4

Use of Pesticides in the Cocoa

Industry and Their Impact on the
Environment and the Food Chain
George Afrane1 and Augustine Ntiamoah2
1University

of Ghana, Department of Food Process Engineering,

2Koforidua Polytechnic, Department of Energy Systems Engineering,
Ghana
1. Introduction
Cocoa, Theobroma cacao L., is a major cash crop cultivated in the tropical regions of West
Africa, the Caribbean, South America and Asia. In West Africa, where over 70% of the
worlds cocoa is produced with about 21% coming from Ghana - it is a significant
component of the rural economy, as the industry is dominated by large numbers of smallholder peasant farmers who depend on the crop for their livelihood (Acquaah, 1999;
Appiah, 2004). Like all living organisms, the cocoa plant can also be attacked by a wide
range of pests and diseases. When this happens expected production targets are not met,
and the economies of the producer nations are adversely affected. Preventive and curative
measures are therefore necessary in the cocoa industry to maintain and even increase output
(Akrofi and Baah, 2007).
While non-chemical means of managing pests and diseases in the industry are widely
recommended for health and other reasons, the use of some amounts of chemicals in the
form of fertilizers, insecticides and fungicides is unavoidable in the effective management of
cocoa farms (Moy and Wessel, 2000; Opoku et al., 2007; Adjinah and Opoku, 2010). Their use
is therefore expected to increase with time. Indeed in the twenty-year period from 19862006, the use of fertilizer world-wide increased by almost 250% (UNEP, 1991). The same
trend applies to pesticides, although they are more difficult to monitor partly because of the
secrecy that goes with the continued production and use of banned substances. The trends
suggest quite clearly however, that much of the increase in world food production can be
attributed to the response of crops to increased use of fertilizers and pesticides (UNEP,
1991). Fortunately, there has always been a clear appreciation of the potential deleterious
effects of the chemicals used in the cocoa industry since the 60s, and standards have been set
by FAO and WHO for acceptable levels of residues in the beans exported to other countries.
The goal of maintaining high levels of agricultural productivity and profitability while
reducing pesticides use presents a significant challenge. There are repeated cases of
excessive levels of pesticide residues being found in agricultural produce and the safety of
these products has become an issue of concern. Recently, changes in regulations in the
European Union (EU), North America and Japan have called for a reflection on crop
protection practices in cocoa and other commodity crops (ICCO, 2007). The quality of cocoa

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Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

imported into the EU and elsewhere will be assessed based on traces of pesticides and other
substances that have been used in the supply chain.
The cocoa bean has a high content of butter or fat which absorbs the active ingredients in
insecticides. The acceptable levels of active ingredients in foods are determined by the
committee on Pesticide Residue of FAO/WHO, known as the Codex Alimentarius
Commission, CAC. Created in 1963 the CAC implements the Joint FAO/WHO Food
Standards Programme which is aimed at protecting the health of consumers and ensuring
fair trade practices in the international food trade (Moy and Wessel, 2000). The commission
has set maximum levels of residue poisons in commodities going through the international
market, including cocoa. If for any reason the residual levels in any commodity exceed the
Codex levels, that particular commodity could be rejected by the importing country.
Secondly, the accumulation of any chemicals in the cocoa fat may change the taste of the
beans and eventually that of the chocolate made from them. This is known as tainting. It is
therefore, the task of entomologists to ensure that recommended chemicals do not leave any
residues, and that the dosage is the minimum that would give the optimum control under
the agricultural conditions in the country.
In Ghana, significant gains have been made in the control of pests and diseases of the cocoa
industry through the nationwide use of pesticides under government sponsorship and
supervision. The growing global concerns about the effects of the increasing use of
agricultural chemicals on farmers, consumers of agricultural produce and the ecology
require a re-examination of the issues related to their application in the cocoa industry. This
chapter examines the use and the impact of pesticides in cocoa production in Ghana - where
data has been accumulated - as a representative country of the industry. The potential
ecological impacts of chemicals in the cocoa industry are analyzed, using the modern tool of
life-cycle assessment (Ntiamoah and Afrane, 2009). Life-cycle assessment, LCA, has gained
such prominence in the environmental management discipline that the International
Standards Organization has developed standards for its implementation (ISO 14040-14043,
1997-2000b). This particular analysis is based on primary farm-level data collected from a
nationally representative sample of cocoa farmers, published data, results from research
institutions, the Ghana Cocoa Board and other relevant sources.

2. The Ghanaian cocoa industry in brief

In Ghana, cocoa has played an important role in the economy of the country for over one
century. Although the crop was believed to have been brought to the colonial Gold Coast as Ghana was then known - from Fernando Po, an island in the Gulf of Guinea, off the coast
of Gabon, in 1879 and from Sao Tome in 1886, records show that in 1891, only twelve years
after it first arrived here, cocoa was being exported as a cash crop (Acquaah, 1999, Adjinah
and Opoku, 2010). From the 1910/1911 season, Ghana became the leading cocoa producer in
the world, a position it held until 1977, when it was overtaken by the Ivory Coast. The
country went from being the number one cocoa producer to a period in the early 80s when,
as a result of drought, bushfires, low producer prices, diseases and general economic
malaise, Ghana fell to the twelfth position and produced less than 160,000 metric tonnes in
the 1983/1984 season (Adjinah and Opoku, 2010).
Cocoa became attractive as a cash crop in Ghana because of the lower cost involved in its
cultivation, compared to a popular crop like palm, as well as the favourable natural
conditions that existed in the forest belts. Cocoa could be grown along with other crops and

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53

when soil conditions deteriorated the land could be left to the cocoa trees and other tracts
tilled in the shifting-cultivation systems of farming (Acquaah, 1999). Because of the
prominence that the crop had began to gain in the economy, even before World War II,
government was seriously alarmed when the swollen shoot disease was discovered in 1936.
In the process of combating this disease, a permanent research center was established at
Tafo, in the Eastern Region, and product quality inspectorate, grading of beans, extension
services and proper engagement of farmers in the growth of the crop were initiated
(Acquaah, 1999). Since then government has continued to offer technical assistance, financial
incentives and inputs like fertilizer and pesticides to cocoa farmers.
Over the last decade, as a result of government intervention, cocoa production has picked
up, reaching a peak of 740 thousand metric tonnes in the 2005/2006 season (Aryeetey et al,
2007). Constituting 7.3% of the Gross Domestic Product of the country, it is second only to
gold, which first overtook cocoa as the highest foreign exchange earner in 1992; a trend
which still continues. Agriculture contributes about 35% of Ghanas Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) and 60% of total employment. The Cocoa Industry is the single largest contributor to
agricultural GDP (16.5 %). It is estimated that about 65% of the countrys agricultural
workforce work either directly or indirectly in the cocoa industry. In Ghana cocoa is grown
on small farms owned by individuals and families in the forest zones of Ashanti, Brong
Ahafo, Western, Eastern and Volta regions. Thus the livelihood of about two million farmers
and their dependants, mostly in the rural areas, depend directly on cocoa (Opoku et. al,
2006).
2.1 Cocoa processing in Ghana
Although serious attempts have been made to process them locally, the majority of cocoa
beans produced in the country are still exported. Government put a policy in place to
process at least 50% by the end of the last decade. The enabling conditions created in free
zone enclaves, led to the attraction of private foreign processing companies and the
expansion of state-owned facilities. According to data from International Cocoa
Organization, ICCO, 200,000 metric tonnes of cocoa grindings were achieved in Ghana in
the 2009/2010 season. Compared to the production figure given in Table 1 for the same
season, this constitutes about 32% of the beans produced. This means the governments
target for grindings was not achieved.
In spite of their peripheral role in the standard household menu - mainly as a dessert or
snack, food products made from cocoa go through a long line of operations not normally
found with other processed foods, as depicted in Figure 1 (Awua, 2002). Ripe cocoa pods are
plucked from the trees and gathered together on clearings in the cocoa farms. After about
ten days, all available hands, young and old, gather together to assist in the splitting of the
pods and removal of the beans with their hands. (According to Owusu-Manu (1977), this
could be a critical stage in the contamination process, with pesticides getting transferred
from the workers to the wet beans.) The wet beans are collected together in a heap and
covered with plantain leaves and plastic sheets for fermentation. After fermentation, the
beans are dried in the sun on bamboo mats to a desired moisture content of around 7.5%.
After dried cocoa beans have been received at the processing plant, they are inspected and
thoroughly cleaned of all extraneous matter, such as sticks, stones, metal fragments, dust,
loose shells, small fragments and clumps of cocoa beans. The cleaning process consists of a
series of operations involving sieves, brushes, airlifts and magnetic separators to remove the

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Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

Cocoa production
Jute plant cultivation

Fertilizer production

Fermentation and
Drying

Jute bag Manufacturing

Pesticides production
Bagging and Storage

Industrial cleaning of
beans

Roasting
Sugar beet cultivation

Cattle Raising
Winnowing

Sugar production

Milk production
Grinding

Mixing of cocoa liquor,

milk, sugar and other
ingredients
PE production
Conching and Refining
Film packaging
production

Tempering and Moulding

Chocolate packaging

Distribution and Retail

Consumption phase

Expired food &

packaging disposal

Fig. 1. Process Flowchart for Chocolate Production

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Paper box packaging

production

Use of Pesticides in the Cocoa Industry and Their Impact on the Environment and the Food Chain

55

unwanted materials. The cleansed cocoa beans are roasted at temperatures between 90170oC, using a petroleum-based fuel or electricity. This process is needed to develop the
chocolate flavour, reduce the moisture content further, and loosen the shells for subsequent
removal. The nibs (cotyledons) become friable and generally darker in colour in the process.
At the next stage, the shells are separated from the nibs in a process known as winnowing.
Winnowing machines use a multi-layered sieve frame with meshes of different sizes, one
above the other, with the largest mesh on top. The roasted and crushed beans are ground
into a paste known as cocoa liquor or cocoa masse. The grinding process is achieved in two
or three stages, using a combination of mills. The cocoa liquor obtained is heat-treated in
storage tanks at temperatures of between 90-100oC for aging and microbial destruction.
The cocoa paste could be pressed in a hydraulic device to extract cocoa butter. The cake
released after pressing is passed through kibbling machines, which break them into smaller
pieces, and are packed into four-ply multi-walled paper sacks lined with polyethylene.
These are ready for sale and shipment as kibbled cake. The cocoa butter, on the other hand,
may be mixed with the other ingredients of chocolate, namely, butter, sugar, milk and
emulsifiers. The chocolate mix is subjected to additional processes known as conching and
tempering. Conching removes residual moisture, while tempering transforms the thick
semi-liquid mix into a solid product through heat treatment. After this process the chocolate
is poured into moulds of different shapes and then packaged for the market. Knowledge of
the material and energy requirements of each of the processes as shown in figure 1 is
necessary to perform the LCA analysis needed to determine the environments impacts.
2.2 The place of cocoa in the food chain
While the soporific effect of cocoa drinks is widely known, recent research activities have
unearthed additional more important health benefits which have enhanced further the
attractiveness of cocoa products generally. There are three types of chocolate: dark, milk and
white chocolates. Most of the benefits of chocolate consumption are associated with the dark
brand. In the last decade, studies have shown that chocolate consumption can play an
important role in the reduction of risks or delaying the development of cardiovascular
diseases, cancer and other age-related diseases. It has also been linked positively to anticarcinogenic activity in human cells, hypertension, diabetes and sexual weakness. Its newly
found reputation as an aphrodisiac, stems from the ability of its sweet and fatty nature to
simulate the hypothalamus, which induces pleasure sensation and affects the level of
serotonin in the brain (Afoakwa, 2008).
Cocoa products contain flavonoids and amino acids, and these have been cited as the source
of its beneficial effects, while carbohydrates, theobromine and lead have been mentioned as
responsible for the negative effects. The flavonoids belong to a large and complex group of
compounds called polyphenols and are found in plant products, mainly fruits and
vegetables. The phenols in cocoa products have been associated with antioxidant properties,
reduction in migraine, protection of arteries from plaque formation and prevention of LDL
formation two hours after consuming dark chocolate and perceptible lowering of blood
pressure. Some studies have also linked chocolate consumption to muscle recovery and
delayed brain function decline (Reuters, 2007). Protein is broken down in the body to form
twenty amino acids needed by the body. Eight of these are called essential, which means
they are not made by the human body itself and must be supplied from outside. Fourteen of
the twenty amino acids found in the body, including the eight essential ones, have been

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Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

found in cocoa. In addition to building cells and repairing tissues, amino acids also have
antioxidant properties, and they form antibodies to combat invading bacteria and viruses
(Awuah, 2002).
While international standards are such that the pesticides used in the field can hardly find
their way into chocolate, a number of documented negative effects have been associated
with some of the natural and absorbed constituents of cocoa. Perhaps the major one is
obesity. It is believed that the amounts of dark chocolate that needs to be consumed in order
to experience the good benefits of the product could lead to obesity and its resultant
negative effects. Although it is not supported by scientific studies, it is also believed that
chocolate consumption can lead to acne (www.chocolate.gourmetrecipe.com). The heavy metal,
lead, is known to maintain a high solubility in chocolate, and this may lead to lead
poisoning (Rankin et al, 2005). Chocolate is also known to be toxic to some animals like
horses, dogs, parrots, cats and small rodents, because they are unable to metabolize the
theobromine which is found in chocolate (Drolet et al, 1984; Blakemore and Shearer, 1943).

3. Pests and diseases of cocoa

The increasing world population cannot be sustained without the use of pesticides in food
production. Their usage therefore benefits not only farmers but also consumers. Pesticides
are used to reduce food losses not only during production, but also during the post-harvest
storage stage (Moy and Wessel, 2000). The general pest control strategy is for the
intervention to destroy the pests feasting on the crops, but at the same time not to damage
the produce so much as to render them unhealthy or unprofitable. This means looking for
the thin line which separates good practices from bad. Good agricultural practice (GAP)
requires good timing and proper application. The crops are sprayed on the advice of
specialists at an opportune time in the reproductive cycle of the pest, when the highest
numbers could be eliminated. Also in order to maintain the activities of friendly insects the
area of application of the insecticides should be clearly delineated.
The cocoa tree and its pod can be attacked by different species of insects, fungal diseases
and rodents (Entwistle, 1972). The major diseases affecting cocoa in Ghana are given in
Table 1. The most important of these are Phytophthora pod rot, commonly called black
pod, and locally known as akate; and the swollen shoot virus, also known locally as cocoa
sasabro. The black pod rot, a fungal disease which appears as characteristic brown necrotic
lesions on the pods surface and as rotting of the beans, does the most damage to cocoa. An
estimated 30% of annual cocoa production is lost to it, especially during years of high
rainfall. At 2005 cocoa bean prices this is an estimated US$1.5 billion in lost revenue
(www.icco.org). Other estimates put the loss specifically at 450 thousand metric tonnes
annually, while 250, 200 and 50 thousand MT are lost to witches broom, capsids, and the
swollen shoot virus (CSSV), respectively (www.dropdata.org). Witches broom and frosty pod
rot are predominant in Latin America, while the black pod and CSSV are common in West
Africa. These diseases are counted by breeding disease-resistance species, sanitation and the
use of fungicides (Bastos, 1996; Opoku et al, 2007).
Most insects which attack cocoa are of the bug or miridiae family. This is a large family of
insects of which capsids, the most well-known, have achieved their notoriety from the
degree of havoc they can wreck on cash crops like cocoa. They feed on plants by piercing the
tissue and sucking their juices. Capsids are small, terrestrial insects, usually oval-shaped or
elongate and measuring less than 12 mm. They were identified as pests at the turn of the last
century and are the main insects that feed on cocoa in Africa (Mahot et al., 2005).

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Use of Pesticides in the Cocoa Industry and Their Impact on the Environment and the Food Chain

Type of Infection
(Causal agent)
Black pod
Fungus
(Phytophthora spp.)
Brown root rot Fungus
(Fomes noxius)
Disease

Cocoa necrosis Virus

(Cocoa necrosis virus)
Collar crack
Fungus
(Armillaria mellea)
Collar rot

Fungus
(Ustulina zonata)

Cushion gall

Fungus
(Calonectria rigidiuscula)
Fungus
(Oncobasidium theobroma)

Vascular
Streak
Die-back
Horse hair
blight
Mealy pod
Mistletoe
Pod rot

Red rust
Swollen shoot

White Root
White thread
Blight

Fungus
(Marasmius equicrinis)
Fungus
(Trachysphaera fructigena)
Flowering Plant
(Tapinanthus bangwensis)
Fungus
(Botryodiphlodia
theobromae)
Alga
(Cephaleuros mycoidea)
Virus
(Cocoa swollen shoot
virus)
Fungus
(Fomes lignosus)
Fungus
(Marasmius scandens)

57

Symptoms
Pod rots, go brownish-black. Beans destroyed
in immature pods. Could result in die-back
Leaves fall prematurely and die-back of twigs
occurs. Fungus fruit bodies on root and dead
trunks. Soil is affected
Leaves show bands of transparent lesions
often with perforated centers
Longitudinal cracking of trunk from ground
level to about 1.2m upwards, fills with
cream-coloured mycelium
Defoliation and death of plants. White fanshaped patches of mycelium are produced
underneath bark and roots
Excessive production of buds at the nodes
Leaves turn yellow and fall prematurely.
Smaller branches wither starting from the
tips
Network of black threads which spread
throughout the canopy, smothers shoots
growth
Pods turn brown, becomes encrusted with
white to pinkish mealy growth of the fungus
Parasitic flowering plant on host branches.
Part of branch withers
Appears as brown necrotic areas with
concentric rings of black spots. Pods are later
covered with black sooty powder
Reddish patches on leaves and twigs; leaves
are shed prematurely
Swelling of chupons and twigs; leaves
develop yellow patterns, get crinkled and
malformed
Premature defoliation, death of twigs, pods
are small
Leaves are covered and killed in a network of
white mycelial threads

Source: Offei et al. (2005)

Table 1. Diseases of Cocoa in Ghana

3.1 National cocoa pests and diseases control programme
Throughout the 90s, the tonnage of cocoa produced annually rarely exceeded 400,000
metric tonnes. This situation was attributed to a variety of causes, although the prevalence
of pests and cocoa diseases was seen as the main reason. Crop losses due to mirids alone

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Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

were estimated at between 25-35% per annum. To reverse this trend, the government of
Ghana in the year 2000 introduced the national Cocoa Diseases and Pests Control
Programme, CODAPEC, popularly known as mass spraying, to combat the resurgence of
mirids and black pod diseases on cocoa farms. This opportunity was also to be used to train
farmers and technical personnel in the scientific methods of pests and diseases control
(Adjinah and Opoku, 2010). Participants were trained in the dosage of the various
pesticides, dangers of exposure to pesticides, importance of the use of protective clothing,
observance of personal hygiene, environmental safety issues, first-aid, techniques of
application and handling and disposal of empty containers. Lessons were given through
radio programmes, town meetings and training-of-trainers workshops. Table 2 gives the
brands of pesticides, approved by the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG), which are
currently in use on Ghanaian cocoa farms under the CODAPEC programme and their
application frequency.
Pesticide used
Fungicides
Ridomil 72 plus
WP
Nordox 75 WP
Funguran OH
WP
Champion WP
Kocide 101 WP
Fungikill WP
Metalm 72 Plus
WP
Insecticides
Akatemaster
Actara
Cocostar 210 EC
Confidor 200SL
Carbamult

Active ingredient

12% metalaxyl, 60%

Cuprous oxide
86% Cuprous oxide, 14%
inert
Cuprous hydroxide
77% cupric hydroxide
Cupric hydroxide
Cupric hydroxide +
metalaxyl
Cuprous oxide + metalaxyl

Bifenthrin
Thiamethoxam
Bifenthrin + Pirimiphosmethyl
Imidacloprid
Promecarb

Method of
application

Frequency

Knapsack
sprayer

3 times during
each cocoa season

Knapsack
sprayer

Twice during each

cocoa season

Table 2. Pesticides approved for used in the control of mirids and black pod disease under
the CODAPEC programme
The black pod control programme covered all cocoa-growing districts in the Volta, Brong
Ahafo and parts of Western, Ashanti and Eastern Regions. Spraying against mirids, on the
other hand, covered the Central, Eastern and parts of Western and Ashanti Regions.
Spraying gangs were established at each spraying centre. A gang of ten (for black pod
control) and six (for mirids control) had a supervisor each responsible for the general
execution of the programme at the unit level. One mechanic was attached to a group of 20
gangs to oversee the maintenance and repairs of the spraying machines. The farmers, who

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Use of Pesticides in the Cocoa Industry and Their Impact on the Environment and the Food Chain

were direct beneficiaries of the exercise, were themselves responsible for the sanitation
practices, i.e. brushing, pruning, shade management and removal of diseased pods from the
farms. They also provided water for spraying and were expected to monitor the activities of
the sprayers on the farm. The spraying is carefully done using a portable petrol-enginedriven knapsack mist-blowers, which combines the idea of low-volume application of
sprays with the principle of using fan-driven air to carry the spray up into the trees.
As a result of this initiative, between the period 2002-2004, nearly 600,000 ha involving
about 360,942 farms and 330,121 individual farmers, were sprayed three times each season
against the black pod diseases, while an estimated 826,141 ha involving 470,801 and 446,593
farmers were sprayed twice each season in the mirids control exercise. From the 2001/2002
season when beans output of 380,000 metric tons was recorded, production jumped to about
500,000 metric tonnes in the 2002/2003 season and almost doubled in the 2003/2004 season
to an all-time high of over 736,000 metric tonnes.
Started ten years ago, the mass spraying exercise has now become a permanent fixture in all
the 72 geographical districts in the cocoa-growing areas with the following breakdown:
21districts for black pod spraying only, 35 districts for mirids only, and 16 for both
programmes. District Task Forces (DTF) and Local Task Forces (LTF), have been formed in
each operational district and local area, respectively. The DTF manages the project at the
district level and is in charge of gang recruitment, storage, distribution of inputs and logistics
and general supervision. The LTF on the other hand, handles project management at the
village level and is responsible for the planning and execution of the programmes at that level.
Table 3 gives the seasonal cocoa production figures along with the amounts of fertilizers and
pesticides which have been used in Ghana in recent years. The table indicates clearly that
cocoa production has increased significantly in the last decade, but it has been at the expense
of more pesticides and fertilizers. Data obtained from COCOBOD indicate that fourteen
different kinds of insecticides and fungicides have been used for spraying farms since the start
of the mass spraying exercise. Even with the limited data provided, the increase in pesticide
usage per unit weight of cocoa over the period is evident. The same trend applies to fertilizer
usage. Serious attention must be paid to these trends beyond the normal concerns with
maximum residue limits (MRLs) which international traders focus on. The impact of these
prodigious amounts of chemicals used in cocoa production on the environment as a whole can
be determined through life-cycle analyses (Ntiamoah and Afrane, 2009).

Crop
Season
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
2007/08
2008/09
2009/10

Cocoa
Production
(106 kg)

Totala
Fertilizer
Used
(106 kg)

601.9
740.4
614.5
729.0
662.0
632.0

70.1
55.8
105.0
130.0

Pesticides Usagea
Insecticides
(liters)
1023.6
745.0
590.0
1020.0
1760.0
2300.0

Fungicides
(MT)
1120.0
759.4
1120.0
1290.0
1800.0
1997.7

Fertilizer
used per
MT

Fungicides
used per
MT

0.11
0.08
0.16
0.20

1.86
1.03
1.83
1.77
2.72
3.16

Source: ICCO Quarterly Bulletin of Cocoa Statistics, Vol. XXXVI, No. 4, Cocoa year 2009/2010. Published: 3011-2010; all others in this column from, The State of the Ghanaian Economy, 2007. a Source: COCOBOD, Ghana.

Table 3. Seasonal Cocoa Production, Fertilizer and Insecticide Usage in Ghana, 2004-2010

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While non-chemical means of managing cocoa pests and diseases are widely recommended,
the need for agro-chemicals to manage cocoa pests and diseases is unavoidable and will
continue for years to come. However, the effects of continued exposure of users of
pesticides, environmental risks, issues of pest resistance and possible hazards for consumers
require a re-examination of the benefits of pesticide application and the risks involved.
Hence the introduction of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) to considerably mitigate, if not
eliminate, the problems associated with the excessive and unnecessary application of
pesticides. High residue levels and tainting of the beans could lead to their rejection on the
international market. Testing for residues is carried out following internationally agreed and
validated methods (Moy and Wessel, 2000). Though some insecticide residues are
sometimes found in the shells, they are hardly found in the nib which is used in chocolate
manufacture.

4. Socio-economic impacts of pesticides use on the cocoa industry

In terms of output the CODAPEC programme was a tremendous success, because it was
able to resuscitate cocoa production in Ghana. The country continues to benefit not only
because of increased output, but also because of the high prices the crop is currently
enjoying on the international market. Thus the benefits to the economy as a whole were
obvious. What was not so obvious was the direct benefit to the cocoa farmers.
In order to assess the impact of the programme on these farmers, Abankwa et. al (2010),
conducted a study in a typical cocoa-growing district, Ahafo Ano South, located at the
north-western section of the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The study found that while the
farmers could not take their children to better basic schools, they were able to afford school
uniforms and other basic educational needs for them. They also found that farmers were
able and more willing to visit hospitals instead of self-medicating or using herbal treatment.
The improvements brought about by the programme seemed to benefit more farmers with
higher levels of education, the study showed.
One poignant conclusion of the study was that, while the price of cocoa was reviewed
upwards every year over the first five years of the programme, these increments did not
translate into increased purchasing power of farmers. They were not able to afford assets
like radios, televisions, mattresses and vehicles any better, five years after the programme
was started. Table 4 gives the nominal and actual farmers income over the period 20012005. While the nominal figures trend upwards annually as a result of the increases in cocoa
price, the actual income (calculated using CPI of 1997 as base) goes down every year due to
the effect of inflation.
Year
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

Consumer Price Index

216.4
246.2
311.8
351.2
404.3

Nominal Income
631.5
679.9
753.3
805.5
939.3

Actual Income
294.6
276.2
241.6
229.4
232.3

Table 4. Variations in Farmers Income, 2001-2005 (Source: Abankwa et al. 2010)

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From the point of view of COCOBOD, the implementers of the programe, the mass spraying
exercise has been a roaring success, because of the increased yield it has generated, the
renewed enthusiasm for cocoa cultivation that it has awoken in farmers, and also because of
the 60,000 direct jobs it has created for sprayers, supervisors and mechanics in the rural
areas of the country (Adjinah and Opoku, 2010). According to the Seed Production Unit of
COCOBOD, demand for planting materials has gone up significantly because new farms are
been established and old ones rejuvenated (Adjinah and Opoku, 2010). Farmers now clearly
see cocoa farming as a profitable venture, especially with the continued reduction in
inflation and the general improvement in the economy.

5. Potential ecological impacts of pesticides use in cocoa production

A proper assessment of the effect of pesticides and other chemicals used during cocoa
production and processing on the environment and human health, has to begin with an
effective quantification of the chemicals released into the environment and their impact on
various aspects of human life and the environment. For this purpose, one of the widely
accepted modern methods for examining the environmental impacts associated with a
service or a product is the life cycle assessment (LCA) technique.
5.1 Life cycle assessment methodology
The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), defines LCA as:
an objective process to evaluate the environmental burdens associated with a product,
process or activity by identifying and quantifying energy and materials used and wastes
released to the environment; to assess the impact of those energy and material uses and
releases to the environment; and to identify and evaluate opportunities to effect environmental
improvements. The assessment includes the entire life cycle of a product, process or activity,
encompassing extracting and processing raw materials; manufacturing, transportation and
distribution; use, re-use, maintenance; recycling, and disposal (Consoli et al, 1993).
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has also provided very relevant
input to the definition of LCA. According to ISO 14040 (1997), LCA is
a compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts
of a product system throughout its life cycle. A product system is a collection of materially or
energetically connected unit processes, which performs one or more defined functions.
Goal and scope
definition

Inventory
analysis

Interpretation

Impact
Assessment

Fig. 2. Components of a Life Cycle Assessment (ISO 14040)

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Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

The standard LCA methodology consists of four stages, namely, goal and scope definition,
inventory analysis, impact assessment and interpretation of results. These are represented
pictorially in Figure 2. The goal and scope definition means a clear statement of the reasons
for performing the study, the intended use of the results and the specification of the basic
parameters of LCA study, such as the functional unit, system boundaries, allocation rules,
data quality and simplifications. According to ISO 14040:1997, the functional unit is defined
as the quantified performance of a product system for use as a reference unit in an LCA
study. For a product this usually simply involves specifying the weight, volume or number
of a unit amount. Thus it has to be clearly defined and measurable. The primary purpose of
the functional unit is to provide a reference to which the input and output data can be
normalized in a mathematical sense.
The LCI stage involves collecting data concerning resource usage, energy and materials
consumption, emissions and products resulting from each activity in the production system.
As mentioned above, all these in- and out flows are calculated on the basis of the functional
unit. In the third phase, the LCIA phase, the data collected is classified into specific
categories and aggregated. This stage is composed of several mandatory elements and there
are also optional elements for normalization, grouping or weighting of the indicator results
and data quality analysis techniques. Finally, the life cycle interpretation is a procedure to
identify, qualify, check and evaluate the information from the results of the LCI and/or
LCIA of a product system. It is important to appreciate the reversible nature of an LCA
study. It may be necessary, at some point, to go back to the previous stage to question and
probe the results obtained. This is commonly done in LCA analysis, and arrows have been
turned round to emphasize this point.
In this study, LCA was conducted following the guidelines stated above to determine the
potential environmental impacts of producing 1 kg of chocolate in Ghana. The boundaries of
the system studied have been shown in Figure 1, the process flow chart for chocolate
production. (Those processes with broken boundaries were excluded from the analysis.) The
inputs and outputs data collected in this work from the field and standard LCA databases
are summarized in Table 5. Using the ISO series and CML 2001 database from the Centre for
Environmental Science at the University of Leiden for impact assessment, the results given
in Table 6 were obtained for the quantified impact scores for the selected relevant
environmental impact categories (Ntiamoah and Afrane, 2009). Data storage and analysis
were performed using the GaBi 4 LCA software.
The overall scores show that freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity and human toxicity are the most
significant environmental impacts made by the process. In order to examine closely the
contribution of the various stages of production to the overall impacts, Figure 3 was plotted.
The percentage contribution of each stage to the total impact score of each category is given
in this figure. The cocoa production stage was identified as the key life-cycle stage in terms
of environmental impacts, as it makes the largest contribution to five out of the eight
environmental impact categories considered in the study. The figure shows that it this is the
most predominant contributor to eutrophication, ozone depletion, freshwater aquatic
ecotoxicity, human toxicity, and terrestric eco-toxicity, with average contributions greater
than 95%. Indeed the production and use of fertilizers and pesticides account for almost all
the environmental burdens in the cocoa production stage. The significance of each of these
environmental categories which are prominent, in cocoa production will be examined in
turn.

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Use of Pesticides in the Cocoa Industry and Their Impact on the Environment and the Food Chain

INPUTS/OUTPUTS
Energy Inputs
Electricity, (from national grid)
Diesel
Petrol
Materials Inputs
Water
Fertilizer (N:P:K 0: 22:18 + 9CaO + 7S + 6MgO)
Pesticides
-Fungicides
-Insecticides
Land use
Products/By-Products
Chocolate
Cocoa Liquor
Cocoa Butter
Cocoa Cake
Cocoa Powder
Cocoa Shells
Air Emissions
Dust (PM2,5 - PM10) [Particles to air]
Sulphur dioxide [Inorganic emissions to air]
Heavy metals to air
Carbon dioxide [Inorganic emissions to air]
Carbon monoxide [Inorganic emissions to air]
Pesticides to air
Water Emissions
Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Nitrates
Oil & Grease
Phosphates
Total dissolved solids
Total suspended solids
Heavy metals to fresh water
Pesticides to fresh water]
Soil Emissions
Pesticides to soil
Heavy metals to agricultural soil

Amount

Unit

3.1716E-01
5.3142E-02
8.9967E-03

MJ
Kg
Kg

5.1274E+00
1.4590E-01

Kg
Kg

7.4200E-03
8.0000E-04
3.9218E-05

Kg
Kg
Ha

1.0000E+00
3.1948E-01
2.3125E-01
2.6875E-01
7.5000E-02
9.8000E-02

Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg

2.5000E-03
8.0000E-03
3.5745E-05
2.3790E-01
8.4100E-03
8.1308E-04

Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg

5.0437E-12
9.8212E-12
3.7500E-15
1.0000E-14
4.4204E-14
5.1525E-12
4.1287E-12
7.4761E-04
3.6880E-03

Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg
Kg

9.4477E-04
4.1870E-05

Kg
Kg

63

(Source: Ntiamoah and Afrane, 2009.)

Table 5. Summary of input/output data for the production of 1 kg chocolate from Ghanaian
cocoa beans, 2004/2005 season.

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Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

Environmental Impact Category

Acidification Potential (AP)
Eutrophication Potential (EP)
Freshwater Aquatic Ecotoxicity Potential (FAETP)
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
Human Toxicity Potential (HTP)
Ozone Layer Depletion Potential (ODP)
Photochem. Ozone Creation Potential (POCP)
Terrestrial Ecotoxicity Potential (TETP)

Overall
Impact Score
9.7351E-03
9.1568E-04
5.0797E+00
3.5602E-01
4.4426E+00
4.9805E-09
9.3002E-04
6.3796E-03

Unit
kg SO2
kg PO43kg *DCB
kg CO2
kg *DCB
kg *R11
kg Ethene
kg *DCB

*DCB is 1, 4 dichlorobenzene, *R11 is trichlorofluoromethane.

Table 6. Characterization results (overall impact scores) for the production of 1 kg chocolate
in Ghana, obtained by using the CML 2001 method
Eutrophication
Eutrophication or nutrification is a measure of the over-fertilisation of soils and
contamination of water-bodies with nutrients. In waters it causes excessive algal growth and
negative modification of the aquatic ecosystems resulting in oxygen depletion and death of
certain species. In soils, on the other hand, it promotes monocultures and loss of biodiversity
(Heijungs et al (1992) and Guinee et al (2001)). Since nitrogen and phosphorus are the
limiting nutrients for most of the aquatic systems, leaching of these nutrients into waterbodies results in eutrophication. High nitrate levels have been found in drinking water in
developing countries. This has been linked to a disease known as methaemoglobinaemia,
commonly referred to as the blue-baby syndrome, in agricultural areas (Pretty and Conway,
1988; Conway and Pretty, 1988). Although incidence of this disease in Ghana has not been
reported in the literature, to the best of our knowledge, given the large amounts of fertilizer
being used in cocoa production, possible contamination of water bodies need to be a matter
of concern to stakeholders in the industry.
Freshwater Aquatic, Terrestial and Human Toxicity
From the results of Figure 2, not only are freshwater aquatic and human toxicity limited
almost exclusively to the cocoa production stage, but they have the highest numerical values
in the figure, which makes them more significant than the others. Terrestial toxicity, though
not of the same magnitude as the other two, is nevertheless important. Toxicity to humans,
flora and fauna is caused by a variety of substances, ranging from carcinogens to persistent
toxins such as heavy metals which find their way into the food chain. The probability exists
for harmful chemicals directly or indirectly poisoning some organisms and ultimately
eliminating them from the ecosystem, and thereby restricting the biodiversity of the region
and upsetting the food chain.
Acidification
Acidification is an indication of the gradual degradation of the soil and it is caused by acid
solution formed when pollutants generated from the combustion of fuels are released into
the atmosphere. In technical terms, it is caused by the build-up of protons in soils and lakes.
Hauschild and Wenzel, (1998) describe it as a fall in the capacity of the soil to neutralize the
acids that run through it. Higher acidity in certain types of soils can lead to the mobilisation
of different fixed ions, which are then absorbed by plants to their detriment. Water which

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Use of Pesticides in the Cocoa Industry and Their Impact on the Environment and the Food Chain

65

seep through acidic soils can harm aquatic ecosystems in the different lakes and rivers and
in some severe cases, acidic water has been known to leave some water-bodies lifeless
(Mannion and Bowlby, 1992). Acidification can be caused directly by acids and indirectly by
acidic anhydrides (sulphur dioxide and trioxide and oxides of nitrogen) and ammonia.
CML2001, Photochem. Ozone Creation Potential (POCP) [kg Ethene-Equiv.]
CML2001, Ozone Layer Depletion Potential (ODP, steady state) [kg R11-Equiv.]
CML2001, Human Toxicity Potential (HTP inf.) [kg DCB-Equiv.]
CML2001, Global Warming Potential (GWP 100 years) [kg CO2-Equiv.]
CML2001, Freshw ater Aquatic Ecotoxicity Pot. (FAETP inf.) [kg DCB-Equiv.]
CML2001, Eutrophication Potential (EP) [kg Phosphate-Equiv.]
CML2001, Acidification Potential (AP) [kg SO2-Equiv.]

100
95
90
85
80
75
70
Quantity view

65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Chocolate manufacturing

Cocoa processing

Cocoa production

Transportation

Fig. 3. Relative contribution of different stages of the life-cycle to the various environmental
categories
Ozone layer Depletion Potential
The thinning of the ozone layer in the stratosphere is allowing increased levels of ultraviolet
radiation to reach the earth, leading to diseases in humans (skin cancer and cataracts) and
adverse effect on ecosystems. Ozone layer depletion is caused by the emission of halons and
CFCs during the production of pesticides. These processes are based on complicated
reaction systems, including both solid phase and gaseous phase reactions, and a limited
number of substances are involved (Hauschild and Wenzel, 1998). Most notably methane,
nitrous oxide, water vapour, chlorine and some bromine compounds, are responsible for the
breakdown of ozone molecules. Human activities have increased the amount of substances
involved in the breakdown of ozone and especially stable, long-lived chlorine and bromine
containing hydrocarbons (i.e. chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, tetrachloromethane,
trichloroethane, etc.) are believed to contribute significantly. Fortunately the contribution to
ozone-layer thinning, as a result of cocoa production and processing, turns out to be the
least significant, according to Figure 3.

6. Conclusion
The use of pesticides is often advisable and sometimes essential when a crop is threatened.
Integrated pest management is a concept which is now generally known and widely

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Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

accepted, and it is hoped that the judicious use of pesticides will be accepted as an integral
part of pest management strategy. Technologies are presently available for the safe use of
pesticides in cocoa and awareness of their correct and proper use needs to be stimulated
(Bateman, 2008). However, introducing Good Agricultural Practices to the more than three
million (often illiterate) smallholder farmers in the world cocoa economy is a major
challenge. Ghana is making some strides in this area.
The clear indications are that the current agricultural practices for cocoa production are not
sustainable, from both the environmental and economic perspective. Continued increase in
the costs and amounts of chemicals put into the environment does not portend well for the
future of this cash crop. The study has shown that current pests and diseases control
practices in Ghanaian cocoa production which rely primarily on chemical methods, though
well administered, results in more environmental damage. In the long term integrated pest
management (IPM), which encourages natural control of pest populations, promises to
reduce the use of pesticides. Some of the techniques used in this approach include
enhancing natural enemies, planting pest-resistant crops, and, when absolutely necessary,
efficient and judicious use of pesticides.
Pesticides continue to be attractive to most farmers and governments because they are
simple to use, compared to the IPM methods, and returns on investments are not only good,
but are predictable. A switch to IPM must be preceded by careful planning, and intensive
education and training at the farm level, along with continuing research. In addition,
promoting IPM will definitely require adjusting those subsidies and policies that encourage
extensive pesticide use; otherwise farmers may not be able to resist the temptation of going
back to their old ways.

7. Acknowlegements
The readiness of the staff of CODAPEC, Research and HI-TECH Divisions of COCOBOD,
Accra, and the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana at Tafo, to assist during the data collection
stage was commendable and is hereby acknowledged.

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(CODAPEC): Achievements and Challenges myjoyonline - Myjoyonline.com
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Aryeetey, E. (2007) (Ed). State of the Ghanaian Economy, 2007; Report of the Institute of
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Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

Edited by Dr. Margarita Stoytcheva

ISBN 978-953-307-458-0
Hard cover, 560 pages
Publisher InTech

Published online 03, October, 2011

Published in print edition October, 2011

This book is a compilation of 29 chapters focused on: pesticides and food production, environmental effects of
pesticides, and pesticides mobility, transport and fate. The first book section addresses the benefits of the pest
control for crop protection and food supply increasing, and the associated risks of food contamination. The
second book section is dedicated to the effects of pesticides on the non-target organisms and the environment
such as: effects involving pollinators, effects on nutrient cycling in ecosystems, effects on soil erosion, structure
and fertility, effects on water quality, and pesticides resistance development. The third book section furnishes
numerous data contributing to the better understanding of the pesticides mobility, transport and fate. The
addressed in this book issues should attract the public concern to support rational decisions to pesticides use.

How to reference

In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
George Afrane and Augustine Ntiamoah (2011). Use of Pesticides in the Cocoa Industry and Their Impact on
the Environment and the Food Chain, Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits, Dr. Margarita
Stoytcheva (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-458-0, InTech, Available from:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/pesticides-in-the-modern-world-risks-and-benefits/use-of-pesticides-in-thecocoa-industry-and-their-impact-on-the-environment-and-the-food-chain

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