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Objectives:
1. To understand the physical principles behind the
operation of spontaneous gamma-ray logging tools,
2. To learn how to interpret gamma-ray logs in terms
of clastic lithology, shale content, grain size, and
some other petrophysical properties,
3. To conceptually understand when and when not
gamma-ray logs are indicative of shale/clay
concentration,
4. To introduce the concept of spectral gamma-ray
logs, and
5. To understand what environmental corrections are
customarily applied to gamma-ray logs.
IMPORTANT REMARKS:
1. Clay/shale can substantially affect petrophysical
properties of rocks such as porosity, irreducible
water saturation, capillary pressure, relative
permeability, absolute permeability, and
permeability anisotropy.
2. It is necessary to diagnose the specific
distribution of clay/shale in the pore space, the
type of clay, and the volumetric concentration of
clay/shale in order to quantify the petrophysical
properties of rock formations.
3. Presence of clay/shale affects practically ALL
well-log measurements.
4. Presence of clay/shale can cause electrical,
permeability, and elastic anisotropic behavior.
Examples of Turbidites:
Bouma Sequences
Geological/Depositional Model
Geological/Depositional Model
FACTS:
1. Clays are naturally radioactive (they
spontaneously release gamma rays).
2. Most clays contain Th, U, and K. Clay/shale
concentration increases with [Th, U, K]
concentration.
3. In siliciclastic rocks, grain size often correlates
with presence of clay/shale.
4. Warning I: there are some rocks which have no
clay/shale but do exhibit abnormal
concentrations of [Th, U, and/or K].
5. Warning II: Drilling mud can contain K.
GAMMA RADIATION
QUESTION:
What is a clay?
Example of Clay-Coated Sand Grains
What is a clay?
Example: Chlorite
What is a clay?
Example: Pore-Filling Kaolinite
What is a clay?
Example: Pore-Bridging Illite
Smectite
Kaolinite
Chlorite
Illite
Glauconite
Examples of Turbidites:
Bouma Sequences
Warning!
Dolostone Bed
Cycle Top
nic c
Bento
Li m es
g
E lon
ate
lays
tone
u
nod
t
r
e
d ch
les
cat
(sili
es)
Calibration of
Gamma Ray
Detectors
SCINTILLATION COUNTERS
Logging Tools
RESISTIVITY
LATEROLOG
40 cm
NEUTRON
RADIOACTIVITY
GAMMA RAY
DENSITY
ACOUSTIC
SONIC
MICRO RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY
MICROLOG
DIPMETER
250 cm
200
150
100
80 cm
50
30 cm
20 cm
RESOLUTION
80 cm
INDUCTION LOG
60 cm
5 cm
2 cm
0 cm
0 cm
DEPTH OF INVESTIGATION
TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS
INTEGRAL GAMMA-RAY
MEASUREMENT
Bed-Boundary Effects
ROCK
SOLIDS
LIQUIDS AND GASES
Shale
Solid Component of the Rock
Volume of Shale =
Volume of Shale
Total Rock Volume
Definitions
Shale can be dispersed, laminated or
structural
Shale structure is not critical in
computing hydrocarbons-in-place. It is
important in determining producibility.
Shale structure can only be determined
from core or with image logs, like the
FMI.
Laminated Shale
2 feet
Shale laminae
occupy both pore
space and grain
space
e = ss - VshL ss
These laminae are at
the density resolution
limit. (sand grains not
to scale)
Dispersed Shale
2 mm
Dispersed shale
occupies only pore
space
e = ss - VshD
ss or PHIMAX is
the maximum
clean sandstone
Structural Shale
2 mm
Structural shale
occupies grain space
e = ss
EXAMPLE
40
35
Porosity (%)
30
25
STRUCTURAL
LAMINATED
DISPERSED
20
15
10
5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Csh (%)
70
80
90
THOMAS-STIEBER PLOT
100
90
180
270
min
max
Shale Baseline
EXAMPLE
M-10
M-Series Sands
M-20
M-30
where
M-40
M-50
M-60
I GR =
GR GRclean
GRsh GRclean
MINERAL IDENTIFICATION
Acknowledgements:
Baker Atlas
Schlumberger