Nuclear energy policy

Eight German nuclear power reactors (Biblis A and B, Brunsbuettel, Isar 1, Kruemmel,
Neckarwestheim 1, Philippsburg 1 and Unterweser) were permanently shutdown on 6
August 2011, following the JapaneseFukushima nuclear disaster.[1]
Nuclear energy policy is a national and international policy concerning some or all aspects
of nuclear energy, such as mining for nuclear fuel, extraction and processing of nuclear fuel from
the ore, generating electricity by nuclear power, enriching and storing spent nuclear
fuel and nuclear fuel reprocessing.
Nuclear energy policies often include the regulation of energy use and standards relating to
the nuclear fuel cycle. Other measures include efficiency standards, safety regulations, emission
standards, fiscal policies, and legislation on energy trading, transport of nuclear
waste and contaminated materials, and their storage. Governments might subsidize nuclear
energy and arrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export
of nuclear technology, electricity, nuclear waste, and uranium.
Since about 2001 the term nuclear renaissance has been used to refer to a possible nuclear
power industry revival, but nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since
1999.[2][3]
Following the March 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel,
Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, and the Philippines are reviewing their nuclear power
programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. [4][5][6][7] Thirty-one
countries operate nuclear power stations, and there are a considerable number of new reactors
being built in China, South Korea, India, and Russia. [8] As of June 2011, countries such
as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Latvia,
Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Israel, Malaysia, and Norway have no nuclear power
stations and remain opposed to nuclear power.[9][10]
Since nuclear energy and nuclear weapons technologies are closely related, military aspirations
can act as a factor in energy policy decisions. The fear of nuclear proliferation influences some
international nuclear energy policies.

Contents
[hide]
1

1 The global picture

2 Policy issues
o

2.1 Nuclear concerns

2.2 Energy security

2.3 Nuclear energy history and trends

2.4 Reactions to Fukushima

3 Policies by territory

4 See also

5 References

6 Further reading

7 External links

The global picture[edit]

The number of nuclear power plant constructions started each year, from 1954 to 2013.
Note the increase in new constructions from 2007 to 2010, before a decline following the
2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.
See also: Nuclear power by country
After 1986's Chernobyl disaster, public fear of nuclear power led to a virtual halt in reactor
construction, and several countries decided to phase out nuclear power altogether.
[11]
However, increasing energy demand was believed to require new sources of electric power,
and rising fossil fuel prices coupled with concerns about greenhouse gas emissions (see Climate
change mitigation) have sparked heightened interest in nuclear power and predictions of
a nuclear renaissance.
In 2004, the largest producer of nuclear energy was the United States with 28% of worldwide
capacity, followed by France (18%) and Japan (12%).[12] In 2007, 31 countries operated nuclear
power plants.[13] In September 2008 the IAEA projected nuclear power to remain at a 12.4% to
14.4% share of the world's electricity production through 2030. [14]

In 2013, almost two years after Fukushima, according to the IAEA there are 390 operating
nuclear generating units throughout the world, more than 10% less than before Fukushima, and
exactly the same as in Chernobyl-year 1986.[15] Asia is expected to be the primary growth market
for nuclear energy in the foreseeable future, despite continued uncertainty in the energy outlooks
for Japan, South Korea, and others in the region. As of 2014, 63% of all reactors under
construction globally are in Asia.[16]

Policy issues[edit]
See also: Energy policy

Nuclear concerns[edit]
Main article: Nuclear power debate
Nuclear accidents and radioactive waste disposal are major concerns.[17] Other concerns
include nuclear proliferation, the high cost of nuclear power plants, and nuclear terrorism.[17]

Energy security[edit]
For some countries, nuclear power affords energy independence. In the words of the French,
"We have no coal, we have no oil, we have no gas, we have no choice."[18] Japansimilarly
lacking in indigenous natural resources for power supplyrelied on nuclear power for 1/3 of its
energy mix prior to the Fukushima nuclear disaster; since March 2011, Japan has sought to
offset the loss of nuclear power with increased reliance on imported liquefied natural gas, which
has led to the country's first trade deficits in decades.[19]Therefore, the discussion of a future for
nuclear energy is intertwined with a discussion of energy security and the use of energy mix,
including renewable energy development.[citation needed]
Nuclear power has been relatively unaffected by embargoes, and uranium is mined in "reliable"
countries, including Australia and Canada.[18][20]

Nuclear energy history and trends[edit]

Olkiluoto 3 under construction in 2009. It is the first EPR design, but problems with
workmanship and supervision have created costly delays which led to an inquiry by the
Finnish nuclear regulator STUK.[21] In December 2012, Areva estimated that the full cost
of building the reactor will be about 8.5 billion, or almost three times the original
delivery price of 3 billion.[22][23][24]
Proponents have long made inflated projections of the expected growth of nuclear power, but
major accidents and high costs have kept growth much lower. In 1973 and 1974,
the International Atomic Energy Agencypredicted a worldwide installed nuclear capacity of 3,600
to 5,000 gigawatts by 2000. The IAEA's 1980 projection was for 740 to 1,075 gigawatts of
installed capacity by the year 2000. Even after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, the Nuclear Energy
Agency forecasted an installed nuclear capacity of 497 to 646 gigawatts for the year 2000. The
actual capacity in 2000 was 356 gigawatts. Moreover, construction costs have often been much
higher, and times much longer than projected, failing to meet optimistic projections of unlimited
cheap, clean, and safe electricity.[25]
Since about 2001 the term nuclear renaissance has been used to refer to a possible nuclear
power industry revival, driven by rising fossil fuel prices and new concerns about
meeting greenhouse gas emission limits.[3]However, nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at

its lowest level since 1999,[2] and new reactors under construction in Finland and France, which
were meant to lead a nuclear renaissance,[26] have been delayed and are running over-budget. [26]
[27][28]
China has 32 new reactors under construction,[29] and there are also a considerable number
of new reactors being built in South Korea, India, and Russia. At the same time, at least 100
older and smaller reactors will "most probably be closed over the next 10-15 years". [8] So the
expanding nuclear programs in Asia are balanced by retirements of aging plants and
nuclear reactor phase-outs.[30]
In March 2011 the nuclear emergencies at Japan's Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and
shutdowns at other nuclear facilities raised questions among some commentators over the future
of the renaissance.[31][32][33][34][35]Platts has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear
plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing
reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world". [36] In
2011 Siemens exited the nuclear power sector following the Fukushima disaster and subsequent
changes to German energy policy, and supported the German government's plannedenergy
transition to renewable energy technologies.[37] China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia,
Thailand, United Kingdom, Italy[38] and the Philippines have reviewed their nuclear power
programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. [4][5][6][7] Countries such
as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal, Isr
ael, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway remain opposed to nuclear power. Following
the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of
additional nuclear generating capacity built by 2035. [39]
The World Nuclear Association has reported that nuclear power generation suffered its biggest
ever one-year fall through 2012 as the bulk of the Japanese fleet remained offline for a full
calendar year. Data from the International Atomic Energy Agency showed that nuclear power
plants globally produced 2346 TWh of electricity in 2012 seven per cent less than in 2011. The
figures illustrate the effects of a full year of 48 Japanese power reactors producing no power
during the year. The permanent closure of eight reactor units in Germany was also a factor.
Problems at Crystal River, Fort Calhoun and the two San Onofre units in the USA meant they
produced no power for the full year, while in Belgium Doel 3 and Tihange 2 were out of action for
six months. Compared to 2010, the nuclear industry produced 11% less electricity in 2012. [2]

Reactions to Fukushima[edit]
Following the Fukushima nuclear disaster, Germany has permanently shut down eight of its
reactors and pledged to close the rest by 2022. [40] The Italians have voted overwhelmingly to
keep their country non-nuclear.[41] Switzerland and Spain have banned the construction of new
reactors.[42] Japans prime minister has called for a dramatic reduction in Japans reliance on
nuclear power.[43] Taiwans president did the same. Mexico has sidelined construction of 10
reactors in favor of developing natural-gas-fired plants.[44]Belgium is considering phasing out its
nuclear plants, perhaps as early as 2015.[42]
Chinanuclear powers largest prospective marketsuspended approvals of new reactor
construction while conducting a lengthy nuclear-safety review.[35][45] Neighboring India, another
potential nuclear boom market, has encountered effective local opposition, growing national
wariness about foreign nuclear reactors, and a nuclear liability controversy that threatens to
prevent new reactor imports. There have been mass protests against the French-backed 9900
MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the 2000 MW Koodankulam Nuclear
Power Plant in Tamil Nadu. The state government of West Bengal state has also refused
permission to a proposed 6000 MW facility near the town of Haripur that intended to host six
Russian reactors.[46]
There is little support across the world for building new nuclear reactors, a 2011 poll for the BBC
indicates. The global research agency GlobeScan, commissioned by BBC News, polled 23,231
people in 23 countries from July to September 2011, several months after the Fukushima nuclear
disaster. In countries with existing nuclear programmes, people are significantly more opposed
than they were in 2005, with only the UK and US bucking the trend. Most believe that boosting
energy efficiency and renewable energy can meet their needs.[47]

Just 22% agreed that "nuclear power is relatively safe and an important source of electricity, and
we should build more nuclear power plants". In contrast, 71% thought their country "could almost
entirely replace coal and nuclear energy within 20 years by becoming highly energy-efficient and
focusing on generating energy from the Sun and wind". Globally, 39% want to continue using
existing reactors without building new ones, while 30% would like to shut everything down now.[47]

Policies by territory[edit]
Main articles: Nuclear energy policy by country and Nuclear power by country
See also: List of nuclear reactors
Following the March 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel,
Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, and the Philippines are reviewing their nuclear power
programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. [4][5][6][7] Countries such
as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, Portugal, New Zealand, and
Norway remain opposed to nuclear power.[48]