ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.

Loyka

Digital Communication Systems

Review of ELG3175:

Fourier Transform/Series
Spectra
Modulation/demodulation, baseband/bandpass signals
Digital signaling
Intersymbol interference (ISI)

Use your notes/textbook and the Appendix.

Generic modulation formats:
AM, PM and FM
properties

Why digital?
better spectral efficiency
better noise immunity (quality)
allows DSP (not expensive)

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Block diagram of a digital communication system

(Tx)

(Rx)
P.M. Shankar, Introduction to Wireless Systems, Wiley, 2002.

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Digital Communications
Digital source: select a message m from a set of possible
messages {m1 , m2 .........mN } (alphabet).
Digital modulator: each message mi is represented via a
corresponding (time-limited) symbol si (t ) , 0 t Ts .

mi si (t ) , 0 t T

(7.1)

Transmitted sequence:

x (t ) = i si (t iT ) ,

(7.2)

Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM): si (t ) = ai p (t ) ,

x (t ) = i ai p (t iT )

(7.3)

i.e. each message is encoded by amplitude ai : mi ai .

Baseband system: each si (t ) or p (t ) is a baseband pulse.
Bandpass (RF) system: pulses are bandpass (or RF).

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Baseband Digital Signaling

Also known as line coding: each si (t ) or p (t ) is a baseband
pulse.
Examples:
Binary data representation: 0 or 1.
Unipolar modulation: high level (e.g., 5V) / zero, or 1/0
Bipolar modulation: +high level / -high level, or +1/-1

R=

1
= bit (data) rate [bit/s]
Tb

x(t ) = i ai p (t iT )

L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 2001.

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Spectral Characteristics
Spectrum is a very limited resource in wireless communications.
Wireless systems are band-limited.
How to select p (t ) ?

Rectangular pulse,
Sinc pulse,
Raised cosine pulse,
Others.

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Example: Rectangular Pulse

signal

1, t < T / 2
x ( t ) = (t ) =
0, t > T / 2
Sx ( f ) =

Sx ( f ) = T

x (t ) e

j 2 ft

sin fT
= Tsinc( fT )
fT

dt

T
2

T
2

Sx ( f )

spectrum

f = ?

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1
T

1
T

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L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 2001.

A2T
A2
2
P( f ) =
sinc ( fT ) +
( f )
2
2

R=

1
T

P ( f ) = A2T sinc 2 ( fT )
f = ?

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Digital Signaling over Bandlimited Channels: Pulse Shaping and ISI

Practical channels are band-limited -> pulses spread in time and are smeared into adjacent
slots. This is intersymbol interference (ISI).

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Transmission over a Band-Limited Channel

baseband transmission system

Input PAM signal:

x (t ) = n an sT (t nT )

(7.4)

y (t ) = n an sR (t nT ),

(7.5)

Output signal:

where sR (t ) = sT (t ) * hT (t ) * hC (t ) * hR (t ) = sT (t ) * h(t ) is
the Rx symbol.
Sampled (at t=mT ) output ym = y ( mT ) :

ym = n an sm n = am s0 + n m an sm n ,

(7.6)

where T = symbol interval, sm = sR ( mT ) .

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Pulse Shaping to Eliminate ISI

Nyquist (1928) discovered 3 methods to eliminate ISI:
zero ISI pulse shaping,
controlled ISI (eliminated later on by, say, coding),
zero average ISI (negative and positive areas under the
pulse in an adjacent interval are equal).
Zero ISI pulse shaping:

s0 , n = 0
s ( nT ) =

0,
n

ym = am s0 + n m an sm n ym = am s0

(7.7)

Pulse shapes:
- rectangular pulse
- sinc pulse
- raised cosine pulse
Example: sinc pulse,

s(t ) = sinc( Rt ) s(nT ) = sinc(n) = 0, n 0

where R=1/T = transmission (symbol) rate [symbols/s].

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Zero ISI: sinc Pulse

sinc(t) pulse

0.9
0.6
0.3
0
0.3

s(t ) = sinc( Rt ) s(nT ) = sinc(n) = 0, n 0 ,

R = 1/ T = transmission rate [symbols/s].

Sinc pulse allows to eliminate ISI at sampling instants.
However, it has some (2) serious drawbacks.

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Nyquist Criterion for Zero ISI

Provides a generic solution to the zero ISI problem.
A necessary and sufficient condition for zero ISI:

S
f
+
s T = T
m =

(7.8)

W = Fmax

Consider a channel badndlimited to [0,Fmax]. There are 3

possible cases:
1) 1/ T = R > 2 Fmax

no way to eliminate ISI.

2) R = 2 Fmax
only sinc( Rt ) eliminates ISI. The highest
possible transmission rate f0 for transmission with zero ISI is
2Fmax , not Fmax (what a surprise!)
3) R < 2 Fmax

Lecture 6

many signals may eliminate ISI in this case.

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The Raised Cosine Pulse

When R < 2 Fmax , raised cosine pulse is widely used.
Its spectrum is

,
0
T

T
1 1
1+
T
S rc ( f ) = 1 + cos
f

R
,
R

2
2
2

1+
0,
f
R
>

2
(7.9)
where 0 1 is roll-off factor,
The bandwidth above the Nyquist frequency f0/2 is called excess
bandwidth.
Time-domain waveform (shape) of the pulse is

s ( t ) = sinc ( t / T )

Lecture 6

cos ( t / T )
1 4 t / T

18-Sep-13

2 2

(7.10)

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Raised Cosine Spectrum

Time-Domain pulse
1

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

f /f0

alfa=1
alfa=0.5
alfa=0

alfa=1
alfa=0.5
alfa=0

t/T

Note that: (1) = 0 , pulse reduces to sinc ( Rt ) and R = f 0 = 2 Fmax

(2) = 1, symbol rate R = Fmax
(3) tails decay as t3 -> mistiming is not a big problem
(4) smooth shape of the spectrum -> easy to design filter

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Bandpass (RF) Digital Signaling

How to transform the baseband signal to the RF frequencies (for
efficient wireless transmission)?
Most popular approach: combine the baseband signaling with the
DSB-SC modulation:
x (t ) = s (t ) Ac cos(ct )

(7.11)

i.e. multiply the digitally-modulated message (baseband)

s (t ) = i ai p (t iT ) with the carrier Ac cos(ct ) .
Compare to the analog DSB-SC:
x (t ) = m(t ) Ac cos(ct )

(7.12)

where m(t ) is the message: (7.11) = (7.12) when m(t ) = s (t ) , i.e.

s (t ) serves as an analog message to DSB-SC.
Spectrum of the modulated bandpass signal:

Sx ( f ) =

Ac
Sm ( f f c ) + Sm ( f + f c )
2

Sm ( f )

(7.13)

Sx ( f )
Sm

Sm

f
0

Lecture 6

fc

fc

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fc

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Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Assume rectangular pulse shape and random binary message:

s (t ) = i ai p (t iT ) , ai = 1, p (t ) = (t )

(7.14)

Then, the PSD of the modulated signal x (t ) = s (t ) Ac cos(ct ) is

Ac2T
PBPSK ( f ) =
sinc 2 (( f f c )T )
2

(7.15)

Bandwidth f = ?
RF vs. baseband badwidth?

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Digital DSB-SC Transmitter

source

{m i } baseband

s (t )

modulator

x (t )

BPF

Ac cos(2 f c t )

carrier

Digital baseband modulation: mi ai , s (t ) = i ai p (t iT )

Baseband (digitally-modulated) signal: s (t )
Bandpass (RF) modulated signal: x (t ) = s (t ) Ac cos(ct )
BPF: eliminates out-of-band emission
* Demodulation (detection) ?

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Summary

Review of digital communications.

Baseband digital modulation (line coding).
Band-limited systems and intersymbol interference.
Bandpass (RF) modulation.
Spectra.
Modulators/demodulators (detectors), block diagrams.
Review of FT & modulation from ELG3175.

Reading:
Rappaport, Ch. 6 (6.1-6.10).
L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems,
7th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2007. (other editions are OK as well)
Other books (see the reference list).
Note: Do not forget to do end-of-chapter problems. Remember
the learning efficiency pyramid!

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Appendix 1:
Baseband/Bandpass Signals and Modulation
In what follows is a review of baseband/bandpass signals and
modulation (DSB-SC), corresponding modulators and detectors
as well as basic digital modulation techniques. This material was
covered in ELG3175 and you are advised to consult your notes
and the textbook of that course.
A good textbook to follow is this:
L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, 7th
Edition, Prentice Hall, 2007. (other editions are OK as well)

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Lecture 5

Baseband & Bandpass Signals

Baseband (lowpass) signal: spectrum is (possibly) nonzero
around the origin (f=0) and zero (negligible) elsewhere:

S x ( f ) = 0,

f > f max

Bandpass (narrowband) signal: spectrum is (possibly) nonzero

around the carrier frequency fc and zero (negligible) elsewhere:

S x ( f ) = 0,
Sx ( f )

f fc > B
Sx ( f )

fc

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Lecture 6

DSB-SC: General Case

DSB-SC signal: x ( t ) = Acm ( t ) cos ( 2f ct )
Spectrum: S x ( f ) =

Ac
Sm ( f f c ) + Sm ( f + f c )
2

What do you see on a spectrum analyzer?

Bandwidth ? Power efficiency? PSD?
Sm ( f )

Sx ( f )
Sm

Sm

f
0
Lecture 6

fc
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fc

fc
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Generation of DSB-SC

Lecture 6

Generation:
Mixer. Not practical in many cases.
Filtered conventional AM. Not practical.

Balanced modulator:

J.Proakis, M.Salehi, Communications Systems Engineering, Prentice Hall, 2002

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Demodulation of DSB-SC

Lecture 6

Demodulation - Costas loop:

Details: Couch,
Sec. 4.14, 5.4

= 0?
= / 2?
= ?

Why 2 channels?
L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 2001.

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Lecture 6

Demodulation of DSB-SC
Product detector + squaring carrier recovery loop:

+ BPF at fc
L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 2001.

+ BPF at 2fc

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Demodulation of DSB-SC
Using a pilot tone:

Lecture 6

modulation

demodulation

J.Proakis, M.Salehi, Communications Systems Engineering, Prentice Hall, 2002

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Lecture 9

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Switch on-off the carrier:

L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 2001.

Signal representation:
Is it similar to something?
Signal spectrum?

x ( t ) = Ac m ( t ) cos ( 2f ct )
binary ASK:

m ( t ) = 1 or 0

general case: a fixed number of levels

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Lecture 9

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Sx ( f ) =

Square-wave message: Sm ( f ) =

Ac
Sm ( f f c ) + Sm ( f + f c )
2
+

n =

cn ( f nf 0 ),

Random message PSD:

How to detect?

Lecture 6

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1
1
R
n j2n
cn = sinc e , f 0 =
=
2
2Tb 2
2

L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 2001.

Signal spectrum (FT):

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Lecture 9

Binary Phase Shift Keying

L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 2001.

BPSK signal representation: x ( t ) = Ac cos ( ct + m(t ) )

where m(t ) = 1 is bipolar message.
Another form of the BPSK signal -> x ( t ) = Ac cos cos ct
Ac sin m(t )sin ct
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Lecture 9

Binary Phase Shift Keying

Digital modulation index: d = 2

Important special case d = 1 (random message)

Compare with ASK!
How to detect?

PSD

L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 2001.

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Frequency Shift Keying

Lecture 9

Ac cos ( 1t + 1 ) , mark (1)

Discontinuous FSK: x ( t ) = A cos t + , space (0)
( 2 2)
c

L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 2001.

Not popular (spectral noise + PLL problems)

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Frequency Shift Keying

Lecture 9

Continuous FSK:

x ( t ) = Ac cos ct + m ( )d

L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 2001.

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Appendix 2:
Autocorrelation and Power/Energy Spectral
Density
This material was covered in ELG3175 and ELG3126. You are
advised to consult your notes and the textbook of that course.
A good textbook to follow is this:
L.W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, 7th
Edition, Prentice Hall, 2007. (other editions are OK as well)

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Lecture 3

Power and Energy

Power Px & energy Ex of signal x(t) are:

1
Px = lim
T 2T

x (t ) dt

Ex =

x (t ) dt

Energy-type signals: E x <

Power-type signals: 0 < Px <
Signal cannot be both energy & power type!
Signal energy: if x(t) is voltage or current, Ex is the
energy dissipated in 1 Ohm resistor
Signal power: if x(t) is voltage or current, Px is the power
dissipated in 1 Ohm resistor.

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Lecture 3

Energy-Type Signals (summary)

Signal energy in time & frequency domains:

Ex =

x (t ) dt =

1
2
S x ( f ) df =
2

S x ( ) d

Energy spectral density (energy per Hz of bandwidth):

Ex ( f ) = Sx ( f )

ESD is FT of autocorrelation function:

Rx ( ) =

Lecture 6

x ( t ) x ( t ) dt E x ( f )

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Rx ( 0 ) = E x

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Lecture 3

Power-Type Signals: PSD

Definition of the power spectral density (PSD) (power per
Hz of bandwidth):
Px ( f ) = lim

ST ( f )
T

Px =

P
x

( f ) df

<

where xT (t ) is the truncated signal (to [-T/2,T/2]),

t
xT (t ) = x(t )
T

x(t ), T / 2 t T / 2
= 0, otherwise

and ST ( f ) is its spectrum (FT),

ST ( f ) = FT { xT (t )}
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Lecture 3

Power-Type Signals
Time-average autocorrelation function:
1 T

x
t
x
(
)
( t ) dt

T 2T

Rx ( ) = lim

Power of the signal:

1
T 2T

Px = lim

x ( t ) dt = Rx ( 0 )
2

Wiener-Khintchine theorem :
Px =

P
x

Lecture 6

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( f ) df

Px ( f ) = FT {Rx ( )}

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Lecture 3

Periodic Signals
Power of a periodic signal:

+
1
2
2
Px = x (t ) dt = cn = Rx (0) x ( t ) = cn e jn0t
T T
n =
n =

Autocorrelation function:

1
2

Rx ( ) = x ( t ) x ( t ) dt = cn e jn0
T T
n =

Power spectral density (PSD):

Px ( f ) = FT {Rx ( )} =

Lecture 6

n
2
c

n T
n =

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Prove these
properties!

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