Modern Structural Practice

A structural geology laboratory manual

for the 21st Century
Richard W. Allmendinger
v. 1.4.0, 2015
Download most recent version from:
http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/faculty/RWA/structure-lab-manual/

Preface ..................................................................................viii
Chapter 1 ................................................................................1
Measurement: What and How
Introduction

Primitive Geometric Objects

Data Collection

Instruments Used in the Field

Measuring Lines and Planes
Uncertainties

Graphical Representation of Orientation Data

2
3
8

10

Maps
Stereonets

11
17

Computing

21

ExercisesChapter 1

24

Chapter 2 ..............................................................................29
Coordinate Systems and Vectors
Coordinate Systems

29

Vectors: A Review

32

Vector components, magnitude, and unit vectors

Vector Addition, Subtraction, and Scalar Multiplication
Dot Product and Cross Product

Geological Features in Cartesian Coordinates

Direction Cosines from Trend and Plunge
Trend and Plunge from Direction Cosines

Some Practical Applications Using Vectors

Mean Vector
Rake of a Line in a Plane
True Dip from Two Apparent Dips

ExercisesChapter 2

32
33
34

36
36
38

39
39
44
45

47

Chapter 3 ..............................................................................49

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Extracting Information from Geological Maps

Geologic Maps

49

Three Point Problems

50

Stratigraphic Thickness from Maps

54

Analysis of Folded Rocks

57

Structural Contour Maps

60

ExercisesChapter 3

62

Chapter 4 ..............................................................................67
Transformations
Introduction

67

Transformations of Coordinates and Vectors

68

Coordinate Transformations
Transformation of Vectors
A Simple Coordinate Transformation

Structural Geology Applications of Transformations

Stratigraphic Map Thicknesses
Down-Plunge Projection
Rotations

68
70
72

72
73
75
78

Summary

81

ExercisesChapter 4

82

Chapter 5 ..............................................................................85
The Orientation and Stress Tensors
Introduction

85

Matrices and Indicial Notation

86

Tensors

88

Tensors as Linear Vector Operators

Principal Axes of a Tensor
Tensor Transformations and the Mohrs Circle

The Orientation Tensor

94

Least Squares Best Fit Fold Axis

MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE

88
89
91

R. W. ALLMENDINGER 2015

95

"iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Types of Line Distributions

96

The Stress Tensor

97

Cauchys Law
Mohrs Circle for Stress
Mean Stress & Deviatoric Stress

ExercisesChapter 5

97
100
102

103

Chapter 6 ............................................................................105
Faulting and Stress
Introduction

105

Fault Geometry Review

106

Terminology
Determining Slip from Piercing Points

Stress and Faulting

106
108

111

Failure in the Brittle Realm

Reactivation of Pre-existing Planes of Weakness
The Effect of Pore Fluid Pressure
Calculating the Normal and Shear Stress Vectors on any Plane
The Principal Stress Ratio

ExercisesChapter 6

111
113
116
117
122

124

Chapter 7 ............................................................................129
Deformation and Infinitesimal Strain
Introduction

129

Strain

130

One Dimensional Measures of Strain

Three Dimensional Deformation
Infinitesimal Strain

Some Geological Applications

130
132
134

140

Strain from GPS

Analyzing Brittle Faults

140
143

ExercisesChapter 7

147

Chapter 8 ............................................................................149
MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE

R. W. ALLMENDINGER 2015

"iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Large Strains
Introduction

149

Comparison to Infinitesimal Strain

150

A Plethora of Finite Strain Tensors

Multiple Deformations
Mohrs Circle for Finite Strain in the Deformed State
Progressive Strain

Strain from Geological Objects

Deformed Spherical Objects
Three Deformed Lines Graphically
Three Deformed Lines with Inverse Methods

ExercisesChapter 8

150
152
153
155

157
157
160
163

166

Chapter 9 ............................................................................171
Rheology, Stress in the Crust, and Shear Zones
Introduction

171

Relationship Between Stress and Strain

171

Elasticity
Plasticity
Strain Rate and Viscosity

172
173
174

Environmental Factors

175

Deformation Mechanisms

177

State of Stress in the Earth

177

Frictional Slip on Preexisting Fractures

Power Law Creep
Stress Variation in the Lithosphere

Shear Zones

178
179
181

182

Brittle Shear Zones

Ductile Shear Zones
Displacement in Heterogenous Shear Zones from Foliations
General (2D) Shear

ExercisesChapter 9

183
187
190
191

194

Chapter 10 ..........................................................................199
Fault-Related Folds and Cross Sections
MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE

R. W. ALLMENDINGER 2015

"v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

199

Uncertainty in a Simple Depth Projection

200

Drawing Cross Sections

202

Preparation for drawing a cross section

Step-byStep Section Construction

Fold-Fault Models

203
204

206

Fold Type and the Propagation/Slip Ratio

Fault-bend Folds
Fault-propagation Folds
Extensional Drape Folds
Roll-over Anticlines and Listric Normal Faults

Balanced Cross-sections

207
208
211
216
216

218

The Fundamental Bases for Balanced Cross-sections

Line Length Balancing
Area Balancing
A Final Word About Balancing

ExercisesChapter 10

219
221
224
225

226

Chapter 11 ..........................................................................231
Structural Interpretation of Seismic Reflection Data
Introduction

231

Echo Sounding

232

Common Mid-Point (CMP) Method

235

Data Redundancy and Signal to Noise Ratio

Correction for Offset from the Source
Migration

235
236
239

Resolution of Seismic Reflection Data

240

Vertical Resolution
Horizontal Resolution

242
242

Diffractions

243

Artifacts

244

Velocity Pullup/pulldown
Multiples
Sideswipe
Buried Focus

244
244
246
247

Structural Interpretation of Seismic Profiles

MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE

R. W. ALLMENDINGER 2015

247
"vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Truncations and Discontinuities

Kink Axes
Kink Axes and Growth Strata

Exercises Chapter 11

248
250
250

253

Chapter 12 ..........................................................................259
Solid Mechanics and Structural Geology
Introduction

259

The Mechanical Approach

260

Physical Principles
Constitutive Equations

261
263

Elasticity

263

Viscosity

265

Plasticity

265

Boundary Conditions and Initial Values

Some Simple Geological Examples

Mechanics of Thrust Belts

Hubbert and Rubeys (1959) Force Balance for Thrust Plates

266

267
267
267

Critically-Tapered Wedges (Dahlen, 1990)

270

Step-up Angle of Thrusts

272

Holes and Cracks: Some Important Results from Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics 274
Circular Holes

274

Cracks

277

Final Thoughts: Simulation vs. Illumination

280

Exercises Chapter 12

282

Postface ................................................................................285
What youve accomplished and where to go next

References Cited .................................................................289

MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE

R. W. ALLMENDINGER 2015

"vii

PREFACE

Preface
The subtitle, "A structural geology lab manual for the 21st Century", as well
as the rationale for a new manual, needs a little explanation (and, perhaps, some
justification). There are several decent structural geology lab manuals out there and
the fact that a new one has not appeared in many years would suggest that the field
is mature and not changing rapidly, so why write a new one? Because the field of
structural geology, indeed all of geology, has changed enormously in the last
decade or two. Consider the following:
Large online digital databases for topography, satellite imagery,
scanned geologic maps, GPS data, earthquake data, etc have become readily available
Digital devices are seeing increasing use in the field. We collect
data using tablets and, increasingly, smart phones will replace analog compasses
Using programs, apps, and web apps to analyze data is now common place. Most structural geologists use such programs in preference to paper, whether drawing sections or plotting stereonets
The world has gone digital, but our teaching of structural geology has lagged
far behind: many of the exercises that we ask students to do in structure lab have
changed little over the last fifty years. We are not teaching our students how to take
advantage of this new world, nor how the tools that they will use in their profession
(e.g., stereonet programs, etc.) actually work internally. Digital means that, suddenly, lots of numbers are available to us. To analyze those numbers, requires some
math and computing. Most of the math is just additions and multiplications done
in a very systematic way as well as, of course, trigonometry. Students have much of
the needed math background already (vectors, calculus) so why don't we encourage
them to use those skills in their chosen major? Additional concepts for example
matrices can be learned in the context of problems that are actually of interest
to us.
Computing can take many forms but the lowest common denominator is the
humble spreadsheet program, which is whatModern Structural Practiceuses. Everyone
MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE

R. W. ALLMENDINGER 2015

"viii

PREFACE

already knows the basics of using a spreadsheet and it is almost certain that everyone already has a spreadsheet on their computer. This enables us to implement algorithms without the overhead of learning a computer language. Students who already know how to program should be encouraged to use their skills rather than
the spreadsheet. For the rest, once you see the power of algorithms, you can decide
what flavor of computing to learn and use in your subsequent endeavors.
A more mathematical approach benefits all of us in another way: it helps lay
the necessary groundwork for understanding difficult concepts from mechanics.
This manual has several chapters devoted to stress and strain which, of course,
constitute only a very small part of the field of solid mechanics. However, the
background gained will help the motivated student to understand the entirety of
mechanics in subsequent studies.
The other thing that is almost entirely lacking from current lab manuals is
even a passing emphasis on uncertainty and error analysis. Modern Structural Practice
does not delve into these topics in great detail but does, at least, mention them.
Even something as seemingly well know as the elevation of a point on the surface
of the earth can vary by 15 m or more depending on the dataset used. This is particularly important when a student first encounters a geologic map or makes a measurement with a compass. If you can make a lot of measurements, which digital
tools now enable us to do, then you can begin to evaluate uncertainty.
Some might question whether this approach removes us from classical geology but quite the opposite is true: if you go digital, there is a huge amount of quantitative information that can be extracted from a geologic map or a digital data set.
In the past, the manual methods of extracting that information were so tedious that
it was too painful to explore the map. Some of the software tools that are used in
Modern Structural Practice make it trivially easy to extract quantitative 3D information
which can then be analyzed as the student and professor wish.
This manual is a work in progress: The current version has been used by my
own students to whom I am deeply grateful for their feedback and their willingness
to try something different. I also appreciate the time that Nstor Cardozo, Haakon
Fossen, David Pollard, and Ray Fletcher have taken to read over parts of this material, though they are neither responsible for any errors nor do they necessarily en-

MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE

R. W. ALLMENDINGER 2015

"ix

PREFACE

dorse the overall approach! I welcome comments and suggestions from faculty and
students. I know that some of the material is hard nothing ventured nothing
gained so the type of feedback that really helps me is to help identify sections
that are unclear or missing entirely. Students, please note that, while I would like to
help with the solution to the exercises at the end of each chapter, I really dont have
time to do so.
My current plan is that Modern Structural Practice remain a free resource, updated periodically. It is more important to me that it is widely used (nothing like
free to help make that happen) than that it is published. Besides, students already
pay too much for textbooks. Think of it as crowd-sourcing the revisions. The
downside of this self-published version is that the reader has to suffer with my
minimal page layout skills and limited artistic ability with the figures. An advantage
is that color can be used with abandon and it is still free!
This manual is for teaching and learning. Most of the concepts herein are
delivered more rigorously and in more detail in:
Allmendinger, R. W., Cardozo, N. C., and Fisher, D., 2012, Structural Geology
Algorithms: Vectors & Tensors: Cambridge, England, Cambridge University
Press, 289 pp.

Please refer to that published resource if you use the concepts here in your own research.
Rick Allmendinger
Ithaca, New York, August 2015

MODERN STRUCTURAL PRACTICE

R. W. ALLMENDINGER 2015

"x