everyday activity
Contains specialized macromolecules organelles
Cytosol part of the cytoplasm that contains ions and organic
molecules from the free organelles suspended in the fluid
3. Ribosomes universal orgnalles
Synthesize proteins and made of two subunits.
4. Plasma membrane
Encloses the cell separating it from its surrounding
Phospholipid bilayer
5-10 nm of thickness
Responsible of the cell-environment interaction
i.
Transport proteins help molecules and ions move across the
plasma membrane IG: aquaporin
ii. Receptor proteins/markers induce changes in the cell after
interacting with enzymes, hormones or molecules present on
another cells surface. These molecules can act as markers that
identify the cells type. (these interactions are important as they
lead to forming tissues)

II. Prokaryotic Cells

This terminology refers the absence of a membrane-bounded nucleus as
Prokaryotic cells do not have an internal membrane system or membranebounded organelles.
Prokaryotes simple organization:

Simplest organisms
Cytoplasm surrounded by a
plasma membrane and into a
rigid cell wall made of cellulose or
chitin (those have usually a
pathogen effect)
They have no distinct
compartment no
endomembrane system
Free-DNA in the nucleoid
Contain only ribosomes but lack
membrane-bounded organelles
They lack an elaborate
cytoskeleton BUT contain
molecules related to actin (MreB)
and tubulin(FtsZ) their
strength and shape is determined
by the cell wall BUT is influenced
by the cytoskeleton-like
structures
Their plasma membrane carries functions usually carried by organelles
The membrane folds bacterial pigments connected with photosynthesis
Since the DNA, enzymes and other constituents lie free in the
cytoplasm, they all have access to all parts of the cell Prokaryotic
cells operate as a single unit
We have two main domains in prokaryotes:
1. Bacteria
2. Archaea intermediate between Bacteria and Eukarya

Prokaryotic cell walls:

In general, these walls protect the cell and give it its function, as Prokaryotic
cells lack cytoskeletons. They also prevent excessive water intake or loss.

1. Bacteria cell walls

Most bacteria have a strong cell wall
It is usually composed of peptidoglycan polymer of sugars and amino
acids that is specific to Bacteria (does not exist in other domains like
animals or Protista their cell walls have a different composition)
Bacteria can be Gram Positive or Gram negative:
- Gram positive thick peptidoglycan membrane, superficial to the cell
membrane, that retains the Gram violet stain
- Gram negative thin peptidoglycan membrane, located between the
two cell membranes, that does not retain the Gram violet stain BUT
these bacteria are more resistant to antibiotics because they have an
additional lipid membranes

Antibiotics usually works only on one type of bacteria. But bacteria

have a very high mutation level and they can transmit genetic info
between them. So if a bacterium becomes resistant due to a certain
mutation, it might transmit this mutation to the non-resistant bacteria,
making the antibiotic useless.
Bacteria cell walls are made of both saturated and unsaturated fats
their structure can vary as they have the ability to convert the fats to the
way they want. NOTE: unsaturated fats are usually messy while saturated
ones are linear and organized
Some bacteria have a protective capsule of polysaccharide around
them, making them able to adhere to any surface and cause diseases
practically anywhere that supports their growth. It prevents their
destruction.
2. Arachaea cell walls
Research is still happening.
Cell walls lack peptidoglycan BUT contain many chemical pounds like
polysaccharides and proteins.
The lipid-membrane of Archaea is different from the Bacterias
contains saturated hydrocarbons attached to hydroxyl making them more
thermal-stable BUT less adaptive to changing temperatures in the
environment.
Their DNA replication is closer to the Eukaryotes BUT there cellular
architecture is similar to Prokaryotes.

Flagella and Prokaryotes:

Some Prokaryotes have rotating flagella that helps them move.
It is a long threadlike structure, made of protein fibers, that extends from
the cell and is used for locomotion.
Prokaryotes may have one, multiple or no flagella.
The rotation uses energy stored in a gradient that transfers protons across
the cell membranes same principle in Eukaryotic mitochondria and
chloroplasts by an enzyme that synthesis ATP.

III. Eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells are more complex than Prokaryotic ones. In fact,
Eukaryotes are very compartmentalized as they have
- An endomembrane system
- A lot of organelles that are membrane-bounded system that form
compartments in which multiple biochemical processes happen, in a
simultaneous and independent way.
Plants have a large sac called central vacuole it is used to store proteins,
pigments and waste material.
Both plants and animals have vesicles small sacs that transport and
store a lot of material.
The DNA is wounded tightly inside the nucleus it is packaged into
compact subunits called Chromosomes.
All Eukaryotes have a cytoskeleton it is an internal protein scaffold or a
skeleton made of filaments that is in the cytoplasm and plays a role in
intracellular transport and cellular division.
Animals and some Protista lack cell walls BUT Fungi, Plantae and other
Protista have strong cell walls made of cellulose or chitin fibers, fixed in a
matrix of polysaccharides and proteins.
The Nucleus: Center of Information
The largest organelle in a Eukaryotic cell is the nucleus.
Nuclei have a roughly spherical shape and, in animals, it is in the center
of the cell.
The nucleus is the storehouse of the genetic info that enables the
synthesis of proteins. Most Eukaryotic cells have one nucleus but some,
like for fungi, may have more.
Red blood cells lose their nuclei when they mature.
Many nuclei show a dark-staining zone it is a zone where intensive
ribosomal-RNA synthesis is taking place.

The nuclear envelope:

The nuclear envelope is made of two phospholipid membrane bilayers.
The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is continuous with the
cytoplasms interior membrane endoplasmic reticulum.
Scattered over the nuclear membranes, we found nuclear pores these
holes form where two membranes layers of the envelope come together,
typically at 50-80 nm apart.
The pores allow ions and small molecules to diffuse freely between the
nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
BUT they control the transport of proteins and RNA it consists mainly of
the import of proteins that function inside the nucleus and the export of
RNA and RNA-protein complexes formed inside the nucleus.
Nuclear lamins are intermediate filaments that cover the inner surface of
the nuclear envelope. These filaments can only be found in the nucleus;
they play a role in giving the nucleus its shape and play a role in the
destruction of the cell membrane before a division and its reconstitution
after. (they disintegrate and reform)
Chromatin: DNA packaging
The DNA is divided into multiple linear chromosomes that are organized
with proteins (especially histones) to form a complex structure called
chromatin. (chromatin in their combination)
Chromatin has important functions:
1. Package DNA into small units to fit the nucleus
2. Strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis
3. Prevent DNA damage
4. Control gene expression and DNA replication
The structure of the chromatin affects the DNA function changes in the
gene expression that are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence
involve changes in the chromatin structure epigenetic changes.
When cells divide, the chromatins must be further compacted into a highly
condensed state that forms the chromosomes X-shape, visible in the light
microscope.
DNA + histones = nucleosomes (we have 4 types of histones, every DNA
molecule is added to 8 histones 2 of each type)

Ribosomal subunits: manufactured by the Nucleus

Before going through protein synthesis, cells should synthesize a large
number of ribosomes to carry out this protein synthesis.
The genes that encode the ribosomal RNA group together on the
chromosome, to facilitate the construction of these ribosomes.
The cells then transcribe very quickly a large number of the needed
molecules needed to construct ribosomes.
The cluster (group) of RNA genes, the RNA produced and the ribosomal
proteins all come together in the nucleus during the ribosome production.
Theses ribosome-assembling areas are visible in the nucleus as they form
dark-staining regions, called nucleoli, which can be seen with a light
microscope.
Ribosomes: proteins synthesis machinery
Although the DNA that encodes the proteins is in the nucleus, the protein
synthesis happens in the cytoplasm.
Protein synthesis in associated with large RNA-protein complexes found in
the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes are very complex molecules found in the cells. Each ribosome is
made of one ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. These two subunits join
to form a functional ribosome only to actively synthesis proteins.

 Ribosomes associate with two other forms of RNA for the proteins
synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries encoding info from DNA
into the cytoplasm that is used by ribosomes, and transfer RNA (tRNA),
which carries the amino acids.
Ribosomes are considered universal organelles found in all three domains
of life.
Ribosomes are found either free in the cytoplasm or bound to internal
membranes; each synthesizes a specific type of proteins:
-

Free ribosomes
Proteins in the cytoplasm
Nuclear proteins
Mitochondrial proteins
Some organelles proteins
(not
related
to
the
endomembrane system)

Membrane-bound ribosomes
- Membrane proteins
- Proteins
found
in
the
endomembrane system
- Proteins that export from the
cell

The individual subunits form in the nucleus and move through the pores
to the cytoplasm where they assemble to form the ribosomes that will
translate mRNA and synthesis proteins with the tRNA.
Ribosomes sites or protein synthesis

We can see that the plasma membrane contains the cell, which contains the
cytoskeleton and a lot of organelles and other interior structures suspended in
the cytoplasm, semi-fluid matrix.
Some animal cells show the finger-like projections called microvilli, while other
eukaryotic cells have flagella, that aid movement, or cilia, that have other
functions.

Most plant cells have central vacuoles, which occupy a very large portion of its
internal volumes. Vacuoles segregate toxic items, store material and deal with
tonicity
Also, most plant cells have chloroplasts organelles in which photosynthesis takes
place.
The cells of plants, fungi and some protists have cell walls, although the
composition is not the same in the different domains.
Plant cells have cytoplasmic connections within one other called plasmodemata.
Flagella occurs in the sperm of some cell plants but is usually absent from them
as well as from fungi cells.
Centrioles are also usually absent.

IV. The endomembrane system:

The interior of a Eukaryotic cell is packed with very thin membranes that
-

Fill the cell

Divide the cell into compartments
Channel the passage of molecules through the interior of the cell
Provide surface for the synthesis of some lipids and proteins

The ensemble of these membranes forms Endomembrane System that marks the
distinction between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells.
The largest of the internal membranes is the Endoplasmic Reticulum that means
a little net within the cytoplasm. It is made of a phospholipid bilayer fixed to
proteins.
The ER contains the two
largest compartments
present in the Eukaryotic
cells:
1- The cisternal space or
lumen
inner region
2- The cytosol
outer region
fluid part of the
cytoplasm that contains
dissolved organic
molecules (proteins and
ions)
The Rough ER:
The RER is primarily composed of flattened sacks whose surfaces are
bumpy because of ribosomes.
The RER is not easily seen with a light microscope, it requires an electron
microscope.
The RER is a site for proteins synthesis, which happens on its surface. The
synthesized proteins are:
Exported from the cell

Sent to lysosomes or vacuoles

Integrated in the plasma membrane.
Entering the cisternal space is the first step in the pathway of sorting the
proteins out. This pathway also involves vesicles and the Golgi apparel. The
sequence of AAs in every protein determines if it stays in the ER or remains a
cytoplasmic ribosome.
In the ER, short-chain carbs are added to some of the new proteins forming
glycoproteins. These proteins are designated for secretion; they are isolated
into vesicles and moved to the Golgi for modification and transport to other
cells.
The Smooth ER:
It is connected to the RER.
It has less bounded-ribosomes and its structure can vary from:
Network of tubules
Flattened sacks
Tubular arrays
The SER membranes contain a lot of enzymes that are involved in the
synthesis of carbs and lipids. Lipid membrane are in fact made in the SER and
sent to other parts of the cell.
Steroids are also synthesized in the SER.
Membrane proteins and plasma membrane are inserted by the ribosomes
on the RER.
The SER also stores intracellular Ca2+, that allows the cytoplasmic level to
be low and is used as a signaling molecule.
The SER can also detoxify foreign substances.
Some organs have and extensive smooth ER: ovaries, testes, liver, etc
The ratio of SER and RER varies in each type of cell. In fact, cells that have
extensive lipid membranes have a bigger SER while cells that synthesize secreted
proteins (IG: antibodies) have a bigger RER.

The Golgi body/apparatus:

Flattened sacks of membrane form the Golgi apparatus complex.
The individual sacks are called cisternae and vary in number in the Golgi
body of different organisms: 1 or a few in Protista, around 20 for Animalia
and hundreds for Plantae.
Individual Golgi can group and form a ribbon; especially in glandular cells
that manufacture and secret substances.
The Golgi body collects, packages and distributes the molecules
synthesized in a specific location in the cell but are used in another
location within or outside the cell.
The Golgi body has a front and a back made of different membrane
compositions.
The front end called cis face is usually near the ER. It receives the
material sent to the Golgi via vesicles sent from the ER.
The back end called the Trans face is the exit. It discharges the material
that entered from the cis face after it had been modified or sorted out.
The transition of the material is made
primarily by cisternal maturation, although
transportation by vesicles or direct tubular
connections might also occur.
Proteins and lipids made on the rough and
smooth RER are transported to Golgi and
modified. Usually, short sugars chains are
added or modified, forming glycoproteins and
glycolipids. The modified proteins are then
packaged into small membrane-bounded
vesicles that exit from the Trans face of the
Golgi and diffuse the newly-synthesized
molecules to their appropriate destination.
The Golgi apparatus also synthesizes cellwall components non-cellulose
polysaccharides are made in the Golgi and then
sent to the plasma membrane where the
cellulose is added, but assembled in the
exterior of the cell. Other plants
polysaccharides are made in the Golgi.

In brief
Proteins synthesized by ribosomes on the RER are transported into the internal
compartments of the ER. These proteins may be used further inside the cell or
secreted outside of it. Transported by vesicles that got out of the RER, these
proteins travel to the cis face of the Golgi apparatus. They are modified and
packed in other vesicles that get out of the trans face of the Golgi. These vesicles
transport the proteins to other locations in the cell or fuse with the plasma
membrane releasing their content out of the cell.
Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are membrane-bounded
digestive vesicles that are part of the
endomembrane system.
Lysosomes arise from the Golgi apparatus.
Lysosomes contain a lot of degrading
enzymes, which catalyze the breakdown of
proteins, carbs and lipids.
Lysosomal enzymes break down old
organelles and recycle their components
making rooms for new ones. IG: mitochondria
are recycled every 10 days
Lysosomes eliminate all engulfed cells via
phagocytosis by their main cell. IG: pathogens
phagocytized by white blood cells fuse within
the lysosomes that release their enzymes to
degrade the pathogen.
The digestive enzymes of lysosomes are
optimally active at acid pH.
Fusing with a food vesicle (made by
phagocytosis) or with old organelles activate
the lysosomes, as it leads to lowering their
internal pH and thus, making the enzymes
work, degrading the food vesicle or old
Lysosome aiding in Lysosome aiding in the
organelle.
the breakdown of an digestion
of
old organelle

phagocytized particles

In Brief: Lisosomes are formed from vesicles that bud off the Golgi. They contain
digestive enzymes that digest phogocyted cells or break down old organelles.

Microbodies: a diverse category of organelles

Microbodies are NOT part of the
endomembrane system.
Microbodies are membrane bounded
vesicles that contain a lot of enzymes.
They are found in cells of plants,
animals, fungi and protists.
They are formed by the addition then
division of proteins and lipids.
The distribution of the enzymes
inside these Microbodies is very
important for the cells metabolic
organization.
An important type of microbody is peroxisome. These spherical organelles
may contain a crystal full of proteins. They also contain digestive and
detoxifying enzymes that produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-product of
their oxidizing activity. Hydrogen peroxide is dangerous as it reacts
violently; but peroxisomes also contain catalase, an enzyme that breaks
down hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water.
They are:
- Formed by the fusion of ER-derived vesicles, added to peroxisomal
proteins mature peroxisomes
- Also formed by the division of large peroxisomes
- Contain enzymes that oxidize fatty acids. (If these enzymes were free in
the cytoplasm, they would short circuit the metabolism of the cytoplasm
by adding hydrogen to oxygen.)

Vacuoles:
Vacuoles are membrane bounded structures that exist mainly in plants,
but also in fungi and Protista.
The vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast it contains
channels for water to help maintain the cells tonicity or osmotic balance.
Different vacuole types with different structures are found in different
cells, depending on their functions:
- The central vacuole found in plants
i. Maintains the tonicity of the cell due to the water channels of the
tonoplast
ii. Involved in cell growth as it occupies most of the cells volume
iii. Can store molecules, ions and waste products
- Contractile vacuole found in protists; it pumps water and maintains its
balance in the cell
- Other vacuoles for storage and for isolation of toxic material from the
rest of the cytoplasm

V. Mitochondria
Generators

and

Chloroplasts:

Cellular

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts have a lot of structural and functional

similarities:
- Structural : they are both surrounded by a double membrane
both contain their own DNA
both have their own protein synthesis machinery
- Functional: they are both involved in energy metabolism
Mitochondria:
Mitochondria are tube-like organelles found in all Eukaryotic cells.
They are bounded by two
membranes:
1. An outer membrane smooth
2. An inner membrane folded and
made of contiguous layers called
cristae that increases the surface
of the inner membrane and
partition the mitochondrion into
two compartments:
i. A matrix inside the inner
membrane
ii. An intermediate membrane
between the inner and the outer
membrane
The surface of the inner membrane is embedded with proteins that
execute oxidative metabolism, a process that requires oxygen and gives the
necessary energy for ATP production.
Mitochondria have their own DNA, whose genes encode proteins
necessary for the mitochondrias role in oxidative metabolism. the
mitochondrion acts like a cell inside the cell; but is not fully independent of
the main cell, as most of the genes encoding the enzymes used during the
oxidative metabolism are in the nucleus.

 During mitosis, when the cell divides, the mitochondria within it divide
also, doubling in number then partitioned between the two cells. The
required components for the mitochondria divisions are encoded by genes
in the nucleus and translated into proteins by the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm. Therefore, mitochondrial replication is impossible without the
nucleus.
Mitochondria cannot be grown in a cell-free structrure
Mitochondria can also replicate by fusion
Chloroplasts:
Chloroplasts are contained in all cells that carry out photosynthesis,
mainly plants.
Chloroplasts can make their own food as they contain a green pigment,
called chlorophyll.

The inner membrane surrounds a membrane system of stacks called thylakoids, that contain
chlorophyll vesicles. Photosynthesis occurs in the thylakoids. These are stacked to form columnns
called grana.

Chloroplasts is surrounded by two membranes, just like the mitochondria

1. Outer membrane
2. Inner membrane
BUT chloroplasts are more complex: they contain hundreds of
membranous sacks called thylakoids that form grana; closed
compartments in the inner membrane.
The thylakoids are surrounded by a fluid matrix called stroma, which
contains enzymes used to synthesize glucose during photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts also contain DNA but the genes that specify their components
are in the nucleus BUT some of the proteins used for photosynthesis are
entirely made in the chloroplast.

Leucoplasts:
Other DNA containing organelles in plants
Lack pigments and internal structure
They may serve as starch storage sites and will then be called amyloplast
Mitochondria, chloroplasts, amyloplast and Leucoplasts are called plastids; they
are produced by the division of pre-existing plastids.
Endosymbiosis:
Theory of endosymbiosis:
Some of todays eukaryotic cells evolved
from the symbiosis of two cells: a
prokaryotic cell engulfed by a second cell,
which would be the ancestor of
eukaryotes.
Mitochondria would have originated from
aerobic Bacteria (uses dioxygen for
oxidative reaction) while Chloroplasts
would have originated from photosynthetic
Bacteria.
There is much evidence:
- M and C have the size of a Prokaryotic cell
- M and C divide by fission like Bacteria
- They have two membranes cristae
structure
- Their DNA and ribosomes are similar in
size and structure to the ones found in
prokaryotes
- They have genome similarities with protobacteria and cyanobacteria.

VI. The cytoskeleton

The cytoplasm of Eukaryotic cells is crisscrossed by a network of protein
fibers. These fibers support the structure of the cell and keep organelles in
specific locations. Also, they can help move material within the cell. This network
is called the cytoskeleton.
The cytoskeleton is a dynamic system that keeps assembling and
disassembling. Individual fibers consist of polymers of identical proteins that
attract one another and spontaneously form long chains. These fibers also
disassemble in the same way: as a protein after another break away from the end
of the chain.
Inside the cytoskeleton, actin filaments and microtubules organize their
activity to affect the cellular processes.
IG: newly replicated Xmes move to the opposite sides of a dividing cell using
shortening microtubules
IG: a belt of actin pinches the cell by contracting, dividing it into two cells
IG: muscle cells use actin filaments to contract the filaments slide along the
filaments of the motor protein, myosin.

The cytoskeleton also acts as a scaffold that holds certain enzymes and
macromolecules in specific place in the cytoplasm
IG: enzymes responsible for the cell metabolism bind to actin proteins
IG: ribosomes bind to actin proteins

By moving and anchoring particular enzymes near one other, the

cytoskeleton helps organize the cellular activities, just like the endoplasmic
reticulum.

The Three Types of Fibers:

In the cytoskeleton of Eukaryotic cells, we can find three types of fibers. Each is
formed by a different subunit or protein

Actin filaments
Diameter
Subunits

Shape

Polarity
Role

Stability

7 nm
- Globular protein
-Actin proteins

Microtubules

25 nm
- Globular proteins Dimers of and tubulin subunits
- 13 protein
photofilaments
- tube shape
- 2 protein chains
- form from the
- loosely twined
nucleus center
towards the
periphery
+ ends meaning
+ and ends that
away from the
show the direction
nucleus and ends
of growth of the
towards the
filaments
nucleus
Cellular movements Movement of
like contraction,
material within the
crawling, tightening cell
during division and Organize the cells
formation of cellular structure
extensions
Polymerization is
Constant state of
regulated by switch flux: constantly
proteins in the cell polymerizing and
at appropriate times depolymerizing

Intermediate
filaments
8-10 nm
- fibrous proteins
- group of cytoskeletal
fibers
- several tetramers
- twined together and
overlapping
- very tough

No polarity
Provide structural
stability

Stable and do not

usually break down

Centrosomes:
Centrioles are barrel shaped organelles found in animals and most
protists. Plants and fungi lack centrioles.
Centrioles occur in pair, forming a right angle. The region surrounding
them is called centrosome.
Surrounding the centrioles in the centrosome, we can find the
pericentriolar material, which is composed of ring shaped structures called
tubulin. They help organize the assembly of microtubules in animal cells.
These structures are called microtubule-organizing centers.
The centrosome also reorganizes microtubules that occur during cell
divisions.
Although plants and fungi lack centrioles, they have microtubuleorganizing centers.
Centrioles:

Molecular molecules:
All Eukaryotic cells have to move material inside their cytoplasm. One way
is by using the channels of the ER. Another way is by using vesicles loaded
with material that will move along the cytoskeleton like on a railroad.
IG: in a nerve cell with a long axon extended away from the cell body, vesicle can
move material along the microtubules inside the axon away from the cell body

Four components are required to move material along microtubules:

1. Microtubules
2. Vesicles or organelles that should be transported they will ride on 1
3. Motor protein provide the energy-driven motion
4. Connector molecule connects the vesicle to the motor protein
The direction of the movement of the vesicles depends on two factors:
i. The type of motor protein used
ii. The organization of the microtubules, with their plus end towards the
periphery of the cell, from the nucleus
IG: Kinetin complex Kinetin connector protein binds vesicles on the Kinesin
motor protein. This protein uses ATP to move vesicles towards the + end of the
microtubules, from the center of the cell towards its periphery
IG: Dynactin complex Dynactin connector binds the vesicles on the Dynein
motor protein which moves the vesicles towards the end of the microtubules,
from the periphery towards the nucleus.

The destination of a transport

vesicle depends on the nature of the
linking protein embedded with the
vesicles membrane.

VII. Extracellular Structures and Cell Movement

In general, all cell movement is related to the movement of actin filaments and
microtubules. Intermediate filaments act as intracellular tendons, as they
prevent the cell from stretching too much. Actin filaments have a major role in
determining the shape of the cell, as they form and dissolve quickly, enabling
quick changes in the cells shape.
Crawling:
Some cells exhibit the ability to crawl. At their edges, actin filaments
polymerize quickly to form an extension that will force the edge of the cell
forward. Then, microtubules stabilize this extension, and the motor
protein myosin slides along the stabilized actin filaments and contracts,
pushing the rest of the cell forward.
IG: white blood cells, formed in the bone marrow, are released into the circulatory
system they crawl out of small veins into tissues to destroy pathogens

Crawling occurs when this process is continuously repeated.

Receptors on the cell membrane can detect molecules outside the cell and
extend their filaments into specific directions in order to reach that
molecule.
Crawling is essential for diverse processes:
- Inflammation
- Clotting
- Healing of wounds
- Spread of cancer
Flagella:
In Prokaryotic cells, flagella are protein fibers that extend out of the cell.
They rotate to move the cells.
In Eukaryotic cells, flagella are made of 9 microtubule pairs that surround
2 central microtubules: 9+2 structure. The pairs of microtubules slide
along each other using the motor protein Dynein, so the flagellum
undulates to move the cells or moves and up down.
In Eukaryotic cells, the flagellum in an extension of the cells interior: it
contains cytoplasm and is attached to the plasma membrane. The
microtubules derive from a basal body situated below the point they
extend from.

Cilia:
Because of evolution, Eukaryotic cells todays possess no flagella and are
non-motile.
Cilia are structures similar in organization (9+2 and internal) to flagella
that can be found within cells. Theyre short cellular projections, usually
numerous. They are arranged in rows on the surface of eukaryotes.
They have several functions:
i. Propel the cells forward through water original function
ii. Move water over the tissue surface
iii. Sensory cilia in ears are bended by sound waves sensory process
The 9+2 structure in flagella and cilia is a fundamental component in Eukaryotes.

Algae with numerous flagella

Paramecia with many cilia

Cell walls:

The cells of plants, fungi, and many types of protists have cell walls, which
provide these cells protection and support. They are different from the cell
walls in Prokaryotes.
They are made of:
i.
Cellulose fibers in plants and protists
ii.
Chitin in fungi
In plants:
a.
Primary walls are laid down while the plant is growing
b.
Middle lamella glues the different cell walls
c.
Secondary walls inside primary walls inside some cells

Extracellular matrix:
Animal cells lack cell walls. Instead they have an extracellular matrix that
surrounds their cells, made by a mixture of fibrous proteins and
glycoproteins embedded within each other:
i. Collagen
ii. Elastin
iii. Proteoglycans
The ECM of the cells is attached to the cytoplasm by a 3rd kind of
glycoproteins Fibronectin that binds to proteins called Integrin. Integrin is
a part of the plasma membrane that extends into the cytoplasm to attach to
microfilaments and intermediate filaments.
Integrin also alters gene expression and cell migration.
The ECM helps coordinate the behavior of all cells in a tissue.

VIII. Cell-to-cell interactions

A basic feature of multicellular animals in the formation of tissues where cells are
organized in specific ways IG: skin, blood, muscle
Cells must be able to communicate and identified. This is possible by the
presence of markers on their surface. Membrane proteins and proteins secreted
by the cells are responsible for these functions cell communication, markers of
cell identity and cell connection.
Cells acquire their identity by controlling gene expressions, and turning on
specific genes that encodes their specific functions.
Type of
Structure
connection
Surface markers Variable, integral
proteins or glycolipids
in plasma membrane
Septate junctions Tightly bound, leakTight junctions proof, fibrous claudin
protein seal that
surround the cell
Adhesive
junction or
Desmosome

Variant cadherin,
desmocollins bind to
intermediate
filaments of the
cytoskeleton
Adhesive
Classical cadherin
junction or
binds to
Adherens
microfilaments in the
junction
cytoskeleton
Adhesive
Integrins bind the cell
junction
to the extracellular
Hemidesmosome matrix
& focal adhesion
Communicating 6 transmembrane
junction: Gap
connexon/pannexin
junction
proteins create
intercellular pores
Communicating Cytoplasmic
junction:
connections between
Plasmodesmata gaps in adjoining
plant cell walls

Function

Example

Identify the cell

MHC Complex
Blood groups
Antibodies
Holds cell together Junctions
in a way that
between
material pass
epithelial cells in
through but not
the gut
between cells
Creates strong &
Epithelium
flexible connections
in cells ; Found in
vertebrates
Connects cells
together; oldest
form found in all
cells
Provide attachment
to a substract

Tissues with high

mechanical stress
like the skin
Involved in cell
movement and
development

Allow passage of
Excitable tissue
small molecules
like heart muscle
from cell to cell in a
tissue
Communicating
Plants tissues
junction between
plant cells

Surface proteins:
One important set of genes codes for proteins that will mark the surface of
the cells as being from a particular type.
Cells will identify each other by cell-surface markers such as surface
proteins and act accordingly.
Cells from the same tissue recognize each other and coordinate their
functions by creating connections.
Glycolipids lipids with carbohydrates heads, most common form of
tissue-specific cell-markers
IG: glycolipids on red blood cells are responsible for A, B and O blood types

Glycoproteins MHC proteins part of the immune system, they

recognize self and non-self cells (Major HistoCompatibility)
Cell connections mediate cell-to-cell junctions:
The evolution of organisms into multicellularity required the acquisition of
molecules that will connect cells. The type of connections between cells have
conserved despite evolutions.
The nature of the cellular connections in a tissue determines what the tissue is
like. Cell junctions can be characterized by their visible structure or the protein
involved.
1. Adhesive junctions:
These junctions are the oldest and found in all animal species. They
attach the cytoskeleton of a cell to its Extra Cellular Matrix or to anothers cell
cytoskeleton. Theyre found in tissues subject to mechanical stress.
i.

ii.

Adherent junctions
Based on the protein Cadherin (classic types I and II) Ca2+dependent adhesion molecule with a phylogenetic distribution
Two extra-cellular domain of 2 Cadherins in 2 cells to join them
Cadherin interacts with actin filaments through other proteins to
form flexible connections between cells
Desmosomes
Cadherin-based junctions only in vertebrates
Desmocollin and desmoglein cadherin to the intermediate filaments
They link cells together

iii.

They support tissues against mechanical stress

Hemidesmosomes/ Focal Adhesion
They connect the cell to the ECM or to the basal Lamina
Uses Integrins to bind to protein components in the ECM 20
different types
Focal adhesion connects the cytoskeletons of two cells by linking
actin filaments
Hemidesmosomes connect the cytoskeletons of two cells by linking
their intermediate filaments

Cadherin-Mediated Junction

2. Septate or tight junctions

i. Septate junctions
Found in vertebrates and invertebrates
From a barrier that can seal off a sheet of cells
ii. Tight junctions
Unique to vertebrates
Contain Claudine Proteins permit or block substances from passing
between cells
Act like walls within a tissue between cells, keeping molecules on a
side or another
They partition the plasma membranes into separate compartments
regulating the passage of proteins from one part of the cell to another,
preventing from drifting inside the membrane
iii. Create sheets of cell
Sheets are only one cell thick one face facing the inside of the cell
and the other facing the extracellular space
Each cell is encircled by tight junctions, with no possible leakage
the substances have to pass from inside the cells as they cannot pass
between the cells.
3. Communicating junctions
The evolution of organisms into multicellular required a new form of
cellular connection: communication junctions. These junctions permit the
passage of small molecule and ions to pass from one cell to another by diffusion
through small openings.
i. Gap junctions in animals:
Found in vertebrates by Pannexin proteins and invertebrates by
Connexon proteins
Formed of 6 trans-membrane proteins aligned in circle to form a
channel through the plasma membranbe they protrude several nm
from the cell surface
When two sets of these Connexon/Pannexin are aligned in two cells,
an open channel is created
Only small molecules can pass
Dynamic structures that can open or close gated channels;
regulated of Ca2+ and H+ ions

 Gating is important if the cell is damaged and its membrane

became leaky, the Ca2+ flows in and closes the gap junctions isolating
the cell and thus the damage

ii. Plasmodemata
In plants only
Cytoplasmic connections between touching
plasma membranes at gaps in the cell wall
Concern the majority of living cells in a
plant
They are lined with the plasma membrane
and contain a tubule that connects the ER of
two cells.