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Research Methods in
Psychology
Outline
1. Introduction
2. What is research?
3. Quick Fun Survey
4. Research process
5. Research methods
6. Bias in research
7. Ethical issues
2
Reading
Research methods in psychology
(Gerrig et al. 2008, Ch. 2)
What is research?
disciplined
inquiry
4
What is research?
Search
Re
5
What is research?
Research is
formalised curiosity.
It is poking and prying
with a purpose.
- Zora Neale Hurston
6
What is
psychological research?
Research is a a systematic
attempt to understand the
world.
Psychological research is a
systematic attempt to
understand human experiences
of themselves and the world.
What is
psychological research?
Systematic development &
testing of theory about human
behaviour and mental events
Disciplined enquiry into
human thinking, feeling, and
behaviour.
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Research is a language
Learn key terms / concepts
UG study, especially 1st year, is
about acquiring the language skills
to access and make sense of
recorded research knowledge
Psychological research
...holds out the promise of
discovering the architecture of
our psyche and understanding
our behaviour in the world
around us.
10
Psychological research is
a recent phenomenon
Western, scientific, psychological
research only has about a 60-100
year history.
Much still to be discovered prospects for considerable growth
& opportunity.
e.g., due to technology, new research
techniques and directions are becoming
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available.
Process of research
Observations, beliefs, information,
and general knowledge lead to a
new idea or a different way of
thinking about some phenomenon
Theory: An organised set of
concepts that explains a
phenomenon or set of phenomena.
Use theory to formulate research
questions.
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Process of research
Develop a hypothesis or
hypotheses
A tentative and testable
explanation(s) of the relationship
between two (or more) events or
variables
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Research questions
Expressing topics of interest as
research questions is a key first step,
e.g.,
My first
study
What changes in
stress, anxiety,
crisis and flow
occur for novice
abseilers?
Student research
opportunities
Research participation
Research seminars
Research news e.g., via
Journal alerts
Google Alerts
Research journals
Hard copies
Electronic copies
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Scientific method
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Research is a way of
thinking
Researchers need to acknowledge
& understand the limits of intuition
& common sense
Philosophy of science
The scientific attitude
The scientific method
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Science is based on
Knowledge of facts
Developing theories
Testing hypotheses
Public and repeatable procedures
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Critical thinking
Critical thinking does not blindly
accept arguments and conclusions:
Examines assumptions
Discerns hidden values
Evaluates evidence
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Scientific method
Set of procedures used for
gathering and interpreting
objective information in a way that
minimises error and yields
dependable generalisations.
Its goal is to draw conclusions with
maximum objectivity.
Conclusions are objective when they
are not influenced by emotions or
personal biases.
28
Concept of determinism
Theory-testing is the
main function of research
Observations lead to theory
Theory = a specific set of assumptions
and principles about a phenomenon.
Derive testable hypotheses
(or guesses / predictions)
30
Hypothesis
People with low self-esteem score higher on a
depression scale
31
Operationalisation
Refers to how a fuzzy psychological
construct is actually measured
e.g., the concept of intelligence has
been operationalised through a variety
of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests
32
Research variables
Variables are factors which can be
controlled and/or measured in
research
Two types:
Independent Variable (IV)
(or predictors)
Dependent Variable (DV)
(or outcomes)
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Independent vs.
dependent variables
Independent
Variable(s)
Dependent
Variable(s)
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Independent vs.
dependent variables
Independent Variable
the factor that is controlled and manipulated
by the researcher
the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable
the factor that may change in response to
manipulations of the independent variable
in psychology it is usually a behaviour or
mental process
35
Results:
Graffiti condition:
27% took the $
No graffiti condition: 13% took the $
36
Observer bias
Distortion of evidence because
of the personal motives and
expectations of the viewer
Counter by:
Standardisation: A set of uniform procedures
for treating each participant
38
Psychological
research methods
39
Psychological research
methods
1. Experimental
randomised sampling
2. Quasi-experimental
natural sampling
3. Non-experimental
cross-sectional sampling
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Confounding variable
A variable other than what the
experimenter purposely introduced
that affects a participants
behaviour
e.g., Hawthorne effect
Expectancy effect
Results that occur when a
researcher or observer subtly
communicates to the participants
the kind of behaviour he or she
expects, therefore, creating the
expected reaction and/or outcome
e.g., encouraging some kinds of
responses in interviews
44
Placebo effect
Occurs when the
experimental
participants change
their behaviour in
the absence of any
kind of
experimental
manipulation.
45
Control procedures
Consistent procedures for giving
instructions, responses, and holding
all other variables constant except
those being systematically varied
Placebo control
Double-blind control
Between-subjects designs
Within-subjects designs
46
Placebo control
The inclusion of an experimental
condition in which the treatment is
not administered
e.g., real pills vs. placebo pills
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Double-blind control
Experimental procedure in which
both the experimenter and the
subject are unaware as to who
received the treatment
Seen as the strongest way of
controlling for experimenter and
expectancy biases
48
Within-subjects Design
Each participant is his or her own
control
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Ways of gathering
psychological
data
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Qualitative research
Subjective - individuals
interpretation of events is important
e.g.,
Historical accounts
Participant observation
In-depth interviews
52
Quantitative research
Objective seeks precise
measurement & analysis of target
concepts e.g.,
Psychological tests
Questionnaires
Physiological measures
53
Mixed methods
Involves a combination of
qualitative and quantitative
research methods.
54
Research methods
Archival
Observations
Behavioural
Self-report
surveys
Physiological
Experiential
sampling
e.g., with palm pilots
Archival records
Mail
Interviews
Online
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Archival data
Information taken from existing
records
Examples include birth and death
records, weather reports, voting
patterns, and attendance figures
56
Observational research
Researchers directly observe and
record behaviour:
Naturalistic observation researcher records behavior as it
occurs naturally
Tests - researcher presents
stimuli or problems and records
responses
57
Naturalistic observation
Naturally occurring
behaviour is viewed
and recorded without
attempting to
manipulate or
interfere the situation.
Field-rich data, time
consuming, difficult to
generalise.
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Behavioural measures
Overt actions and reactions that
are observed and recorded
Direct observations
The behaviour is clearly visible
and is easily recorded
Can be aided by technology
59
Self-report research
Behaviour identified through a
participants own observations and
reports
People rate or describe their
behaviour, opinion, or mental state
e.g., via:
Questionnaires
Rating scales e.g.,
from 1 to 7 rate your opinion of 60
Correlational methods
Determines extent to which two
variables are related
Correlational Coefficient (r)
Indicates the degree of relationship
between two variables
Values of:
- 1.0 = perfect negative correlation
0.0 = no correlation
+1.0 = perfect positive correlation
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Correlational methods
Laboratory research
Purpose-designed research
setting
Provides uniform conditions for all
participants
Permits elimination of irrelevant
factors
May seem artificial
65
Case study
Intensive
observation of a
particular individual
or a small group.
Aims to reveal things
true of all.
Rich data, time
consuming, difficult
to generalise.
Is language
uniquely
human?
66
Phineas Gage
Iron rod through
head (frontal lobes)
Affected personality
and behaviour
Suggested function
localisation
67
Survey research
Commonly used
Ascertains self-reported
attitudes or behaviors of
people
Ideally question a
representative, random
sample of people
68
Experiential sampling
Replication
Reconducting a previous study to
see whether its findings are
repeatable (reliable).
Nothing is generally proven until
at least several studies have been
conducted showing similar results.
Usually replicate with different
participants, in different situations,
in different cultures.
70
Sampling
Sampling
Sampling
Sample:
Subset of a population selected as
participants in an experiment
Representation Sample:
A subset of the population being
studied
Population:
Entire set of individuals to which
generalisations will be made based
on an experimental sample
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Ethical issues in
psychological research
Right to privacy
Informed consent
use of deception
Animal rights
Is there justification for discomfort
or harm a research procedure may
produce?
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Informed consent
Research participants are asked to
sign statements indicating they
have been informed as to the
potential risks and benefits of the
study and consent to participate.
76
Risk/gain assessment
Risks to the participants must be
minimised, especially in studies of
more personal aspects of
behaviour.
And there must be likely gains
which outweigh the risks/costs.
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Intentional deception
For some research it is not possible
to tell participants the intention of
the study without biasing the results
Australian Psychological Society
(2007) Code of Ethics has explicit
guidelines
National Health and Medical Research
Council (NH-MRC) has further
restrictions
78
Debriefing
At the end of all studies each
participant must be provided with
as much information about the
study as possible in ageappropriate style.
79
Summary
Research is formalised curiousity
Discover your research passions &
follow them
Develop research questions,
theory, and hypotheses then test
scientifically.
Maintain objectivity
Failed research can often tells us
as much as successful research. 80
Summary
IVs = predictors; DVs = outcomes
Biases: observer, participants; use
standardisation and controls
Ways of gathering data:
Quantitative, qualitative, mixed
Research methods: Archival, Lab
research, Survey, Observation,
Case study
Ethics: Consent, privacy, risk etc.
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References
Gerrig, R. J., Zimbardo, P. G., Campbell, A.
J., Cumming, S. R., & Wilkes, F. J. (2008).
Psychology and life (Australian edition.).
Sydney: Pearson.
Myers, D. G. (2007). Thinking critically with
psychological science (Ch1). In Psychology
th
(8 ed.). New York: Worth.
University of Gronigen.
People surrounded by grafitti more likely to s
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teal