Rainwater Harvesting

A
PROJECT REPORT
PLANNING FOR RAIN WATER HARVESTING:

INDUSTRIAL AREA
SUBMITTED TO
S.T.B.S. COLLEGE OF DIPLOMA ENGINEERING
IN F U L F I L L M E N T FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE
OF
DIPLOMA OF ENGINEERING
IN
CIVIL
Submitted by
ENROLL. NO.
NAME
ENROLL. NO.
NAME
096470306001
096470306012
096470306013
096470306018
096470306020
096470306025
096470306026
096470306028
MANDANI JAYESH K.
VEKARIYA SANDIP R
PATEL VIVEK B.
BUTANI PAYAL B.
SUTARIYA ANKITA J.
RAMOLIYA SHAILESH V.
PATEL DIPEN J.
KAKADIYA GAURANG A.
096470306032
096470306034
096470306041
096470306044
096470306048
086470306013
086470306021
086470306110
SAVALIYA ABHISHEK V.
SHELADIYA PRATIK A.
KATHIRIYA HARSHAD R
DESAI HIRAK H.
PATEL KAUSHAL A.
BHINGRADIYA MILAN J.
CHAUHAN DARPIT K.
SUTARIYA PIYUSH H.
GUIDE
MRS. HEMAXI G. KHALASI
S.T.B.S. COLLEGE OF DIPLOMA ENGINEERING, SURAT
Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad

June, 2012
S.T.B.S. COLLEGE OF DIPLOMA ENGINEERING, SURAT

Civil Engineering Department
2012
CERTIFICATE
Date:
This is to certify that Mr. /Ms. _____________________________________ having
Enrolment No: _________________ has completed Part-II IDP Project work having title
PLANNING FOR RAINWATER HARVESTING: INDUSTRIAL AREA.
She/he has undergone the process of Shodh Yatra, Literature Survey and Problem
definition under the IDP Part-II during Semester-VI. She/he has also completed the IDP
Part-II work successfully during Semester-VI for the final fulfillment of the Diploma
Engineering.
Guide
(Hemaxi.G.Khalasi)
Head of the Department

(Mr. M. P. Jariwala)
External Examiner
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I consider it a privilege to be associated with the S.T.B.S. College of Diploma
Engineering, Surat in this academic endeavor. I express my heartfelt thanks to my Guide
Mrs. Hemaxi G. Khalasi, Lecturer in Civil Engineering Department; for his invaluable
guidance, continued interest throughout the project work and encouragement towards the
successful completion of this preliminary study.
I would also like to thank Mr. M.P.Jariwala, Lecturer and Head, Civil Engineering
Department, for providing valuable ideas and suggestions in my work. I am very much
Thankful to Prof. Y. S. Choupare, Principal of S.T.B.S. College of Diploma Engineering,
Surat for providing all the necessary facilities during my course.
I want to express my gratitude towards Mr. Chirag Wakawala, Engineer in Surat
Municipal Corporation and Surat Municipal Corporation (Hydraulic department) for
providing me necessary data required in my project work with valuable suggestions.
I am also very much Thankful to all the faculty members for their valuable
suggestions and comments during my dissertation work. I would like to express my
appreciation towards all those who gave me the possibility to complete this work. I would
also like to thank my friends and classmates for generous encouragement in my life.
Last but not least, I would thank to my almighty GOD for giving his blessing which
were always encouraging me during my tough time.
Place: STBS collage, Surat

MANDANI JAYESH K.
VEKARIYA SANDIP R
PATEL VIVEK B.
BUTANI PAYAL B.
SUTARIYA ANKITA J.
RAMOLIYA SHAILESH V.
PATEL DIPEN J.
KAKADIYA GAURANG A.
SAVALIYA ABHISHEK V.
SHELADIYA PRATIK A.
KATHIRIYA HARSHAD R
DESAI HIRAK H.
PATEL KAUSHAL A.
BHINGRADIYA MILAN J.
CHAUHAN DARPIT K.
SUTARIYA PIYUSH H.
ii
ABSTRACT
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has thus regained its importance as a valuable
alternative or supplementary water resource, along with more conventional water supply
technologies. The process of rainwater harvesting would encompass catching rainwater,
directing it to an appropriate location, filtering it if required and storing it for use. Storage
could be in tanks, sumps, ponds or lakes wherever appropriate and conditions permitting
recharge of ground water would also qualify as storage. A proper definition for this term to
understand its spirit would, in effect, necessarily have to take into consideration the
difference in catchments. While previously catchments were typically far off from the urban
area they served, now the city itself is seen as a catchment for its water requirement.
Rooftops, paved areas and unpaved areas and the entire city itself are, therefore, to be
managed as a water provision area. Four types of catchment areas have been considered
namely; roof, rainwater platforms, watershed management and hill slopes.
Main source of water for Surat is the river Tapi flowing through the city. Surface
water is drawn by intake wells from perennial channel of the river throughout the year. Water
thus drawn is treated by the water treatment plants and then the same is supplied to the
citizens and industries after postchlorination.Industrial demand is concentrated in specific
locations, heavy withdrawals are done from available water resources. Industries require
water for processing, cooling, boiler feed and other miscellaneous uses such as washing,
maintenance of yards and domestic requirement in townships.
Surat Municipal Corporation has also been making efforts to promote Rain Water
Harvesting at household level and have devised a scheme to encourage the implementer by
offering a certain percentage of subsidies. Further, as a part of city water management
projects, 91 recharge wells across the city have been implemented through an NGO. The
impact of these Rain Water Harvesting measures adopted by Surat Municipal Corporation
especially with reference to recharge well program unfortunately couldnt be ascertained in
absence of supporting date records.
Surat Municipal Corporation has not taken any plan regarding industrial area.
According to Suart land use pattern industrial area is second one having 17.7%. So by taking
this deficiency in mind in our project we are trying to meet the deficiency.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certificate
Acknowledgment
ii
Abstract
iii
Table of Contents
iv
List of Figures
viii
List of Tables
List of Charts
xi
Abbreviations
xii
References
1.0
2.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.2 Research Definition and Objectives
1.3 Need for rain water harvesting
1.4 Identifying Problem
1.5 Expected Outcome
1.6 Research Methodology
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General
2.2 Historical development of rainwater harvesting
2.3 From where we can harvest rainwater
10
2.3.1
Rooftops
10
2.3.2
Paved and unpaved areas
11
2.3.3
Water bodies
11
2.3.4
Storm water drains
11
iv
3.0
2.4 Rainwater harvesting in the developed world
11
2.5 Rainwater harvesting around the world- case studies
13
2.5.1
Bangalore
13
2.5.2
Indore, Madhya Pradesh, Central India
14
2.5.3
Aizawl (North-East India)
16
2.5.4
South East Asia, Japan
17
2.5.5
Brazil
19
RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM

3.1 General
20
3.2 Scale of operations
21
3.3 Elements of RWH System
21
3.3.1
Catchment Surface
23
3.3.2
Gutters and Downspouts/Conduits
24
3.3.3
Leaf Screens/Roof Washers
26
3.3.4
Storage Tanks/Cisterns
27
3.3.5
Conveying
30
3.4 Types and configurations of RWH systems
4.0
32
3.4.1
Indirectly pumped systems
33
3.4.2
Directly pumped systems
34
3.4.3
Gravity fed systems
35
STUDY AREA PROFILE

4.1 General
37
4.2 City profile
38
4.2.1
Locational importance
38
4.2.2
Evolution of Present Form
39
4.3 Demographic Features
40
4.4 Land use Pattern
41
4.5 Urban Economy and Industrial Growth
44
4.5.1
Textile Industries
44
4.5.2
Diamond Cutting and Polishing
45
v
4.5.3
Major Industrial Estates
4.6 Sources of Water Supply

Surface Water Sources
48
4.6.2
Ground Water Sources
50
51
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

5.1 General
52
5.2 Survey Method
52
5.2.1
Inventory Study
52
5.2.2
Field Survey
52
5.3 Study Parameters
53
5.3.1
Source of Water
53
5.3.2
Bore well
53
5.3.3
Storage Tank
53
5.3.4
Type of Roof & Roof Area
53
5.3.5
Types of Production
54
5.4 Questionnaires Design
6.0
48
4.6.1
4.7 South Zone: Study Area
5.0
47
54
5.4.1
Source of Water
54
5.4.2
Roof Type
55
5.4.3
Present Gain Water from SMC
55
5.4.4
Storage Tank
56
5.4.5
Present Capacity of Tank
57
5.4.6
Roof Area
57
5.4.7
Future Water Demand
58
RWH SYSTEM DESIGN

6.1 General
60
6.2 Main RWH Component
60
6.2.1
Catchment Area
60
6.2.2
Conveyance System
60
6.2.3
Storage Device
60
vi
6.2.4
Distribution System
6.3 The Catchment Area
61
6.4 The Conveyance System
63
6.4.1
Gutter
63
6.4.2
First Flush Device
64
6.4.3
Screens
66
6.4.4
Filter
67
6.5 The Storage Device
7.0
61
67
6.5.1
Sizing of The Storage Facility
68
6.5.2
Design of Tanks
70
6.5.3
Tank Inlet & Outlet Configuration
70
6.5.4
Tank Overflow Configuration
71
6.5.5
Artificial Recharge Well
72
CONCLUSION AND DESIGN SUMMARY

7.1 General
73
7.2 Design Summary
73
REFERENCES
ANNEXURE
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Sr.
Description
No.
Page
No.
2.1
Flowchart demonstrating fundamental Rainwater harvesting processes
08
2.2
Typical Rooftop rainwater Collection methods
10
2.3
Storm water drain pipe
11
2.4
Store rain water in pond
11
2.5
Elements of the Typical Water Harvesting System
15
2.6
Pile and Swales
16
2.7
Ferro cement and plastic tank
16
2.8
18
2.9
Rajison a simple and unique rainwater utilization facility at the

community level in Tokyo, Japan.
Tanks made of pre-cast concrete plates & wire mesh concrete
3.1
Chart for elements of rain water harvesting system
21
3.2
Common RWH system elements
22
3.3
Elements of typical water harvesting system
23
3.4
Provision of mesh filters at the mouth of the drain pipe
26
3.5
First flush device installation
27
3.6
Different types of Storage tank
28
3.7
Daily basic need of water requirement
29
3.8
Gravity based filter
31
3.9
Sand filters
32
3.10
Schematic of an indirectly pumped RWH system.
34
3.11
Schematic of a directly pumped RWH system
35
3.12
Schematic of a gravity fed RWH system
36
19
viii
4.1
Geographical Location for Surat City
38
4.2
Land use Patten in SUDA (2004)
42
6.1
Roof Catchment Areas
61
6.2
Typical PVC guttering and downpipe
63
6.3
Simple first-flush diverter
64
6.4
First-flush diverter
65
6.5
First-Flush systems using float-ball mechanism
65
6.6
Screens to exclude entry of insects and other potential contaminants
66
6.7
Rapid Sand Filter Bed
67
6.8
Design configurations for (a) tank inflow and (b) outflow
71
6.9
Design configurations for tank overflows
72
6.10
Artificial Recharge Well
72
ix
LIST OF TABLE
Sr.
Description
No.
Page
No.
1.1
Average rate of rainfall in mm per hour.
25
4.1
Area, population and growth Rate of Surat 1951 to 2006
40
4.2
Land use Breakup
42
4.3
Estimated jobs in textile industry
45
4.4
Industrial Estates in Surat District
47
4.5
Average yield and installed capacity (2009)
49
4.6
Water Supply- Quantity (2009)
49
4.7
Water Supply- Indicators
49
5.1
Source of water
54
5.2
Type of roof
55
5.3
Present Water Demand
55
5.4
Type of Storage Tank
56
5.5
Capacity of Tank
57
5.6
Roof Area
58
5.7
Future Water Demand
58
6.1
Runoff Coefficients for various catchment types
62
6.2
Sizing gutters and down-pipes for RWH systems
64
LIST OF CHARTS
Sr.
Description
No.
Page
No.
4.1
Category Wise Land use Distribution in the SMC Zones (%)
43
4.2
Growth of the Diamond industry in Surat, 1950-2007
46
4.3
Daily average water supply in SMC
48
5.1
Source of Water
54
5.2
Type of roof
55
5.3
Present Water Demand
56
5.4
Type of Storage Tank
56
5.5
Capacity of Tank
57
5.6
Roof Area
58
5.7
Future Water Demand
59
xi
ABBRAVATIONS AND SYMBOLS

CGI- Corrugated Galvanized Iron
GDP Gross Developed Product
GI - Galvanized Iron
GWT - Ground Water Table
IMC- Indore Municipal Corporation
Lpcd Liter per Capita per Day
MLD - Million Liters per Day
NE India- North East India
NGO - Non Government Organization
NREGA - National Rural Employment Guarantee
PVC- Poly Vinyl Chloride
RCC- Reinforced Cement Concrete
RWH- Rainwater harvesting
SMC - Surat Municipal Corporation
sq.km Square Kilometer
SSI - Small Scale Industries
STEM - Symbiosis of Technology, Environment and Management
SUDA Surat Urban Development Authority
UK - United Kingdom
USA - United State of America
UV - Ultra Violet
WC Water Closet
WHO World Health Organization
xii
CHAPTER: 1
1.1.
INTRODUCTION
General
Millions of people throughout the world do not have access to clean water for
domestic purposes. In many parts of the world conventional piped water is either
absent, unreliable or too expensive. One of the biggest challenges of the 21st century
is to overcome the growing water shortage.
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has thus regained its importance as a valuable
alternative or supplementary water resource, along with more conventional water
supply technologies. Much actual or potential water shortages can be relieved if
rainwater harvesting is practiced more widely.
People collect and store rainwater in buckets, tanks, ponds and wells. This is
commonly referred to as rainwater harvesting and has been practiced for centuries.
Rainwater can be used for multiple purposes ranging from irrigating crops to washing,
cooking and drinking.
Rainwater harvesting is a simple low-cost technique that requires minimum
specific expertise or knowledge and offers many benefits. Collected rainwater can
supplement other water sources when they become scarce or are of low quality like
brackish groundwater or polluted surface water in the rainy season. It also provides a
good alternative and replacement in times of drought or when the water table drops
and wells go dry. One should, however, realize that rainfall itself cannot be managed.
Particularly in arid or semi-arid areas, the prevailing climatic conditions make it of
crucial importance to use the limited amount of rainfall as efficiently as possible. The
collected rainwater is a valuable supplement that would otherwise be lost by surface
run-off or evaporation.
During the past decade, RWH has been actively reintroduced by local
organizations as an option for increasing access to water in currently underserved
areas (rural or urban). Unfortunately decision-makers, planners, engineers and
builders often overlook this action. The reason that RWH is rarely considered is often
simply due to lack of information on feasibility both technical and otherwise. During
the past decade the technology has, however, quickly regained popularity as users
realise the benefits of a relatively clean, reliable and affordable water source at home.
Planning for Rain Water Harvesting: Industrial Area
In many areas RWH has now been introduced as part of an integrated water
supply, where the town water supply is unreliable, or where local water sources dry
up for a part of the year. But RWH can also be introduced as the sole water source for
communities or households. The technology is flexible and adaptable to a very wide
variety of conditions. It is used in the richest and the poorest societies, as well as in
the wettest and the driest regions on our planet.
1.2.
Research definition & Objectives

Water harvesting in its broadest sense can be defined as the collection of run-
off rainwater for domestic water supply, agriculture and environmental management.
Water harvesting systems, which harvest runoff from roofs or ground surfaces fall under
the term rainwater harvesting.
Following are the main objectives of the study.
To study the techniques of R.W.H. in developed & developing nation.
To conduct field survey in surat city , where R.W.H. techniques is introduced.
To study the bylaws of R.W.H.
To design proposals for the rise in Ground Water Table (GWT) and used rain
water in industrial area at Surat city.
1.3.
Need for rainwater harvesting

Due to pollution of both groundwater and surface waters, and the overall
increased demand for water resources due to population growth, many communities
all over the world are approaching the limits of their traditional water resources.
Therefore they have to turn to alternative or new resources like rainwater harvesting
(RWH). Rainwater harvesting has regained importance as a valuable alternative or
supplementary water resource. Utilization of rainwater is now an option along with
more conventional water supply technologies, particularly in rural areas, but
increasingly in urban areas as well. RWH has proven to be of great value for arid and
semi-arid countries or regions, small coral and volcanic islands, and remote and
scattered human settlements.
Rainwater harvesting has been used for ages and examples can be found in all
the great civilizations throughout history. The technology can be very simple or
complex depending on the specific local circumstances. Traditionally, in Uganda and
in Sri Lanka rainwater is collected from trees, using banana leaves or stems as gutters;
up to 200 liters may be collected from a large tree in a single rain storm. With the
increasing availability of corrugated iron roofing in many developing countries,
people often place a small container under their eaves to collect rainwater. One 20litre container of clean water captured from the roof can save a walk of many
kilometers to the nearest clean water source. Besides small containers, larger subsurface and surface tanks are used for collecting larger amounts of rainwater.
1.4
Identifying Problem
To increase ground water level in and around Surat city, Surat Municipal
Corporation (SMC) has decided to dig bore wells to solve the water scarcity problem.
The civic body has fixed a target of digging 100 bore wells each year and the scheme
will continue for the next five years. A special grant of Rs5 crore has been allotted by
the state government for the purpose.
The initiative has been taken under the Swarnim Gujarat Celebrations, where
civic body will not only motivate people for rain water harvesting, but will also
follow it. It will dig bore wells in open plots, gardens and places suitable for it, so that
rain water can penetrate deep into ground. Each bore will cost Rs1 lakh to SMC.
"Ground water level in Surat is going down rapidly. According to an estimate,
every year the water level goes down by 5-6 meters, which is very alarming. Apart
from private bore wells, many industrial units also pump out water from ground rather
than seeking water connection from the SMC," a civic official requesting anonymity
said. State urban development department has already given Rs1 crore to the civic
body to accomplish the target of 100 bore wells.
Water is a basic need that every human on the earth needs in order to survive.
Sadly in many parts all over the world there is a lack in the availably of clean water.
The indigenous people here are put under great water strains on a daily basis. While
there are many local water problems, the need to protect our water is a global issue.
We as a species live on the same planet and how we treat our local area affects the
entire earth. Being responsible with water and its usages is part of being a global
citizen.
This semester the Rainwater Harvesting project main goal is to help educate
and raise awareness of rainwater harvesting in the Surat city area. While water is not
in direct need here in city, people still need to be responsible with the use of water.
The implications of continued over consumption and pollution of our water will have
serious consequences. Changes in the climate have already been seen because of
global warming and it will only be a matter of time until the availability of water
becomes a worldwide problem.
1.5
Expected Outcome
Surat Municipal Corporation considered being one of the most active and
resourceful corporation in the state has implemented a few projects related to water
management for checking sea water ingress. Also, almost entire city has been covered
with the network storm water drain lines, which finally drain into river Tapi.
Surat Municipal Corporation has also been making efforts to promote Rain
Water Harvesting at household level and have devised a scheme to encourage the
implementer by offering a certain percentage of subsidies. Further, as a part of city
water management projects, 91 recharge wells across the city have been implemented
through an NGO. The impact of these Rain Water Harvesting measures adopted by
Surat Municipal Corporation especially with reference to recharge well program
unfortunately couldnt be ascertained in absence of supporting date records.
Panam consultants have devised a plan with the basic objectives of managing
the storm water runoff and recharging the same to underground tapping the potential
aquifers to help augment the depleting groundwater levels and also improve the water
quality in general.
As per the project agreement, Surat Municipal Corporation has desired to
utilize the part of the project grant gives by the Government of Gujarat under the
Swarnim Gujarat project scheme for the harvesting rain water in the city of Surat.
The proposed implementation plan has been formulated after taking into
account the following data.
Topography of the data
Depth to water and water level records
Water level elevation maps
Rain fall data of last five years
Water logging and flooding of the areas
Site surveys
Geology and hydrology of area
Lithology sections of the area
For the management and recharge of the storm water runoff, the consultants are
recommending basically two types of water harvesting structure: (1) Screen type
recharges well and (2) Furaat type recharge differentiating the areas on the basis of
anticipated silt load, space availability and volume quantity of runoff water and water
logging condition. Screen type recharge wells have a comparatively higher intake
water capacity and can also effectively filter the silt and other impurities where as the
FURAAT STRUCTURES can be easily accommodated where the space is constraint
and also runoff water is expected to be generated mainly from the paved surface.
These water harvesting structures have been design with the modification in the
existing traditional water harvesting structures addressing mainly the issue of rate of
intake flow, filtration capacity, ease of operation and maintenance and cleaning,
lifespan, durability of the system and performance consistency.
Consultant also recommends roof top rain water harvesting for independent
houses, apartments and shopping malls and complex. Which, in a way will reduce the
overall load on the proposed schemes? Moreover, it will also make the resident/
owners self-reliant for their daily water needs and less dependent on the corporation
water supply. This in a way will not on the reduce the burden of the corporation will
also helping in reducing the energy bill.
1.6
Research Methodology
Identifying
Problems
Literature Survey
Study objectives & Scope
Industrial Survey
Field Survey
Inventory Study
Data Analysis
RWH Proposals
Conclusions &
Recommendation
CHAPTER: 2
LITURATURE REVIEW
2.1. GENERAL
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) primarily consists of the collection, storage and
subsequent use of captured rainwater as either the principal or as a supplementary source
of water. Both potable and non-potable applications are possible. Examples exist of
systems that provide water for domestic, commercial, institutional and industrial purposes
as well as agriculture, livestock, groundwater recharge, flood control, process water and
as an emergency supply for fire fighting. The concept of RWH is both simple and ancient
and systems can vary from small and basic, such as the attachment of a water butt to a
rainwater downspout, to large and complex, such as those that collect water from many
hectares and serve large numbers of people. Before the latter half of the twentieth
century, RWH systems were used predominantly in areas lacking alternative forms of
water supply, such as coral islands and remote, arid locations lacking suitable surface or
ground water resources.
In developing countries the main use of harvested water is for potable supply
whilst in developed countries examples of all three uses exist, with potable supplies being
more common in rural locations and non-potable supplies in urban areas.
Perhaps one of the most interesting aspects of rainwater harvesting is learning
about the methods of capture, storage, and use of this natural resource at the place it
occurs. This natural synergy excludes at least a portion of water use from the water
distribution infrastructure: the centralized treatment facility, storage structures, pumps,
mains, and laterals. Rainwater harvesting also includes land based systems with manmade landscape features to channel and concentrate rainwater in either storage basins or
planted areas.
Some commercial and industrial buildings augment rainwater with condensate
from air conditioning systems. During hot, humid months, warm, moisture-laden air
passing over the cooling coils of a residential air conditioner can produce 10 or more
gallons per day of water. Industrial facilities produce thousands of gallons per day of
condensate. An advantage of condensate capture is that its maximum production occurs
during the hottest month of the year, when irrigation need is greatest. Most systems pipe
condensate into the rainwater cistern for storage. The depletion of groundwater sources,
the poor quality of some groundwater, high tap fees for isolated properties, the flexibility
of rainwater harvesting systems, and modern methods of treatment provide excellent
reasons to harvest rainwater for domestic use.
Figure: 2.1 Flowchart demonstrating fundamental rainwater harvesting processes
2.2.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

Rainwater harvesting and utilization systems have been used since ancient times
and evidence of roof catchment systems date back to early Roman times. Roman villas
and even whole cities were designed to take advantage of rainwater as the principal water
source for drinking and domestic purposes since at least 2000 B.C. In the Negev desert in
Israel, tanks for storing runoff from hillsides for both domestic and agricultural purposes
have allowed habitation and cultivation in areas with as little as 100mm of rain per year.
Around 850 B.C., King Mesha of Moab was victorious in war and conquered a
considerable territory east of the Jordan. This he proudly commemorated in the famous
Moabite Stone text. One detail in King Meshas self praise is: I made two reservoirs in
the midst of (qerkhah). Now there was no cistern in the city, so I said to all the people,
Make you every man a cistern in the house.
This may be the first time that cisterns were mentioned in a text, but the device
itself must have been invented considerably earlier. A progression has been suggested
from the primitive use or natural rock holes to the digging of open cisterns and finally
the construction of roofed-over cisterns excavated in rock.
According to an Archaeological Encyclopedia The first cisterns were dug in the
middle and late bronze age (2200-1200 B.C, LW). The rainwater that collected in them
during the short rainy season would be enough for at least one dry season. In some parts
of Palestine cisterns were the main (sometimes even the only) source of drinking water in
peacetime as well as in wartime. In the early Iron Age (1200 1000 B.C.; LW) the sides
of cisterns began to be covered with watertight plaster, which considerably prolonged the
time for which water could be stored. It was this important innovation that made it
possible to extend the areas of settlement into the mountainous parts of the country.
The rainwater was generally collected from the roof and courtyard of the house, in
cities as well as in the countryside. A private cistern was seen as a necessary element in
the planning of a new house in Tunis in the fourteenth century. A 1921 census in
Jerusalem counted 7,000 cisterns collecting runoff water. One informant stated that even
today in Amman it is legally required to include a cistern in any new house, but that some
people fill them with piped water instead of rainwater.
The earliest known evidence of the use of the technology in Africa comes from
northern Egypt, where tanks ranging from 200-2000m3 have been used for at least 2000
years many are still operational today. The technology also has a long history in Asia,
where rainwater collection practices have been traced back almost 2000 years in
Thailand. The small-scale collection of rainwater from the eaves of roofs or via simple
gutters into traditional jars and pots has been practiced in Africa and Asia for thousands
of years.
In many remote rural areas, this is still the method used today. The worlds largest
rainwater tank is probably the Yerebatan Sarayi in Istanbul, Turkey. This was constructed
during the rule of Caesar Justinian (A.D. 527- 565). It measures 140m by 70m and has a
capacity of 80,000 cubic meters.
Around the globe there is a need to revive the traditional technologies blending
them with modern methods to achieve the requirement present and future need of water.
This is practiced on a large scale in many Indian cities like Chennai, Bangalore and Delhi
where rainwater harvesting is a part of the state policy. Elsewhere, countries like
Germany, Japan, United States, and Singapore are also adopting rainwater harvesting
with modern methods.
2.3.
FROM WHERE WE CAN HARVEST RAINWATER

Rainwater can be harvested from the following surfaces:
2.3.1
ROOFTOPS
If buildings with impervious roofs are already in place, the catchment area is
effectively available free of charge and they provide a supply at the point of
consumption.
Figure: 2.2 Typical Rooftop rainwater Collection methods

10
2.3.2
PAVED AND UNPAVED AREAS

i.e., landscapes, open fields, parks,
storm water drains, roads and pavements and

other open areas can be effectively used to
harvest the runoff. The main advantage in
using ground as a collecting surface is that
water can be collected from a larger area.
This is particularly advantageous in areas of
low rainfall.
Figure: 2. 3 Storm water drain pipe

2.3.3
WATER BODIES
The potential of water bodies
such as lakes, tanks and ponds to

store rainwater is immense. The
harvested rainwater can be used not
only to meet water requirements of
the city; it also recharges ground
water aquifers.
Figure: 2.4 Store rain water in pond
2.3.4
STORM WATER DRAINS

Most of the residential colonies have proper network of storm water drains. If
maintained neatly, these offer a simple and cost effective means for harvesting rainwater.
2.4 RAINWATER HARVESTING IN THE DEVELOPED WORLD

In the developed world the use of RWH to supply potable water is mostly limited
to rural locations, mainly because piping supplies from centralized water treatment
facilities to areas with low population densities is often uneconomic. The development of
appropriate groundwater resources can likewise be impractical for cost reasons (Fewkes,
2006). Perrens (1982) estimates that in Australia approximately one million people rely
11
on rainwater as their primary source of supply. The total number of Australians in both
rural and urban regions that rely on rainwater stored in tanks is believed to be about three
million. In the USA it is thought that there are over 200,000 rainwater cisterns in
existence that provide supplies to small communities and individual households.
Harvesting rainwater for potable use also occurs in rural areas of Canada and Bermuda.
The number of RWH systems installed varies from country to country. For
instance, in Germany during the 1990s the market leader alone installed over 100,000
systems, providing a total storage volume in excess of 600,000m. It has been estimated
that between 50,000 and 100,000 professionally designed systems are currently installed
in Germany each year (Konig, 2001; Environment Agency, 2004) and the total number of
built systems is believed to be approximately 600,000 (Leggett et al, 2001b). By
comparison, France has few installed systems. Those that do exist are often simple,
inefficient and used mainly for garden irrigation, with the domestic utilisation of
rainwater for flushing toilets and washing machines being virtually non-existent. This
low uptake is attributed primarily to the organization of the French water supply system
which is essentially a set of regional monopolies that have no incentive to introduce
rainwater harvesting techniques since it would reduce their profits (Konig, 2001).
In urban locations, rainwater catchment surfaces tend to be restricted to roofs
although runoff can also be collected from other impermeable areas such as pavements,
roads and car parks. Runoff from these areas can be more polluted than that from roof
surfaces and may require a higher degree of treatment to achieve an acceptable level of
water quality. Water storage and distribution elements generally consist of standardized
pre-manufactured components that can range from a simple water butt with a tap at the
base to more complicated systems that can consist of underground storage tanks, filters,
UV units, pumps and automated controls. Where the latter type of arrangement is
concerned, the use of package (proprietary) systems dominates the UK market and it is
possible to purchase a complete system from a single supplier. One supplier stated that
the overwhelming majority of their domestic sales were of the proprietary type as were
most of those for commercial, institutional and industrial applications, though bespoke
systems could be designed if required.
12
Konig (2001) states that in the past components such as tanks, pumps and filters
were often supplied in kit form and had to be assembled on site, necessitating the use of
skilled staff and leading to increases in both installation times and costs. Modern systems
tend to be modularized and consist of standardized mass-produced components, usually
of high quality. Components such as tanks, pumps and filters are delivered to site as
complete units (no assembly required), are easier to install and commission than the older
types of system and offer a greater degree of design flexibility. Some suppliers sell
storage tanks with integrated filters, pump and electronic controls in what is essentially a
complete system that only requires connecting to the relevant on-site pipe work and
power points.
2.5 RAINWATER HARVESTING AROUND THE WORLD- CASE STUDIES
The increasing demand for water has accelerated and reviving the old system of
rainwater storage with the pace of technology has been adopted. The concept of rainwater
harvesting has been accepted by many cities, government agencies, societies, individuals,
etc in different countries around the world. They have the set examples of RWH systems.
There are many success stories of RWH in developing and developed countries of Asia,
Africa, Latin America, USA, Japan, Germany, Singapore and others. These case studies
can further accelerate the adoption and future strategy for rainwater harvesting to reduce
the water crisis in the world for integrated water resource management.
2.5.1
Rainwater Harvesting in Bangalore

Bangalore, a city of over 270 lakes and tanks, is now down to 80 or thereabouts.
The city is located at 920 meters above sea level. The decline in ground water levels as
well as the effects of pollution with nitrates poses threat. The Bangalore Water Supply
and Sewerage Board manages water supply to the city. Two major sources are the River
Arkavathy and the River Cauvery. The latter is now the predominant source but is located
95 kilometers away and about 500 meters below the city necessitating huge pumping
costs and energy usage. As loss of water is high, there is a large section of the population
dependent on ground water through bore wells.
13
Nearly 3000 million liters per day of rainwater is incident on the city of Bangalore
with area of 1279 square kilometers. This is in contrast to approximately 1500 million
liters per day which will be pumped in after the completion of two augmentation projects
under implementation. The study points out that about 20 per cent of the citys water
requirement can be met through rainwater harvesting provided a strategy is put in place to
persuade owners to go in for rooftop rainwater harvesting and also if surface storage
structures like lakes and ponds are maintained well. Recharge structures to augment
aquifers and their utilization in a sustainable manner would benefit the city immensely.
Integrating Rainwater Harvesting Systems into Neighborhood Design:

A residential colony in Bangalore of about 4 square kilometers has managed to
put in place a decentralized water management system incorporating rainwater harvesting
more by serendipity than by design. Two small tanks, Narasipura 1 and Narasipura 2,
collect rainwater and act as percolation tanks to recharge the aquifer. About 15 bore-wells
then supply water to the colony of about 2000 houses. Sewage discharged from each
house is collected and treated both physically and biologically through an artificial
wetland system and led into Narasipura 2. The loop of water supply and sewage
treatment is completed within a small geographical area, in an ecologically and
economically appropriate manner.
Source: A conceptual Frame for RWH in Bangalore (2000): A study undertaken by
Centre for Symbiosis of Technology, Environment and Management (STEM)
commissioned by GOK.
2.5.2
Rainwater Harvesting Initiatives in Indore, Madhya Pradesh, Central India

The commercial capital of the state of Madhya Pradesh has been facing acute
shortage of drinking water. This is reflected in the wide gap in the demand and supply of
152 MLD drinking water in the city. The ever-growing water demand made the
administration think about rainwater harvesting.
Indore, one of the cities in Madhya Pradesh, is located on the basaltic lava flows
of the Deccan Trap. Weathered/vesicular/fractured and jointed basalt form aquifers in the
area. The average annual rainfall in this area is 930 mm and one-hour peak rainfall is 35
14
mm. Indore has got large areas of roofs and paved areas and hence a large quantum of
runoff is produced from these areas during the rainy season. This runoff goes waste as
overland flow and also creates problems of flooding in low-lying streets. In such a
scenario, rooftop water harvesting provides the desired solution. Essentially aquifer
recharging practices are being used. In order to motivate the public, Indore Municipal
Corporation (IMC) has announced a rebate of 6 per cent on property tax for those who
have implemented the rainwater harvesting work in their house/bungalow/building. To
operate these activities three committees technical, education and execution were
formed by the IMC in which various experts of this field were involved. The various
methods of ground water recharge used are open wells, soak pit, recharge shaft/trench
with and without injection well, lateral recharge shaft, injection wells and in big schemes
suitable combination of different methods of RWH are employed.
Techniques of water recharge used in Indore:

The technique essentially comprises diverting rainwater through trench or swale
into silt trap tank. Water from the silt trap tank is allowed to pass through a sand filter
(sand, medium and big size pebbles). A cement pipe of 300 mm diameter, fitted with wire
net (10 mm mesh) has been fitted on the wall of wells through which rainwater flows into
the well.
Figure: 2.5 Elements of the Typical Water Harvesting System
Permeable box:
Permeable boxes of 1 cubic meter, filled with big size pebbles and brick pieces
and lower portion with sand are provided at the top of the pile. Source: Proceedings of
15
the workshop on Rainwater Harvesting, Indore. Pile and Swales: Pile is a commonly used
technique
for
RWH
in
gardens,
playgrounds and public places. A twothree m. deep hole is manually dug.

The bottom one-third is filled with
large (40-50 mm) pebbles, the middle
portion with medium size (20 to 30
mm) pebbles and the upper one-third
portion
with
sand
(two-three
mm).Swales are shallow, saucer like

beds locally known as khantis.
2.5.3
Figure: 2.6 Pile and Swales
Rainwater Harvesting in Aizawl (North-East India)

The water supply system in the capital of Mizoram, originally designed in 1988
for 80,000 people, is now catering to the needs of over 150,000 residents, making it
grossly inadequate. Due to inadequate and unreliable water supply people are resorting to
rooftop water harvesting, the most convenient and economical water supply system.
Mizoram receives an average rainfall
of 2,500 mm annually which is
distributed throughout the year. The
major advantage is that most of the
buildings are constructed with sloping
roofs that use Corrugated Galvanized
Iron (CGI) sheets which are conducive
to rainwater harvesting. Even today,
most
buildings
in
Aizawl
are
constructed with sloping roofs that use

Corrugated Galvanized Iron sheets.
Figure: 2.7 Ferro cement and plastic tank
Rain gutters either of PVC pipes or bamboo are used to drain water into the cylindrical
storage tanks with galvanized iron semi- circular rain gutters to catch rainwater.
16
Gradually, reinforced cement concrete (RCC), Ferro cement and plastic tanks are being
introduced. Tanks of 10,000 liters capacity are commonly used.
At present, Aizawl has more than 10,000 rainwater harvesting tanks in individual
houses which have been constructed by the residents at their own expense or with state
government assistance. In a pollution-free state like Mizoram where major industries are
yet to come, rainwater is free from undesirable chemicals and is of potable quality.
2.5.4
Rainwater Harvesting in South East Asia, Japan

In 1994, the Tokyo International Rainwater Utilizations Conference was hosted in
Japan (Murase 1994) regarding the role, applications, and potential for rainwater
catchment system technologies worldwide. From 1994 onwards, there was a growing
recognition that rainwater collection could play a vital role in addressing many of the
water problems faced by the rapidly growing mega cities around the world, especially in
Asia. Tokyo provided an interesting case study as the city faced several water related
problems.
Existing dams supplying the city were stretched to capacity and new dam and
pipeline developments faced increasing opposition from environmentalists and
other affected groups;
Subsidence due to ground water over-exploitation had left over 2 million people
in some parts of the city living below sea level and seriously at risk from the
impacts of a tsunami;
There was also a growing concern about the possible impact of flooding within
the city and the risks associated with the worst case scenario of an earthquake
and typhoon striking simultaneously and flood waters entering the subway
system during the rush hour.
Such fears have generated considerable interest in all methods for disaster
mitigation and they are not unfounded. In 1923 the Great Kanto Earthquake killed over
120,000 people in the city and most of those who perished were victims of the firestorms
which raged through the city. In Tokyo and elsewhere in Japan there has, thus, been
much interest in the use of household water storage systems to provide water for
17
firefighting purposes especially following an earthquake when pipe supplies might not be
available.
Such household reservoirs could also provide emergency domestic water supplies
in the period immediately following any major seismic event. A number of interesting
demonstration projects has also been developed to illustrate this potential. At the main
sumo wrestling stadium, the Kokugikan, the rainwater runoff from the 8400 m 2 roofs is
diverted into a 1000 m3 basement tank for toilet flushing and cooling the building.
Following the example of Kokugikan, many new public facilities have started introducing
rainwater utilization systems in Tokyo.
At the community level, a simple and unique rainwater utilization facility,
Rajison, has been set up by local residents in the Mukojima district of Tokyo to utilize
rainwater collected from the roofs of private houses for garden watering, fire-fighting and
drinking water in emergencies. To date, about 750 private and public buildings in Tokyo
have introduced rainwater collection and utilization systems. Rainwater utilization is now
flourishing at both the public and private levels.
Figure: 2.8
Rajison a simple and unique rainwater utilization facility at the

community level in Tokyo, Japan.
18
2.5.5
Rainwater Harvesting in Brazil

In Brazil, over the past decade, many NGOs and grassroots organizations have
focused their work on the supply of drinking water using rainwater harvesting, and the
irrigation of small-scale agriculture using sub-surface impoundments. In the semi-arid
tropics of the north-eastern part of Brazil, annual rainfall varies widely from 200 to 1,000
mm, with an uneven regional and seasonal rainfall pattern. People have traditionally
utilized rainwater collected in hand-dug rock catchments and river bedrock catchments.
To address the problem of unreliable rural drinking water supply in north-eastern Brazil,
a group of NGOs combined their efforts with government to initiate a project involving
the construction of one million rainwater tanks over a five year period, benefitting to 5
million people. Most of these tanks are made of pre-cast concrete plates or wire mesh
concrete.
Rainwater harvesting and utilization is now an integrated part of educational
programs for sustainable living in the semi-arid regions of Brazil. The rainwater
utilization concept is also spreading to other parts of Brazil, especially urban areas. A
further example of the growing interest in rainwater harvesting and utilization is the
establishment of the Brazilian Rainwater Catchment Systems Association, which was
founded in 1999 and held its 3rd Brazilian Rainwater Utilization Symposium in the fall of
2001.
Figure: 2.9 Tanks made of pre-cast concrete plates & wire mesh concrete
19
CHAPTER: 3
3.1
RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS
GENERAL
All sources of water are ultimately rain. Therefore, all water supply systems are,
in effect, rainwater-harvesting systems. A proper definition for this term to understand its
spirit would, in effect, necessarily have to take into consideration the difference in
catchments. While previously catchments were typically far off from the urban area they
served, now the city itself is seen as a catchment for its water requirement. Rooftops,
paved areas and unpaved areas and the entire city itself are, therefore, to be managed as a
water provision area. As the Centre for Science and Environment, Delhi (India) puts it
CATCH WATER WHERE IT FALLS would be a good definition of rainwater
harvesting.
The process of rainwater harvesting would encompass catching rainwater,
directing it to an appropriate location, filtering it if required and storing it for use. Storage
could be in tanks, sumps, ponds or lakes wherever appropriate and conditions permitting
recharge of ground water would also qualify as storage. Harvested water could be used
immediately as a first choice thus saving city level supplies or ground water for a future
date or a decision could be taken to store it for later use, say during water shortage days.
Domestic rainwater harvesting or rooftop rainwater harvesting is the technique through
which rainwater is captured from roof catchments and stored in tanks/reservoirs/ground
water aquifers. It also consists of conservation of roof top rainwater in urban areas and
utilizing it to augment ground water storage by artificial recharge. It requires connecting
the outlet pipe from rooftop to divert collected water to existing well/tube well/bore well
or a specially designed well. Rooftop harvested rainwater is more safe for drinking
purposes than the runoff harvested water.
Rooftop harvesting needs to have safe storage facilities to keep the water fit for
drinking. First flush of rainwater is discarded. A number of alternative technologies are
available for rooftop harvesting and storage to suit the varying situations and the budgets.
20
3.2
SCALE OF OPERATIONS
From a small rooftop to large areas such as that of institutions and industries,
rainwater harvesting can work well. Neighborhoods and finally the city itself should be
the ultimate scale of operation. Singapore for example plans to manage and harvest
almost all rainwater at the city-level. One primary step would be to keep the catchments
clean and this would mean managing all solid, liquid and gaseous waste streams of the
city. There are many methods for rainwater harvesting. Each method is site specific. The
flow from roofs of houses may also be collected using galvanized iron sheets, into a
channel fitted on the edge of the roof. This water can be stored adjacent to the house after
screening out the impurities.
3.3
Elements of RWH System
Figure: 3.1 Chart for elements of rain water harvesting system
21
Figure: 3.2 Common RWH system elements
All rainwater-harvesting systems comprise six basic elements irrespective of

the size of the system.
1. Catchment area/roof: The surface upon which the rain falls; the roof has to be
appropriately sloped preferably towards the direction of storage and recharge.
2. Gutters and downspouts: The transport channels from catchment surface to storage;
these have to be designed depending on site, rainfall characteristics and roof
characteristics.
3. Leaf screens and roof washers: The systems that remove contaminants and debris; a
first rain separator has to be put in place to divert and manage the first 2.5 mm of rain.
22
4. Cisterns or storage tanks: Sumps, tanks etc. where collected rain-water is safely
stored or recharging the ground water through open wells, bore wells or percolation pits
etc.
5. Conveying: The delivery system for the treated rainwater, either by gravity or pump.
6. Water treatment: Filters to remove solids and organic material and equipment, and
additives to settle, filter, and disinfect.
Figure: 3.3 Elements of typical water harvesting system
Briefly the system involves collecting water that falls on the roof of a house made
of zinc, asbestos or other material during rain storms, and conveying it by an aluminum,
PVC, wood, plastic or any other local material including bamboo drain or collector to a
nearby covered storage unit or cistern. Rainwater yield varies with the size and texture of
the catchment area. A smoother, cleaner and more impervious roofing material
contributes to better water quality and greater quantity. Each component is briefly
described below.
3.3.1
Catchment Surface
The catchment area of a water harvesting system is the surface, which receives
rainfall directly and contributes the water to the system. It can be a paved area like a
terrace or courtyard of a building, or an unpaved area like a lawn or open ground.
23
Temporary structures like sloping sheds can also act as catchments. In Botswana, house
compounds and threshing floors are surfaced with clay cow dung plaster and used
effectively as rainwater catchments. Rainwater harvested from catchment surfaces along
the ground, because of the increased risk of contamination, should only be used for nonpotable uses such as lawn watering. For in house uses, rooftop harvested rainwater is
safer for drinking purposes than the runoff harvested water.
Catchment Area: Some Features
The nature of the catchment distinguishes rainwater collection from other kind
of harvesting.
Four types of catchment areas have been considered namely; roof, rainwater
platforms, watershed management and hill slopes.
Catchments used to collect rainwater are frequently artificial or else ground

surfaces, which have been specifically prepared and demarcated.
Rainwater may be collected from any kind of roof tiles, metal, palm leaf, grass
thatch.
Lead flashing roof or roof painted with lead-based paint or asbestos roof is
generally regarded as unsuitable.
A well-thatched roof has been said not to be presenting much hazard to the
collected water. These have been covered with plastic sheets in some areas in
Manipur (NE India).
Catchment area consisting of rooftop area / the plot area or the complex area from
where the rainwater runoff is proposed to be collected has to be maintained so as to

ensure that the resultant rainwater runoff is not contaminated. At times paints, grease, oil
etc. are often left on the roof or in the courtyards. These can result in contamination of
the rainwater runoff. Therefore, the households have to ensure that they keep the
catchment area clean at all times especially during the rainfall season.
3.3.2
Gutters and Downspouts/Conduits

Most of the existing storm water conveyance systems are designed to drain out
the rainwater that falls in the catchment area into the nearest storm water drain or the
sewerage system.
24
Table: 3.1 Average rate of rainfall in mm per hour.

Sr.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Diameter of
pipe (mm)
50
65
75
100
125
150
50
13.4
24.1
40.8
85.4
-
Roof area (Sq.m.)
Average rate of rainfall in mm/h

75
100
125
150
8.9
6.6
5.3
4.4
16.0
12.0
9.6
8.0
27.0
20.4
16.3
13.6
57.0
42.7
34.2
28.5
80.5
65.3
53.5
83.6
Source: Indian National Building Code
200
3.3
6.0
10.2
21.3
40.0
62.7
mm/h- millimeters per hour, m- meters
These connections should be redirected to the recharge location so that the

rainwater runoff can now be directed into the recharge structure. In already built up
structure it requires certain modifications to the existing drainage system but in ongoing
construction it can be easily re-designed at almost no extra cost. The choice of the
material and the design are as per the discretion of the individual owners and, like any
other drainage system, can be constructed utilizing a variety of materials.
Conduits are the pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchment or
rooftop to the harvesting system. Conduits may be of any material like Poly Vinyl
Chloride (PVC), asbestos or Galvanized Iron (GI), materials that are commonly available.
The diameter of pipe required for draining out rainwater based on rainfall intensity
(average rate of rainfall in mm per hour) and roof surface area as shown in Table 3.1.
Channels have to be all around the edge of a sloping roof to collect and transport
rainwater to the storage tank.
Gutters can be semi-circular or rectangular and could be made using:
Locally available material such as plain galvanized iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge),
folded to the required shapes.
Semi-circular gutters of PVC material which can be readily prepared by cutting

the pipes into two equal semi-circular channels.
Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.

The size of the gutter should be according to the flow during the highest intensity
rain. It is advisable to make them 10 to 15 per cent oversize. Gutters need to be supported
so that they do not sag or fall off when loaded with water. The way in which gutters are
25
fixed depends on the construction of the house; it is possible to fix iron or timber brackets
into the walls, but for houses having wider eaves, some method of attachment to the
rafters is necessary.
These are the components which catch the rain from the roof catchment surface
and transport it to the cistern. Standard shapes and sizes are easily obtained and
maintained, although custom fabricated profiles are also possible to maximize the total
amount of harvested rainfall. Gutters and downspouts must be properly sized, sloped, and
installed in order to maximize the quantity of harvested rain.
3.3.3
Leaf Screens/Roof Washers

To keep leaves and other debris from entering the system, the gutters should have
a continuous leaf screen, made of 1/4-inch wire mesh in a metal frame, installed along
their entire length, and a screen or wire basket at the head of the downspout. Gutter
hangers are generally placed every 3 feet. The outside face of the gutter should be lower
than the inside face to encourage drainage away from the building wall. Where possible,
the gutters should be placed about 1/4 inch below the slope line so that debris can clear
without knocking down the gutter. To prevent leaves and debris from entering the
system, mesh filters should be provided at the mouth of the drain pipe .Further, a first
flush (foul flush) device
section
should
be
provided in the conduit

before it connects to the
storage container. If the
stored water is to be
used
for
drinking
purposes, a sand filter

should
also
be
provided.
Figure: 3.4 Provision of mesh filters at the mouth of the drain pipe
First Flush Device
A first flush (foul flush) device is a valve that ensures that runoff from the first
spell of rain is flushed out and does not enter the system. This needs to be done since the
26
first spell of rain carries a relatively larger amount of pollutants from the air and
catchment surface. Roof washing, or the collection and disposal of the first flush of water
from a roof, is of particular concern if the collected rainwater is to be used for human
consumption, since the first flush picks up most of the dirt, debris, and contaminants,
such as bird droppings that have collected on the roof and in the gutters during dry
periods. The most simple of these systems consists of a standpipe and a gutter downspout
located ahead of the downspout from the gutter to the cistern. The pipe is usually 6 or 8
inch PVC which has a valve and clean out at the bottom. Most of these types of roof
washers extend from the gutter to the ground where they are supported. The gutter
downspout and top of the pipe are fitted and sealed so water will not flow out of the top.
Once the pipe has filled, the rest of
the water flows to the downspout
connected to the cistern. These
systems should be designed so that
at least 50 liters of water are
diverted for every 1000 square feet
of collection area. Rather than
wasting the water, the first flush can
be used for non-potable uses such as
for lawn or garden irrigation.
3.3.4
Figure: 3.5 First flush device installation
Storage Tanks/Cisterns
Storage tanks for collecting rainwater may be located either above or below the
ground. They may be constructed as part of the building, or may be built as a separate
unit located some distance away from the building. The design considerations vary
according to the type of tank and other factors.
Various types of rainwater storage facilities are found in practice. Storage tanks
should be constructed of inert material. Reinforced concrete, fiberglass, polyethylene, and
stainless steel are also suitable materials. Ferro-cement tanks and jars made of mortar or
earthen materials are commonly used. As an alternative, interconnected tanks made of
pottery or polyethylene are also found suitable. The polyethylene tanks are compact but
27
have a large storage capacity (1,000 to 2,000 liters). They are easy to clean and have
many openings which can be fitted with connecting pipes. Bamboo reinforced tanks are
less successful because the bamboo may become infested with termites, bacteria and
fungus. Precautions are required to prevent the entry of contaminants into storage tanks.
Figure: 3.6 Different types of Storage tank

Shape and Size
There are various options available for the construction of these tanks with respect
to the shape, size and the material of construction. Shapes may be cylindrical, rectangular
and square. The quantity of water stored in a water harvesting system depends on the size
of the catchment area and the size of the storage tank. The storage tank has to be designed
according to the water requirements, rainfall and catchment availability.
Suppose the system has to be designed for meeting drinking water requirement of
a 5-member family living in a building with a rooftop area of 100 sq.m. Average annual
rainfall in the region is 600 mm. Daily drinking water requirement per person (drinking
and cooking) is 10 liters.
28
Following details are available:

Area of the catchment (A) = 100 Sq.m.
Average annual rainfall (R) = 600 mm (0.6 m)
Runoff coefficient (C) = 0.85
Annual water harvesting potential from 100 Sq.m. Roof
=AxRxC
= 100 x 0.6 x 0.85
= 51 cu.m. (51,000 liters)
The tank capacity has to be designed for the dry period, i.e., the period between
the two consecutive rainy seasons. With the rainy season extending over four months, the
dry season is of 245 days. Particular care must be taken to ensure that potable water is not
contaminated by the collected rainwater. Drinking water requirement for the family (dry
season) = 245 x 5 x 10 = 12,250 liters.
Figure: 3.7 Daily basic need of water requirement

As a safety factor, the tank should be built 20 per cent larger than required, i.e.,
14,700 liters. This tank can meet the basic drinking water requirement of a 5-member
family for the dry period.
The most commonly used material of construction is
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC), ferrocement, masonry, plastic (polyethylene) or

metal (galvanized iron).
29
3.3.5
Conveying
It should be remembered that water only flows downhill unless you pump it. The
old adage that, gravity flow works only if the tank is higher than the kitchen sink,
accurately portrays the physics at work. The water pressure for a gravity system depends
on the difference in elevation between the storage tank and the faucet. Water gains one
pound per square inch of pressure for every 2.31 feet of rise or lift. Many plumbing
fixtures and appliances require 20 psi for proper operation, while standard municipal
water supply pressures are typically in the 40-psi to 60 psi range. To achieve comparable
pressure, a cistern would have to be 92.4 feet (2.31 feet X 40 psi = 92.4 feet) above the
homes highest plumbing fixture. That explains why pumps are frequently used, much in
the way they are used to extract well water. Pumps prefer to push water, not pull it. To
approximate the water pressure one would get from a municipal system, pressure tanks
are often installed with the pump. Pressure tanks have a pressure switch with adjustable
settings between 5 and 65 psi. For example, to keep the in house pressure at about 35 psi,
the switch should be set to turn off the pump when the pressure reaches 40 psi and turn it
on again when the pressure drops down to 30 psi.
Filters
A filter is an important part of the inflow structure of a RWH System. Once
screens and roof washers remove large debris, other filters are available which help
improve rainwater quality. Keep in mind that most filters available in the market are
designed to treat municipal water or well water. Therefore, filter selection requires
careful consideration. Screening, sedimentation, and pre-filtering occur between
catchment and storage or within the tank. A cartridge sediment filter, which traps and
removes particles of five microns or larger is the most common filter used for rainwater
harvesting. Sediment filters used in series, referred to as multi-cartridge or inline filters,
sieve the particles from increasing to decreasing size.
30

1.
Types of Filtration Systems

Gravity Based Filter
This consists of construction of an underground / above ground filtration chamber
consisting of layers of fine sand / coarse sand and gravel. The ideal depths from below
are 60 cm thick coarse gravel layer, 40 cm coarse sand and 40 cm fine sand. Alternatively
only fine sand can also be used along with the gravel layer. Further deepening of the filter
media shall not result in an appreciable increase in the rate of recharge and the rate of
filtration is proportional to the surface area of the filter media. A unit sq.m. Surface area
of such a filter shall facilitate approx. 60 liters./hr of filtration of rainwater runoff. In
order to determine the optimum size of the surface areas just divide the total design
recharge potential with this figure. A system of coarse and fine screen is essential to be
put up before the rainwater runoff is allowed to flow into the filtration pit. A simple
charcoal can be made in a drum or an earthen pot. The filter is made of gravel, sand and
charcoal, all of which are easily available.
Figure: 3.8 Gravity based filter

2.
Sand Filters
Sand filters are commonly available, easy and inexpensive to construct. These
filters can be employed for treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity (suspended
particles like silt and clay), colour and microorganisms. In a simple sand filter that can be
constructed domestically, the top layer comprises of coarse sand followed by a 5-10 mm
layer of gravel followed by another 5-25 cm layer of gravel and boulders. These filters
31
are manufactured commercially on a wide scale. Most of the water purifiers available in
the market are of this type.
Figure: 3.9 Sand filters
3.
Pressure Based Filter

Pressure based filters facilitate a higher rate of filtration in a pressurized system. It
requires a siltation pit of about 6-15 cu.m. in capacity so as to facilitate sedimentation

before it is pumped through the filter into the ground. Being a pressure based system it
involves a pump of capacity 0.5-1 hp. The rate of filtration is evidently high and the
quality of water is also claimed to be as per WHO guidelines. They are successful for
areas with larger rainwater runoff (>6 cu.m./hr) and limited space availability. Also these
filters can be put in combination with an existing tube well so as to recharge water into
the same bore.
3.4
Types and configurations of RWH systems

Three basic types of system for supplying non-potable water to buildings for
internal and external uses are identified by Leggett et al (2001b): directly pumped,
indirectly pumped and gravity fed. External use only systems are also available and these
are essentially direct systems that can only be used for outdoor purposes, such as garden
watering and vehicle washing. In all cases, water is collected from a catchment surface
and held in a sealed storage structure until needed. Once harvested water has been used,
for example to flush the WC, it is considered to be in the same effluent category as
potable water would be if used for the same purpose, e.g. harvested water used to flush a
32
WC becomes foul (black) water, the same classification that applies to potable water once
it has been used to flush a WC. The resulting effluent is treated in the same manner
regardless of the initial source.
3.4.1
Indirectly pumped systems

Rainwater is initially held in a storage tank and then pumped to a header tank
within the building, which is usually located within the roof void. Water is delivered to
appliances via gravity and the header tank should be at least one meter above the supply
points. If the storage tank runs dry, the header tank is supplied with top-up water from the
mains. If the storage tank is full, any additional incoming water will exit via an overflow
and will normally be disposed of either to a soak away infiltration device or sewer. See
figure 3.10 for a schematic of an indirectly pumped RWH system. The main advantages
of indirectly pumped systems are that if the pump fails (e.g. due to mechanical/electrical
failure or power loss) then water will still be supplied to the associated fixtures and
fittings via the mains top-up function. Low cost pumps and simple controls are possible
and systems tend to be energy efficient as the pump runs at full flow.
The main disadvantages are that they tend to deliver water at low pressures. This
can lead to slow filling of WC cisterns and the system may not provide enough pressure
to work with some appliances. Some proprietary units solve the low pressure problem by
using a hybrid system. Water for the WC is gravity fed from a header tank which also has
mains top-up whilst water for the washing machine and garden is delivered via a pump at
equivalent mains pressure. The advantage with this arrangement is that in the event of a
power failure it is still possible to flush the toilet. Indirect systems also require the use of
a header tank (Environment Agency, 2007). These can add to the overall cost of a system
(though not usually significantly) and there may not always be sufficient space in the roof
void to site the tank.
33
Figure: 3.10 Schematic of an indirectly pumped RWH system.
3.4.2
Directly pumped systems

In a directly pumped system (sometimes also referred to as a pressurized system)
rainwater is initially held in a storage tank and then pumped directly to the point of use
when required, e.g. to WC cisterns and washing machines. There is no header tank with a
direct system and mains top-up occurs within the storage tank. Mains top-up does not
completely fill the tank but maintains a minimum level that is able to meet short-term
demand. If the storage tank is full, any additional incoming water will exit via an
overflow and will normally be disposed of either to a soak away/infiltration device or
sewer. Figure 3.11 shows a schematic of a directly pumped RWH system. The main
advantages of directly pumped systems are that water is provided at mains pressure
which is ideal for garden hoses and washing machines, and that they do not require a
header tank (Environment Agency, 2007).
34
Figure: 3.11 Schematic of a directly pumped RWH system

The
main
disadvantages
are
that
if
the
pump
fails
(e.g.
due
to
mechanical/electrical failure or power loss) then no water can be supplied. WCs would
have to be flushed manually (e.g. using a bucket of water) and washing machines would
not function. Mains top-up controls can also be more complicated than with indirect and
gravity fed systems (Environment Agency, 2007).
3.4.3
Gravity fed systems

Gravity fed systems differs from the direct and indirect variants primarily in that
the main storage tank is located within the roof void of the building. Rainwater is
collected from the roof, filtered and then piped directly to the storage (header) tank.
Water is delivered to appliances via gravity and the storage tank should be at least one
meter above the supply points. Mains top-up water is supplied directly to the tank if it
runs dry. If the tank is full, any additional incoming water will exit via an overflow and
35
will normally be disposed of either to a soak away/infiltration device or sewer. The main
advantages of gravity fed systems are that they do not require a pump or electrical supply
as is the case with the direct and indirect versions. Also, since there is no pump, there is
no risk of pump-associated supply failure.
Figure: 3.12 Schematic of a gravity fed RWH system

The main disadvantages are that the water pressure is likely to be less than that of
the mains supply. This can result in poor performance of some appliances, e.g. slow
filling of WC cisterns, and some appliances such as some modern washing machines may
stop working altogether. In this case a pump may be required to boost the water pressure.
There may also be issues with high structural loads, damage from leaking components
and water quality issues due to fluctuating temperatures in the stored water. It also has to
be possible to collect runoff from the roof, filter it and deliver it to the tank under the
action of gravity. In this case the relative levels of the various components (roof, filter
and tank) are critical and it may not be possible to find an arrangement that functions
hydraulically.
36
CHAPTER: 4
4.1
STUDY AREA PROFILE
General
The development of ground water in different areas of the country has not
been uniform. Highly intensive development of ground water in certain areas for
irrigation, drinking, domestic and industrial uses in the country has resulted in overexploitation leading to long term decline in ground water levels, and under certain
situations, deterioration in quality of the ground water.
For providing sustainability to ground water resources in such areas and
keeping in view the increasing thrust on development of ground water resources for
meeting the growing/increasing demands of water in various sectors, there is an
urgent need to regulate over-exploitation of ground water resources and also to
augment the depleting ground water resources.
Water requirement for industries in India is comparatively small as compared
to the quantity of water needed for agriculture. However, when industrial demand is
concentrated in specific locations, heavy withdrawals are done from available water
resources. Industries require water for processing, cooling, boiler feed and other
miscellaneous uses such as washing, maintenance of yards and domestic requirement
in townships. Mostly the industrial uses are non-consumptive, thus making reuse
through recycling and other conservation measures possible. The amount of water
consumed for any product, varies widely depending upon the processes used, plant
efficiency, technology employed, the degree to which water is re-circulated and other
factors. Industrial waste may contain different kinds of toxic pollutants, which if
untreated may result in contamination of water resources. Treatment of industrial
waste water and recycling are essential to conserve water resources.
Main source of water for Surat is the river Tapi flowing through the city.
Surface water is drawn by intake wells from perennial channel of the river throughout
the year. Water thus drawn is treated by the water treatment plants and then the same
is supplied to the citizens and industries after postchlorination.
37
4.2
CITY PROFILE
4.2.1 Locational Importance
Figure 4.1: Geographical Location for Surat City
38
Surat city is located in the southern part of Gujarat at 21 12' N latitude and
72 52' E longitude on the southern bank of river Tapi. The Arabian Sea coastline is
on its west at a distance of 14 miles by water along river Tapi and 10 miles by road
along Dumas. It is located at a height of 13 meters above mean sea level. The city
forms a major urban core in the Ahmadabad Mumbai regional corridor, centrally
placed between both the settlements, at a distance of 260 kms. north of Bombay and
224 kms. south of Ahmadabad. The area has a gradual slope towards the western and
southern part of the city having a natural drainage system towards river Mindhola.
The river Tapi flows through the city dividing it into two parts. The pattern of the
Kakrapar canals indicates the alignments of the natural slopes from north-east to
south-west.
4.2.2 EVOLUTION OF PRESENT FORM

Surat is believed to have been established in 300 BC, by the Bhrigu kings. It
was then known as Suryapura. The present name of Surat is derived from this ancient
name. Surat was under the rule of the Chalukyas during 10th to 13th centuries, then
came under the Muslim Sultanate of Gujarat till 1573, after which the Mughals
annexed it during the reign of Akbar. The British established their first factory in
1759 and by 1800 the city was firmly under their rule. During the late 16th and 17th
centuries, Surat developed as major port and a trade centre on the western coast of
India. It continued as a trading centre till late 18th century, after which the trading
activities started shifting to Bombay. However, the social structure which developed
as a result of the trading activity continued, and there was a shift to small scale
industries and other commercial sectors.
Surat was originally established on the banks of river Tapi with a fort on the
eastern bank and a Custom House on the northern side of the fort. In the initial years,
activities were concentrated in the inner walled city. The wall was constructed in
1664 and the area within the walled city measured 440 acres. The entrances to the
walled city were through 12 gates. The outer wall was constructed in 1707 enclosing
an area of 1818 acres. In the beginning of the 20th century Surat started experiencing
the growth of sub-urban areas namely, Udhna, Athwa and Phulpada along the various
corridors opened up through the various gates. On account of such a development,
the physical expansion of the town was primarily directed towards the five main
39
corridors, namely, Katargam and Amroli in the north, Kamrej road in the east,
Udhana road in the south, Rander - Adajan in the west and Dumas road in south-west.
The city, as a result of such development, had a radial pattern. Todays Surat city is
an outcome of the expansion of the citys limits at various intervals geared to
accommodate the additional population and the increasing economic activities.
In the year 1664 the city was limited to the inner walled city covering an area
of 1.78 sq. kms. In 1707, with the construction of the outer wall, the area of the city
increased to 7.36 sq. kms. For the next almost 250 years the increase in the city area
wasnt very significant and in 1963 the city covered an area of 8.18 sq. kms. In the
same year 13.77 sq. kms. was added to the city area, increasing its total area to 21.95
sq. kms. In the last 45 years the area of the city increased by 15 times to an area of
326.52 sq. kms. The city has a mixed land use pattern. The entire walled city has a
concentration of several small and medium scale industries. A significantly large
proportion of the total city area is vacant and agricultural land occupies 14 per cent of
the total area of the city.
4.3
DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES
Surat is Indias twelth and Gujarats second most populous city. The city is
one of the 11 cities in the country which attained metropolitan status in 1991 census
by crossing the one million mark. Surat has experienced a rapid population increase
in the last two census decades (1971-81 and 1981-91).
Table 4.1 Area, population and growth Rate of Surat 1951 to 2006
Year
Area
(Sq. Km.)
Population
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2006
8.18
8.18
33.85
55.56
111.16
112.27
326.26
2.23
2.88
4.72
7.77
14.98
24.34
28.00
Density
(Persons/sq.
km.)
27284
35211
13934
13977
13483
21677
8582
Decadal
Growth Rate
(%)
29.05
63.75
64.65
93.00
62.38
15.08
Source: Surat City Corporate Plan (2001-2006), 2002.
At the state level Surat ranks second only to the capital Ahmedabad, which has
a population of 32.98 lakhs (Census of India, 1991). These two cities account for 34
40
per cent of the total urban population of the state. The city experienced an increase in
the density of population despite an increase in area between 1971 and 1981.
However, in 1991, the density declined due to a proportionally larger increase in the
area compared to the population. In 1991, the population was spread over an area of
111.16 sq. kms. resulting in a density of 13,483 persons / sq. km. In 2001, the density
increased to 21,677 persons / sq. km. but it decreased to 8,582 persons / sq. km. in
2006.
Surat city can be broadly classified into three parts; the old city covering an
area of 8.18 sq. kms.; the inner periphery and Rander zone spread over an area of
47.37 sq. kms. and the outer periphery comprising of the newly developed areas
covering 55.61 sq. kms. Although the population and density in the inner city had
increased from 1971 to 1981 a decreasing trend has been observed in these variables
in 1991. This resulted in a corresponding increase in the density in the inner
periphery. This trend points out the shift of population from the inner city due to
extreme congestion, dilapidated buildings, over-stressed civic infrastructure and an
overall deteriorating quality of life along with increasing land values.
Despite these processes the inner city still has the highest density among the
three zones with as many as 51,929 persons per sq. km. The inner periphery and the
Rander zone have emerged as the focus of population concentration during 1981-91
with the population and density almost doubling during the same period. While the
proportion of population in case of the inner city decreased from 77 per cent in 1971
to 28 per cent in 1991, it increased in the inner periphery from 23 per cent to 43 per
cent during the same period. The outer periphery which has emerged as the current
focus of population growth accounted for 29 per cent of the total city population and
has the lowest density with 7,911 persons per sq. km.
4.4
LAND USE PATTERN

This section gives a broad assessment of existing land use distribution. The
land use details as per the Revised Development Plan (SUDA) are shown in the table
below.
41
Table 4.2
Sr.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Land use Breakup
Types of Zone
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Educational / Public
purpose
Recreation/ garden and
open space
Transport and
communication
Agriculture
Urbanized area
Non urbanized area
Total
Area in
1978
2695.60
141.30
1006.40
3.9.96
2.09
14.92
Area in
1995
6189.00
256.00
2784.00
46.77
1.93
21.04
Area in
2004
9806.18
415.72
3023.40
57.54
2.44
17.74
540
8.00
735.00
5.55
579.82
3.40
22.21
0.33
58.00
0.44
106.61
0.63
790.92
11.72
1661.00
12.55
1661.41
9.16
1550.00
6746.43
65453.57
72200.00
22.98
100.00
-
1550.00
13233.00
58967.00
72200.00
11.71
100.00
1550.00
17143.14
55056.86
72200.00
9.09
100.00
Since 1978, the urbanized area of the city has increased almost 3 times till 2004. The
important features in the land use pattern are stated below:
Figure: 4.2
Land use Patten in SUDA (2004)
42
Chart: 4.1Category Wise Land use Distribution in the SMC Zones (%)
43
Source: Derived from actual Land use map of SUDA
The above figures show the percentage of area distribution as per land use
category. It can be noted from the above table that the highly dense central zone has
almost 40% of the land use as residential use. Commercial use is also dominant in the
central zone whereas the industrial use is dominant in the South zone of the city.
4.5
URBAN ECONOMY AND INDUSTRIAL GRWOTH

Surat is known for its textile manufacturing, trade, diamond cutting and
polishing industries, intricate zari works, chemical industries and the gas based
industries at Hazira established by leading industry houses such as ONGC, Reliance,
ESSAR, and Shell. The city economy is characterized by large number of small and
medium size unorganized industries. The industrial base is labor intensive.
4.5.1 TEXTILE INDUSTRIES

The textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the country and continues
to be a significant contributor to value of industrial production, employment
generation and to national income. An estimated 4 percent of GDP is contributed from
the sector. It adds to about 30% of countrys export earnings while adding about 7 to
8% of the gross import bill.
Surat is a dominant player in the textile sector. The traditional handloom
weaving industry has given way to power-looms, printing, and dyeing textiles. Surat
is one of the largest centers in the world for production of synthetic fabrics, mainly
nylon and polyester. The Indian Governments policy since 1956 of providing
incentives and protection to small scale industries boosted the power-loom industry in
44
the city. Weavers took advantage of the incentives and converted their handlooms into
power-looms.
At present, there are about 6 lacks power-looms, 450 Process houses, 100 and
above textile markets, 50000 and more embroidery machines in the city region and
the sector provides total employment of over 12 lacks people. The total production
value of Gray Fabrics in Surat is about Rs. 20,000 Crore.
Table: 4.3
Estimated jobs in textile industry
Types of Textile Units

Power looms Unit
Processing Units
Texturising Units
Embroidery Units
Cutting, Pecking, Dispatching
Total
Estimated Jobs in the

metropolitan Reegion
7,50,000
1,50,000
25,000
25,000
2,50,000
12,00,000
Source: On basis of the estimates of the South Gujarat Art Silk Industry, Surat. (2006)
The textile processing units are the major backbone of the Surat citys
economy. However, they depend mainly on ground water for its processing and
withdraw about 700 to 1000 cubic meter of water every day. There are about 60
thousand shops and establishments engaged in trading activity in general with textiles
as a predominant sector.
As per the latest survey conducted by Federation of Indian Art Silk Weaving
Industry, there is decrease in the migrant workers employed in the textile industry due
to the various schemes such as National Rural Employment Guarantee (NREGA) run
in states such as Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh.
4.5.2 DIAMOND CUTTING AND POLISHING

Gujarat accounts for almost 80 % of the diamonds processed in India. Of this,
90 % are processed by the units located in and around Surat alone. The emergence of
the industry in the region which did not have raw material, markets or worker base is
a significant feat. Even majority of the entrepreneurs are from outside. Initially the
industry began largely as an initiative of few individuals belonging to a particular
community which has now expanded to large section of the society. Under the Import
Replenishment Scheme introduced by the Government of India in 1958, diamond
traders were allowed to import rough diamonds from Diamond Trading Corporation,
45
London and other sources abroad and export cut and polished diamonds. Added
support came from the encouragement offered to small-scale industries during this
time. By the late 1950s, about 100 diamond cutting and polishing units had been set
up. With the setting up of the Gems and Jewellery Export Promotion Council in 1966,
diamond exports received a further impetus and consequently, the number of cutting
and polishing units also increased. Coupled with ease of establishing small-scale
industries, various governmental policies aimed at increasing the export of polished
diamonds aided the growth of such units in the city.
Like textiles, diamond cutting and polishing is also a labor intensive industry
employing about 7, 00,000 workers in about 25,000 units of all sizes operating within
the urban region. Indias first private Special Economic Zone has been functioning
near Sachin in Surat since November 2000. From household industry base, over the
years, the structure of the industry has changed to small, medium and large-scale
units. Technical advancements have also contributed to improved productivity.
Chart: 4.2 Growth of the Diamond industry in Surat, 1950-2007

The industry requires a low capital base, is non-polluting, high on employment
generation and is a leading contributor to foreign exchange reserve. Export value
increased from a mere Rs. 110 million in 1966-67 to Rs 320,000 millions in 2002-03.
However, as a result of technological advancements, during the last 10 years, though
output has increased by 5 times, there has not been any significant increase in jobs.
46
4.5.3
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL ESTATES

There are 605 medium and large scale industries based in Surat district. Most
of the medium and large scale industries are concentrated in Choryasi taluka (West
Surat) with 230 unit followed by Mangrol (North Surat) and Mandvi taluka (Central
Surat) with 131 and 116 units respectively.
Small Scale Industries (SSI)

There are over 41,300 small scale industries (SSI) functioning in Surat district.
Some of the main industries under SSIs in Surat are textiles, chemicals dying &
printing, diamond processing, jhari (Silver) making, and. engineering and related
activities ( manufacturing machineries & equipments)
Maximum numbers of SSI units (24,000 Units) are related to textile industry
in the district followed by repairing & service industry with more than 11,000
units.
Most of the small scale industries are located at talukas such as Choryasi
(Western).
Surat), Mangrol (Northern Surat), Olpa (Northern Surat), Mandvi (Central

Surat) and Palsana (Southern Surat).
Maximum number of SSIs, MSIs & LSI s are located in Choryasi taluka.
Table: 4.4
Sr.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Industrial Estates in Surat District

Industrial Estate
Area in Hectares
% of total area
1.13
3.07
4.71
15.34
31.05
37.80
38.33
40.00
54.96
127.04
165.14
218.27
437.50
749.35
0.04
0.11
0.16
0.54
1.09
1.32
1.34
1.40
1.92
4.44
5.77
7.63
15.30
26.20
Valod
Khatodara
Bardoli
Gaviyar-Meghdalla
Olpad
Hazira (GSPCL)
Katargam
Ichhapor Bhatpor (IOC)
Apparel park
Hazira
Doshwada
Pandesara
Hazira (Reliance)
Sachin
Source : Center for Environmental Planning and Technology
47
4.6
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
4.6.1 Surface Water Sources

Main source of water for the city has been the river Tapi since centuries. To
cater the portable water need for the city of surat first water works was commissioned
at Varachha in the year 1898, to serve 1.08 Lacs population & 8.25 Sq.Km area with
water supply from infiltration wells. After that, tube wells were constructed at
Varachha & Sarthana to increase the capacity.
Surat city has grown at a very spur growth rate so to harness the river water
for flood control, agriculture, power generation, domestic and industrial purposes the
Kakarapar weir, the Ukai dam and Singanpore weir were constructed in the year
1954, 1972 and 1995 respectively. Wei-cum-cause way at Rander was built on PPP
model with majority of investment from Industries situated in Hazira.
The City witnessed a tremendous growth in textile, diamond and jari industries
during sixties and seventies. This was followed by a spurt in major industrial activities
in and around the city, like the development of Hazira industrial complex in nineties.
Industrial and commercial activities have given Surat a place of prominence in the
whole of India.
Chart: 4.3 Daily average water supply in SMC

After a lapse of nearly a century, second water works for the city of Surat was
commissioned at Katargam in the year 1997 at a total project cost of about Rs.25
Crores. The concept of Katargam Water Works was developed and materialized after
the construction of a weir-cumcauseway in the year 1995, across the river Tapi,
connecting Rander and Singanpore area of Surat. The biggest advantage to the
48
development of Katargam Water Works was the large quantity of always available
harnessed water body nearer to city as compared to other water works.
Table 4.5 Average yield and installed capacity (2009)

Source
Surface source
Ground source
Total
Installed capacity
(MLD)
1128
90
1218
Average yield
(MLD)
640
60
700
Yield / inst. Cap.

57%
67%
57%
Source: Surat City development Plan (2008-2013)
Table 4.6 Water Supply- Quantity (2009)

Purpose
Quantity Supply (MLD) 2009
Domestic
600
Commercial
20
Industrial
55
Institutional
3
Public stand post
5
Newly merged area
17
Total
700
Table 4.7 Water Supply- Indicators

Head / Year
Total Area of Surat (sq.km.)
Area covered by piped water supply (sq.km.)
Total area to be covered under water supply
% of area served
Present estimated Population (lakhs)
Population covered (lakhs)
% of total population served
Total water supply capacity (ground and surface) (MLD)
Total water supplied (ground and surface) (MLD)
Gross daily supply (lpcd)
Treatment capacity / Total supply
Storage capacity / Total supply
Supply frequency
2009
326.515
125.74
223.43
56
39.00
31.02
79
1218
700
145
162 %
85 %
Av. 3 Hrs Daily
49
4.6.2 Ground Water Sources

The general practice of using ground water in addition to the municipal supply
has lead to the existence of bore wells in almost every dwelling unit o f the city. The
total number of tube wells for water supply in the city is 34. In Chorasi taluka of
Surat district, total groundwater recharge amounts to 330 MLD, out of which the
allocation for domestic and industrial requirements is about 50 MLD. This is far
below the citys future requirement.
It is observed that the ground water level generally rises to 2-5 meters below
ground level during the monsoon (June to October). During the rest of the year, the
ground water level drops down to below 5 meters and even up to 10 meters at some
locations. Water table in the city, which was 18 metres below ground level in 1991,
has gone down to 20 meters in 2000.
The total number of tube wells in the city is 41. At Sarthana water works,
there are 25 tube wells, out of which 5 are out of order on a permanent basis due to
intolerable sand/ gravel contents in the outflows.
The salient parameters of the tube wells around Surat city are:
Depth of water bearing strata - 30.0 m to 187.85 m
Yield
- 0.59 MLD to 3.31 MLD
Hydraulic conductivity
- 3.26 MLD to 52.42 MLD
Yield from Surface and Ground Sources

The installed capacity of surface water sources is fully utilized (100%) at
present. The average yield from the sources is about 70 percent of the installed
capacity. The main reason for the reduced yield of ground water appears to be the
silting of ground water sources after the construction of the Singapore weir. The yield
of french well no. 1 has substantially reduced. The yield of the tube wells at Varachha
and Sarthana Waterworks varies from 5 to 10 MLD. At present surface water sources
contribute 85 percent of the daily total water supply.
50
4.7
SOUTH ZONE: STUDY AREA
51
CHAPTER: 5
5.1.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
General
Field study gives the real picture of the existing situation of the study area. For any
study preparation of data base is pre requisite step, it is carried out through inventory data
studies, field studies, personal interview of the industries etc...Without existing data it is
difficult to judge the present condition of the field. The next step is design after study area
imagination involves collection of data for studying the past and existing rain fall
characteristics.
5.2.
Survey method
There are mainly two types of survey. The first is carried out through inventory data,
and the second is carried out through industry based interview. Inventory data helps to
develop the strategy for field survey and, it is also used to designing the questionnaires.
5.2.1. Inventory study

The inventory surveys are aimed to obtain the maximum available data from the
alternative department such as Surat municipal corporation, hydraulic department etc.
Data source for the study purpose in Surat Municipal Corporation is given below.
Detail reports of Pandesara G.I.D.C.
Map location of industry area.
Detail maps of Surat city.
Rainfall data of past 10 years.
5.2.2. Field Survey

It issued for the understanding and describes the physical condition and characteristics
of study area. Problems of area were indicated to direct observation. This survey was carried
out for industrial area by using prepared questionnaires.
The distribution of reports collected with respect to industry base interview survey at
Pandesara G.I.D.C., south zone, Surat city. In this project, study area bases on which industry
are already face problems of water in Pandesara G.I.D.C. at Surat city.
52
5.3.
Study Parameters
In Surat city, the main water source is only river Tapi. In Pandesara G.I.D.C. the
water sources is only S.M.C. water. It is not sufficient for all industry as well as Pandesara
G.I.D.C. area.
Survey from is divided into five major heads, such as
Source of water
Bore well
Storage tank
Type of roof & roof area
Types of production
Detail of important parameters is briefly described below:
5.3.1. Source of Water

This parameter gives the idea about the present water demand of the particular
industry. Indirectly it is also a measure of cost of water affordability.
5.3.2. Bore Well

This parameter gives the idea about type of bore well, quantity of gain water for
particular industry.
5.3.3. Storage Tank

This parameter gives the idea about type of storage tank
There are mainly two type of tank
-
underground storage tank
elevated storage tank
The storage tank is made from PVC, RCC
5.3.4. Type of Roof & Roof Area

This parameter gives idea about type of roof like slope roof & RCC slab. Slope
Roofing is made from asbestos, cement, steel, PVC, etc. Total roof area is more important to
collecting rain water for storage.
53
5.3.5. Types of production

In our survey area Pandesara G.I.D.C. there are mainly two types of production. First
is dying & printing of grey cloth material and second is production of chemicals.
5.4.
Questionnaires Design
The questionnaire is design to know the industrial satisfaction. By keeping that in
mind the components are in divided in to five major heads, such as source of water; bore
well, storage tank, roof type & roof area and types of production for the study area. The brief
overview of the major parameter is explained below.
Source of water, it contain the information regarding availability of water, quality of water,
quantity of water, in our survey area the water sources is SMC treated water, bore well,
tankers, etc. questionnaire design is attach in Annexure A.
5.4.1. Source of water

In Surat city main source of water is river Tapi. There are two types source of
water, Surat Municipal Corporation & bore well. Generally used of SMC water is high. Some
industries used bore well also. As per the below chart 97% industry are use Surat Municipal
Corporation water because they have not any alternative sources of water.
Table 5.1 Source of water
SR NO
1
2
3
SOURCE OF WATER
SOURCE
SURVEY
PRECENTAGE (%)
SMC
86
96.63
BORE WELL
1
1.12
BOTH
2
2.25
TOTAL
89
100.00
SOURCE OF WATER
1%2%
SMC
BORE WELL
97%
BOTH
Chart 5.1 Source of Water
54
5.4.2. Roof Type

In this system only rooftop is the catchment. The roofing should be of galvanised iron
sheet (G.I.), aluminium, clay tiles, asbestos or concrete. In the survey area there are mainly
two types of roof i.e. RCC slab and smooth galvanized corrugated iron sheet. According to
below analysis 44% industry having slopping roof.
Table 5.2 Type of Roof
ROOF TYPE
SR NO
TYPE
SURVEY
PERCENTAGE (%)
RCC
29
32.58
ROOF/SLOP
39
43.82
BOTH
21
23.60
TOTAL
89
100.00
ROOF TYPE
24%
32%
RCC
ROOF/SLOP
44%
BOTH
Chart 5.2 Type of Roof
5.4.3. Present Gain Water from SMC

In our Surat city, most of industry use SMC water or tanker also. They have present
water demand is Below chart showing, the present water demands is less than 50000 liters of
water per day (37.08%). most of industry demanded on between these criteria.
Table 5.3 Present Gain Water from SMC
PRESENT GAIN WATER SMC
SR NO
LITER
SURVEY
PERCENTAGE (%)
> 50000
33
37.08
50000 - 200000
10
11.24
200000 - 350000
8.99
350000 - 500000
18
20.22
> 500000
TOTAL
20
89
22.47
100.00
55
PRESENT WATER DEMAND

40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
37.08
20.22
11.24
22.47
PERCENTAGE
8.99
> 50000 50000 - 200000 - 350000 - > 500000

200000 350000 500000
Chart 5.3 Present Water Demand
5.4.4. Storage Tank

There are mainly two types of storage tank i.e. underground or elevated. From the
below chart underground tank is most of used. In this chart 34% storage tank is underground,
and elevated tank is used only 21.35%.
Table 5.4 Type of Storage Tank
SR NO
1
2
3
4
STORAGE TANK
TANK
SURVEY PERCENTAGE (%)
NONE
30
33.71
UNDERGROUND
30
33.71
ELEVATED
19
21.35
BOTH
10
11.24
TOTAL
89
100.00
STORAGE TANK
11%
34%
21%
34%
NONE
UNDERGROUND
ELEVATED
BOTH
Chart 5.4 Type of Storage Tank
56
5.4.5. Present Capacity of Tank

The design of storage tank may be constructed as per water demand and according to
the type of tank and material like: reinforcement concrete, fiberglass, polyethylene, stainless
steel are also suitable material. From below chart most of industry using storage tank between
50000 to 200000 liters per day.
Table 5.5 Present Capacity of Tank
PRESENT CAPACITY OF TANK
SR NO
LITER
SURVEY
PERCENTAGE (%)
> 50000
33
37.08
50000 - 200000
29
32.58
200000 - 350000
12
13.48
350000 - 500000
15
16.85
> 500000
0.00
TOTAL
89
100.00
PRESENT CAPACITY OF TANK

40.00
37.08
32.58
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
13.48
15.00
16.85
PERCENTAGE
10.00
5.00
0.00
0.00
> 50000
50000 200000
200000 350000
350000 - > 500000

500000
Chart 5.5 Present Capacity of Tank
5.4.6. Roof Area

Rain water may be collected from any kind of roof-tiles, metal, palm leaf, grass
surfaces, which have been specifically prepared and demarcated. In survey chart approx 55 %
of area is between 1000 to 2000 m2.
57
Table 5.6 Roof Area

SR NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
ROOF AREA
AREA(Sq.m) SURVEY PERCENTAGE (%)
< 1000
16
17.98
1000-2000
49
55.06
2000-3000
4
4.49
3000-4000
8
8.99
4000-5000
5
5.62
> 5000
7
7.87
TOTAL
89
100.00
ROOF AREA
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
PERCENTAGE
Chart 5.6 Roof Area
5.4.7. Future Water Demand:

In survey area they do not get sufficient required water so, they used tanker water
gives extra money. As per survey near about 39% industries are required 25000-50000 liters
additional water requirement.
Table 5.7 Future Water Demand

SR NO
1
2
3
4
FUTURE WATER DEMAND

LITER
SURVEY
PERCENTAGE (%)
<25000
30
33.71
25000-50000
36
40.45
50000-100000
14
15.73
>100000
9
10.11
TOTAL
89
100.00
58
FUTURE WATER DEMAND

45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
40.45
33.71
15.73
10.11
PERCENTAGE(%)
Chart 5.7 Future Water Demand
59
CHAPTER: 6
6.1.
RWH SYSTEM DESIGN
General
Rainwater harvesting is not only useful for domestic purposes, but can also be
used for agricultural and Industrial/ commercial applications that have heavy water
requirements. RWH will likely see heightened importance as a water security measure
in the context of climate change, with the likelihood of changing rainfall regimes,
prolonged droughts and extreme storm events. The United Nations Commission on
Sustainable Development has called for the use of rainwater harvesting to supplement
water supplies in countries around the world.
6.2.
Main RWH Component
The typical RWH system has four main parts:
6.2.1. Catchment area

Commonly a roof surface or pavement. Concrete and other impervious
pavements may be used for multiple-user community systems and can have
applications for agricultural, commercial & industrial uses with large water
requirements. Figure 6.1 shows such a catchment surface that provides water to the
industry in Pandesara GIDC.
6.2.2. Conveyance system

Network of guttering and pipes to transfer the rainwater from the catchment to
the storage tank. This consists of connections to one or more down-pipes connected to
the roof gutters. A key component of the conveyance system to improve the
cleanliness of the harvested water is a first-flush device that diverts the dirtiest roofwater away from the storage tank.
6.2.3. Storage device

A tank situated above, underneath or partially below the ground.
Planning for Rainwater Harvesting: Industrial Area
60
6.2.4. Distribution system

In the most basic case, this can be simply a container to extract the water from
the storage tank or a pipe functioning solely as an outlet. For a household, this will be
the piping network that supplies the building with the harvested water. For a
community RWH system, this could be a single outlet pipe or a complex network of
pipes serving multiple users. A pump may be used to transmit the water throughout
the distribution system.
6.3
The Catchment Area

For industrial water supplies, the roof of the building is generally used as the
catchment area. Some materials used to coat the roof such as bitumen, paints or
sheeting containing lead, may pose risk to human health. RWH systems are bestsuited where the roofing material is smooth and coated with chemically neutral
substances. Non-corrosive sheet metals such as galvanized sheets or aluminum are
ideally suited for use with RWH systems. They are less prone to build-up and
contamination
from
dust, leaves, animal

droppings and other
debris, compared to
rougher roof surfaces
such as tile, shingles
or thatch.
Figure 6.1 Roof Catchment Areas
Follow these general guidelines when installing RWH rooftop catchment systems:
Do not use lead fittings;
Repair or replace metal roofs that are visibly corroded;
Check paints for suitability, and where possible use non-toxic acrylic-based
paints designed for exterior and roof use. Do not use paints containing lead,
chromate, tar/bitumen, fungicides or other toxins as they may pose a health
risk and/or may impart an unpleasant taste to the water;
After roof repainting, do not allow runoff water from the first rainfall to enter
the storage tank.
61
To calculate the volume of water that can be captured by a roof catchment.

To calculate the amount of rain that can be captured off a roof surface per
year, a procedure known as the Rational Method can be applied. All you need to
know is the average annual rainfall for your location, the size or area of your roof and
the type of roof surface you have. The average annual rainfall should be available
from your local Meteorological Service. If you want more precise estimates you may
take into account the average, minimum and maximum rainfall on a per-month basis.
Table 6.1 Runoff Coefficients for Various Catchment Types

Type of catchment Coefficients
Roof catchments
Tiles
Corrugated metal sheets
Ground surface coverings
Concrete
Brick pavement
Untreated ground catchments
Soil on slopes less than 10 percent
Rocky natural catchments
Co efficient
0.8 - 0.9
0.7 - 0.9
0.6 - 0.8
0.5 - 0.6
0.1 - 0.3
0.2 - 0.5
(Source: Alphonsus Daniel, pers. Comm.)
The Rational Method is given as follows:

Supply = rainfall (mm/year) x roof are (m2) x runoff coefficient
= liters per year
The runoff coefficient is the amount of water that actually drains free of the
surface relative to the amount the falls on the surface as rain. For example a runoff
coefficient of 0.8 means that of the total volume of rain that fell on the catchment
surface, 80% drained off the surface; the other 20% stayed on the surface. Smooth
metal sheet catchments with a steep gradient have higher runoff coefficients than flat
concrete catchment surfaces for moisture. Evaporation directly off the catchment
surface also affects the runoff coefficient. The roof surface area available for rainfall
harvesting depends on the width and length of the roof surface, and the angle (or
slope) of the roof.
For the amount of water you can capture in one year you will need to estimate
the area of your roof, the average annual rainfall at your location and the runoff
coefficient for the surface. The mathematical relationship is given as:
Supply (liters per year) = rainfall (mm/year) x area (m2) x runoff coefficient
62
The runoff coefficients for various surfaces are given in Table 6.1.The roof area is
calculated by the following relationship:
A worked example:
Mean annual rainfall = 650 mm per year
Roof angle = 23 degrees; sine of the angle = 0.3907
Roof area = 60 m (length) x 20m (width) x 0.3907 = 470 m2
Roof surface is smooth corrugated metal. This surface is assumed to have a runoff
coefficient of 0.8
Supply = 650 x 470 x 0.8 = 2, 44,400liters per year.
6.4
The Conveyance System

The conveyance system consists of the gutters, pipes and screens. The gutters
and piping collect drained runoff from the roof catchment into the storage system.
Screens prevent leaves and other organic.
6.4.1 Gutters
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes are commonly used for gutters given their low
maintenance
requirements.
Gutters
must slope toward the direction of the

storage tank and the gradient should
be equal to or more than 1 centimeter
per meter or 1/8 inch per foot. You
will need to regularly clean the gutters
to reduce debris collection to catch the
most rain, and ensure that leakage is
kept to a minimum. To minimize
Figure 6.2 Typical PVC guttering and downpipe
the amount of leaf litter that gets on to the roof and trapped in the guttering, you
should trim away overhanging branches. However if you opt not to remove
overhanging branches, gutter screens may be used. The size (width) of the gutters
should be chosen based on the roof section area. The South Pacific Applied
Geosciences Commission (SOPAC) Handbook rainwater harvesting (2004) provides
63
guidance to sizing of the gutters and the downpipes appropriate to handle rainstorms
in tropical regions.
The size (width) of the gutters should be chosen based on the roof section
area. Design length of Roof is 60 meter. Select gutter size based on 1 centimeter per
meter or 1/8 inch per foot. So adopt diameter of gutter pipe is 60 centimeter.
Table 6.2 Sizing gutters and down-pipes for RWH systems

Roof area (m2) served by
one gutter
17
25
34
46
66
128
208
Gutter width
(mm)
60
70
80
90
100
125
150
Minimum downpipe
diameter (mm)
40
50
50
63
63
75
90
(Source: SOPAC, 2004)
6.4.2 First-flush diverter

The first rains that wash the roof surface will often contain offensive
materials, especially following a long dry spell.
The material that would have
accumulated on the surface will include animal droppings, vegetable matter and dust,
all of which can degrade the quality of the stored water should this first-flush enter
the storage tank. One option
is to use a first flush diverter
to divert this material away
before it enters the tank. A
first-flush
diverter
is
simple installation that is

part
of
the
downpipe,
configured to remove the

initial wash off the roof so it
does not enter the tank.
Figure 6.3 Simple first-flush diverter
The first flush diverter works by channeling the first flow down the downpipe
to its base where it encounters a cap with a small drain hole (the drain hole will allow
for gradually drainage else, the system will need to be drained manually). This
64
permits the first flow of water containing the roof debris to settle at the bottom of the
downpipe, with the cleaner
later water settling on top,
permitting
relatively
clean
water to enter the tank.

There
are
various
configurations that can be used

for
first-flush
diverters.
Figures are examples of the

simple first-flush diverter.
Figure 6.4 First-flush diverter
Figure 6.5 first-flush systems using float-ball mechanism

This basic design can be augmented with the use of a floating ball valve that
sits on top of the water column. The ball valve isolates the dirty first flush from the
cleaner water once the water column in the downpipe floats the ball to the constriction
in the neck of the downpipe.
To calculate the volume of water you need to divert using a first flush
system
It is generally assumed that a depth of rainfall on the roof equivalent to 0.5
mm is required to wash off the accumulated contaminants. You first need to
determine the area of the roof and simply multiply by 0.5mm. Secondly, to determine
the length of first-flush down-pipe diversion requires you divide the required volume
of water to be diverted, by the cross-sectional area of the pipe, where p = 3.14 and r is
the radius or the diameter of the pipe.
Volume of diverted water (liters) = Unit length (m) x Unit width (m) x 0.5
(mm)
(Multiply answer by 0.22 to convert the value to imperial gallons)
Pipe length (m) = Volume of diverted water (l) [3.14 x pipe radius2 (mm)
x 0.001]
Pipe length (feet) = Volume of diverted water (gal) x 22.57 (3.14 x pipe
radius2 (inch)
65
Project Data
Roof length = 60 meters
Roof width = 20 meters
Pipe diameter = 175 mm (7 inch), therefore radius = 87.5 mm (3.5 inch)
(a) Volume of diverted water (liters) = 60 x 20x 0.5 = 600 liters (or 132 gallons)
(b) Pipe length (m) =600 [3.14 x (87.5)2 x 0.001] = 25m
(c) Pipe length (ft.) = 132 x 22.57 (3.14 x3.52) = 77.45 ft.
6.4.3 Screens
Screens prevent leaves, particulate matter, and other objects from entering the
storage tank. If allowed to enter, these materials decompose, providing nutrients or
food for potentially harmful microorganisms to multiply. If you can keep the storage
tank free of such materials, the less likely nutrients can accumulate; without this
nutrient supply, the bacteria eventually die-off from starvation within 2 to 20 days.
Screens are therefore among
your front-line defenses to
protect water quality. A huge
benefit
derived
from
installation of screens is in
the prevention of mosquito
entry and breeding.
Figure 6.6 Screens to exclude entry of insects and
other potential contaminants
A filter or screen should be durable, easy to clean and replace. filtration
screens (made of stainless steel or synthetic mesh) are the simplest, most inexpensive
and widely used. These may be mounted across the top inlet of the storage tank with
the downpipe above the screen (Figure 6.5).
Use both coarse and fine screens to improve water quality.
Coarse screens: To prevent larger size material (leaves, large insects, small
animals) from entering the tank. A 5 mm (0.2 inch mesh) installed before the
tank entry is typical.
Fine screens: To exclude mosquitoes and fine particles from entering the tank.
Insect-proof mesh or strong standard cotton/polypropylene filters installed at
the inlet and outlet of the tank is recommended.
66
6.4.4 Filter
Sand filters are commonly available, easy and inexpensive to construct. These
filters can be employed for treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity
suspended be constructed domestically, the top layer comprises of coarse sand
followed by a 5-10 mm layer of gravel followed by another 5-25 mm layer of gravel
Figure 6.7 Rapid Sand Filter Bed

and boulders. These filters are manufactured commercially on a wide scale. Most of
the water purifiers available in the market are of this type.
6.5
The Storage Device

The storage facility is at the core of the RWH system. In addition to having the
appropriate volume Capacity in relation to the catchment area, rainfall conditions and
needs, it must be functional, durable and cost-effective in its installation and
maintenance. An ideal or universal storage tank design does not exist; selection of
the type of storage facility ultimately depends on purpose of use, affordability,
Availability of supplies and materials, and know-how in design and installation.
Considerations in design and operation of the storage facility:
Water-tight construction with a secure cover to keep out insects and other
vermin, dirt and sunshine (note, exposure to sunlight will cause algal growth
in stored water);
Screened inlet to prevent particles and mosquitoes from entering the tank;
Screened overflow pipe to prevent mosquito entry and breeding;
67
In the case of cisterns, inclusion of a manhole (to permit insertion of a ladder)

to allow access for cleaning;
An extraction system that does not contaminate the water during operation
(related to tap and pump installation);
Soak away to prevent spilt water forming standing puddles near the tank
(minimize mosquito breeding);
In the case of cisterns, a maximum height of 2 meters (related to water depth)

to prevent build up of high water pressure (unless additional reinforcement is
used in walls and foundations).
6.5.2 Sizing of the storage facility

The size of the storage facility depends on the rainfall regime, the roof
material and area, the expected water demand, the cost of construction/installation and
the degree of reliability the owner desires. An undersized storage system will not
satisfy demands while an oversized one might never be fully utilized. As a rule-ofthumb, it is advised that the system be over-designed to provide at least 20% more
than the estimated demand.
There are several methods that can be used to estimate the size of the storage tank.
(1) Dry period demand method,
(2) The graphic method,
(3) The simple method and
(4) The simple tabular method.
Adopt the simple method for storage tank.
(1)
Dry period demand method

In this approach, one simply estimates the longest average time period without
any rainfall for your particular geographic area. This will typically coincide with the
dry season which in the Surat city generally runs from January to May. Your local
meteorological office can be consulted to obtain such estimates. Hence, if your
industrial daily demand in 100 liters (22 gallons) and the dry season runs on average
for 120 days, then the size of your storage should be 12,000 liters (2,640 gallons).
68
(2)
Simple method
In this method, the average annual water consumption is estimated for the
industry, based on the consumption of water. The average duration of the longest
rainless period is also assumed in terms of number of days. This rainless duration
period is in turn expressed as a ratio (of the duration of a year) and multiplied by the
annual consumption to estimate the volume of water that will be required for this
period.
To calculate consumption by Simple Method

This is based on the consumption rates of the industry without taking the
rainfall amount or roof size into consideration. This method is applicable in cases
where sufficient rainfall and catchment area are available. It is a rough guide to
estimate your tank size. This method is used in the estimation of tank size based on
rainfall variability and demand over the course of a year. The process comprises of
four key steps.
1. Obtain monthly rainfall data for a year that was particularly dry or the rainfall
erratic. This data may be obtained from your local meteorological office.
2. Estimate the volume captured off the roof based on the area of the roof and the
runoff coefficient.
3. Estimate the monthly demand on the basis of the number of persons using the
supply, the individual daily consumption and the average number of days in a
month.
4. Use the monthly volume capture and demand estimates to calculate the
minimum storage required. This information is assembled in a tabular format
that tracks the changes in the cumulative volume captured and stored, the
cumulative demand and the total amount that is stored in any given month.The
difference between the highest volume stored and the amount left in the tank
at the end of the year represents the minimum storage volume.
6.5.2.1 Designs of tanks

In this project tank size is calculated by using tabular method. In this project
two storage tanks are design one is industrial use and other is drinking purpose.
69
To calculate storage tank for industrial use

Area of catchment A= 1200 m3
Average annual rain fall R = 0.65 m (650 mm)
Runoff co efficient C = 0.8
So, annual water harvesting = A x R x C
= 1200 x 0.65 x 0.8
= 624 m3
= 624000 lit.
Water required for industry in dry season = 245 x 20000
= 49 x 105
Factor of safety = 10 %
= 10 % of 49 x 105
= 49 x 104 lit.
= 4900 m3
Industrial use tank = 50 x 33 x 3 m = 4950 m3
To calculate storage tank for drinking purpose

= 1200 x 0.65 x 0.8
= 624 m3
= 624000 lit.
The drinking water requirement for person,
(In dry season) = 245 x 247 x 3
= 181545 liter
As a safety factor = the tank should be built 20% larger than required
Total water required
= 217854 liter
= 217.85 m3
Size of drinking tank is = 10 x 14.5 x 1.5 m = 218 m3
6.5.1 Tank inlet and outlet configurations

The quality of water resident in the tank generally improves with time. This is
because bacteria will die-off within 2 to 20 days and suspended particles fall to the
bottom. Incoming rainwater is therefore often of lower quality than stored rainwater.
To ensure the separation of these different water qualities, the outflow of the downpipe should be placed at the near-bottom of the tank so that the older improved
water is forced to the top layer.
70
Figure 6.8 Design configurations for (a) tank inflow and (b) outflow
A low-rise pipe surrounding the down pipe called the break ring. Helps
break the force of the outflow preventing it from disturbing any sediment that may
have accumulated on the tank bottom. To extract the cleaner top layer of water, a
flexible intake hose attached to a float is recommended in figure 6.8.
6.5.3 Tank overflow configurations

An overflow is installed to reduce the possibility of system collapse during a
rainstorm when the tank may fill rapidly. Figure shows the simplest overflow
arrangement, although this means that the better quality water at the surface will be
lost to the outflow. The configurations showed in below Figures (a) & (b) are better
solutions as the good quality water within the top layer remains in the tank. The
arrangement shown in Figure allows for automatic de-sludging of the tank which is
recommended for large tanks.
Figure 6.9 Design configurations for tank overflows

The arrangement shown in Figure (d) allows for the separation of floating
material that may still enter the tank. It is recommended that the overflow should be
located close to the tank roof so as to avoid dead storage.
71
6.5.4 Artificial Recharge

Recharge Pits are constructed for
recharging the shallow aquifers. These are
generally on structed 1 to 2 m. wide and 2 to
3 m. deep. After excavation, the pits are
refilled with pebbles and boulders as well as
coarse sand. The excavated pit is lined with a
brick/stone wall with openings (weep-holes)
at regular intervals. The top area of the pit
can be covered with a perforated cover.
Design procedure is the same as that of a
settlement tank. The size of filter material is
generally taken as below:
Coarse sand: 1.5 - 2 mm
Gravels: 5 - 10 mm
Figure 6.10 Artificial Recharge Well
Boulders: 5 - 20 mm
The filter material should be filled in graded form. Boulders at the bottom,
gravels in between and coarse sand at the top so that the silt content that will come
with runoff will be deposited on the top of the coarse sand layer and can easily be
removed. If clay layer is encountered at shallow depth, it should be punctured with
auger hole and the auger hole should be refilled with fine gravel of 3 to 6 mm size.
Recharge pits 1 to 2 m wide and 2 to 3 m deep are constructed to recharge

shallow aquifers.
After excavation, the pit is refilled with boulders and pebbles at the bottom
followed by gravel and then sand at the top.
The collected water from the rooftop is diverted to the pit through a drainpipe.
Recharge pit can be of any shape i.e. circular, square or rectangular. If the pit
is trapezoidal in shape, the side slopes should be steep enough to avoid silt
deposition.
72
CHAPTER: 7 CONCLUSIONS AND DESIGN SUMMERY

7.1
GENERAL
Major parts of our country have been facing continuous failure of monsoon
and consequent deficit of rainfall over the last few years. Also, due to ever increasing
population of India, the use of ground water has increased drastically leading to
constant depletion of ground water level causing the wells and tube wells to dry up.
In some places, excessive heat waves during summer create a situation similar
to drought. It is imperative to take adequate measures to meet the drinking water
needs of the people in the country besides industrial purpose. Out of 8760 hours in a
year, most of the rain in India falls in just 100 hours.
In Surat city river tapi is the main source of drinking water because
underground water level depth is so high. In particularly in industrial area water
demand is so high compare to availability of water through Surat Municipal
Corporation. According to this crisis this research is help to fulfill water demand and
to uplift underground water level. Rain water harvesting is the best solution for
underground water recharging and water is used in industrial production work.
7.2
DESIGN SUMMERY
1.
The catchment area of roof

Supply (liters per year) = rainfall (mm/year) x area (m2) x runoff
coefficient
Mean annual rainfall = 650 mm per year
Roof angle = 23 degrees; sine of the angle = 0.3907
Roof area = 60 m (length) x 20m (width) x 0.3907 = 470 m2
Roof surface is smooth corrugated metal. This surface is assumed to have a
runoff
Coefficient of 0.8
Supply (liters per year) = rainfall (mm/year) x area (m2) x runoff coefficient
= 650 x 470 x 0.8
= 2, 44,400liters per year.
73
2.
The Conveyance System

(A)
Gutters
The size (width) of the gutters should be chosen based on the roof
section area. Design length of roof is 60 meter. Select gutter size based on 1
centimeter per meter or 1/8 inch per foot. So adopt diameter of gutter pipe is
60 centimeter.
(B)
First-flush diverter
It is generally assumed that a depth of rainfall on the roof equivalent to
0.5 mm is required to wash off the accumulated contaminants. You first need
to determine the area of the roof and simply multiply by 0.5MM. Secondly, to
determine the length of first-flush down-pipe diversion requires you divide the
required volume of water to be diverted, by the cross-sectional area of the
pipe, where p = 3.14 and r is the radius or the diameter of the pipe.
Roof length = 60 meters

Roof width = 20 meters
Pipe diameter = 175 mm (7 inch), therefore radius = 87.5 mm (3.5 inch)
Volume of diverted water (liters) = Unit length (m) x Unit width (m) x
0.5 (mm)
= 60 x 20x 0.5
= 600 liters (or 132 gallons)
Pipe length (m) = Volume of diverted water (l) [3.14 x pipe radius2
(mm) x 0.001]
= 600 [3.14 x (87.5)2 x 0.001]
= 25m
Pipe length (feet) = Volume of diverted water (gal) x 22.57 (3.14 x pipe
radius2 (inch))
= 132 x 22.57 (3.14 x3.52)
= 77.45 ft.
74
(C)
Screens
Fine screens: To exclude mosquitoes and fine particles from
entering
the
tank.
Insect-proof
mesh
or
strong
standard
cotton/polypropylene filters installed at the inlet and outlet of the tank

is recommended.
3.
Rapid sand filter

Sand filters are commonly available, easy and inexpensive to
construct. These filters can be employed for treatment of water to effectively
remove turbidity suspended be constructed domestically, the top layer
comprises of coarse sand followed by a 5-10 mm layer of gravel followed by
another 5-25 mm layer of gravel and boulders.
4.
Size of tank
(A) Storage tank for industrial use
So,
annual water harvesting = A x R x C

= 1200 x 0.65 x 0.8
= 624 m3
= 624000 lit.
Water required for industry in dry season = 245 x 20000

= 49 x 105
Factor of safety = 10 %
= 10 % of 49 x 105
= 49 x 104 lit.
= 4900 m3
Industrial use tank = 50 x 33 x 3 m = 4950 m3
(B)
Storage tank for drinking purpose
= 1200 x 0.65 x 0.8
= 624 m3
= 624000 lit.
75
The drinking water requirement for person,

(In dry season) = 245 x 247 x 3
= 181545 liter
As a safety factor = the tank should be built 20% larger than required
Total water required
= 217854 liter
= 217.85 m3
Size of drinking tank is = 10 x 14.5 x 1.5 m = 218 m3
5.
Tank inlet and outlet configurations

A low-rise pipe surrounding the down pipe called the break ring.
Helps break the force of the outflow preventing it from disturbing any
sediment that may have accumulated on the tank bottom. To extract the
cleaner top layer of water, a flexible intake hose attached to a float.
6.
Tank overflow configurations

An overflow is installed to reduce the possibility of system collapse
during a rainstorm when the tank may fill rapidly. The separation of floating
material that may still enter the tank. It is recommended that the overflow
should be located close to the tank roof so as to avoid dead storage.
7.
Artificial recharge well

Artificial Recharge well is constructed for recharging the shallow aquifers.
These are generally on structed 1 to 2 m. wide and 2 to 3 m. deep. . The size of filter
material is generally taken as Coarse sand: 1.5 - 2 mm, Gravels: 5 - 10 mm, Boulders:
5 - 20 mm.
76
REFERENCES
1. A planning guides for Tanzania, (2000) Rainwater Harvesting for Natural
Resources Management, Regional Land Management Unit, RELMA/Sida,
ICRAF House, Gigiri P. O. Box 63403, Nairobi, Kenya.
2. A Contractors guide,(2005) Domestic Rainwater Harvesting in Queensland,
Helping Queenslanders Build Better.
3. Adrienne LaBranche, Hans-Otto Wack,(2007) Virginia Rainwater Harvesting
Manual, the Cabell Brand Center, Salem, VA.
4. B. R. T. Vilane and E. J. Mwendera, (2011) An inventory of rainwater harvesting
technologies in Swaziland, African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 6(6),
pp. 1313-1321.
5. Brown, R. (2007) Rainwater and Grey Water: Technical and economic
feasibility, Draft Report. BSRIA Ltd for the Market Transformation Programme.
6. Che-Ani A.I and Shaari N, (2009) Rainwater Harvesting as an Alternative Water
Supply in the Future, European Journal of Scientific Research, ISSN 1450-216X
Vol.34 No.1 (2009), pp.132-140.
7. Christopher Kloss, (2008) Rainwater Harvesting Policies, Municipal Handbook,
Low Impact Development Center, EPA-833-F-08-010.
8. Dr. Hari J. Krishna, (2005) The Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting, Texas
Water Development Board, Austin
9. Dr. D. K. Chadha, (2000) Rain Water Harvesting and Artificial Recharge to
Ground Water, Central Ground Water Board Jamnagar House, Mansingh Road
New Delhi-110011.
10. Dr. L. Minaketan Singh, P.I., (2006) Pilot Project on Rain Water Harvesting in
Manipur Manipur Science & Technology Council Central Jail Road, Imphal - 795
001.
11. Dr. S.C. Dhiman,(2011) Rain Water and Artificial Recharge, Central Ground
Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi.
12. Environment Agency, (2008) Harvesting rainwater for domestic uses: an

information guide, Environment Agency, Rio House, Waterside Drive, Aztec
West, Almondsbury, Bristol BS32 4UD.
13. Fewkes, A. (2005) The technology, design and utility of rainwater catchment
systems, In Water Demand Management Memon, FA and Butler, D (eds). IWA
Publishing.
14. Hassell, C. (2005) Rainwater harvesting in the UK a solution to increasing
water shortages? Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Rainwater
Catchment Cistern Systems. Petrolina, Brazil.
15. Janette Worm, Tim van Hattum, (2006) Rainwater harvesting for domestic use,
Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
16. Kalyan Ray, (2005) Rainwater Harvesting and Utilisation, Settlements
Programme (UN-HABITAT) Water, Sanitation and Infrastructure Branch P.O.
Box. 30030, Nairobi, Kenya.
17. Konig, Klaus W., (2008) A Low impact architecture in Germany Cooling with
Rainwater, Architekturbro, Jakob-Kessenring-Str. 38, 88662 berlingen /
Germany.
18. Konig, K. W. (2001) The Rainwater Technology Handbook: Rainwater
Harvesting in building, Wilo-Brain, Dortmund.
19. Leggett, D. J., Brown, R., Brewer, D., Stanfield, G. and Holiday, E. (2001)
Rainwater and grey water use in buildings: Best practice guidance, (C539).
CIRIA, London.
20. Manoj P. Samuel and A.C. Mathew, (2008) Rejuvenation of Water Bodies by
Adopting Rainwater Harvesting and Groundwater Recharging Practices in
Catchment Area A case study, Proceedings of Taal2007: The 12 th World Lake
Conference 766 776.
21. Patricia H. Waterfall, (2006) Harvesting rainwater for landsace used, Arizona
Department of Water Resources, Tucson Active Management Area, 400 W.
Congress, Suite 518, Tucson AZ 85701.
22. S. Vishvanath, (2001) Rainwater Harvesting in urban area, 2646 main 6 block,
BEL layout, Vidyaranyapura, Bangalore, 560 097.
R
23. S. I. Oni, Emmanuel Ege, Charles Asenime, and S.A. Oke, (2008) Rainwater
Harvesting Potential for Domestic Water Supply in Edo State, Indus Journal of
Management & Social Sciences, Vol.2, No. 2: 87-98.
24. Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC) and Surat urban Development Authority
(SUDA), (2008-2012) City Development Plan, CEPT University Ahmadabad.
25. Sarah Ward, (2008) Rainwater Harvesting in the UK Current Practice and
Future Trends, Centre for Water Systems, School of Engineering, Computer
Science and Mathematics University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QF UK.
26. Tanuja Ariyananda, (2007) Rain Water for Urban Buildings in Sri Lanka,
Subtropical Green Building International Conference, Taipei, Taiwan 2007.
27. Websites
http://www.suratmunipalcorporation.org.in
http://www.freerain.co.uk/domestic-case-study.html
http://www.rainharvesting.co.uk
http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk
ANNEXURE A
VISIT PHOTOS
ANNEXURE B
S.T.B.S. COLLEGE OF DIPLOMA ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
SUB: PROJECT-2
CLASS: 961-CIVIL
SEM: 6TH
BATCH: C
DATE:_____________
PLANNING FOR RAIN WATER HARVESTING: INDUSTRIAL

AREA
CONTACT DETAILS
Company name:_________________________________________________________
Companyaddress:________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Telephone: ___________________
Post code:_______________________
Fax: ________________________
E-mail:_____________________________
SITE SPECIFICATION
Source of water: __________________________________________________________
Water gain from sources: SMC treated water_______________
Raw water_________
Present water demand: ___________________
Future water demand: ____________________
Bore well: Yes / No
No. of bore well: _____________
Storage tank: Underground / elevated
Capacity of tank: _____________
Roof type: ____________________
Roof area: ______________________
Area of structure around company:____________________________________________
Available open area of company: ___________________
Types of production:_________________________________________________
Use for garden irrigation: ___________________
Area of garden: ________________
Are you interested to install rainwater harvesting system?
YES / NO
NOTE:__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
ANNEXURE C
Surat City Last Five Years Rain Fall Data

A
Month
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
B
Volume
Captured in
Month
(liters)
0
0
4,18,328
1,59,5440
12,89,680
9,09,216
1,53,048
88,951
0
0
21,280
0
Cumulative
Volume
Captured
Volume
Demand
in Month
Cumulative
Demand
0
0
4,18,328
20,13,768
33,03,448
42,12,664
43,65,712
44,54,663
44,54,663
44,54,663
44,75,943
44,75,943
1,90,625
1,90,626
1,90,627
1,90,628
1,90,629
1,90,630
1,90,631
1,90,632
1,90,633
1,90,634
1,90,635
1,90,636
1,90,625
3,81,250
5,71,875
7,62,500
9,53,125
11,43,750
13,34,375
15,25,000
17,15,625
19,06,250
20,96,875
22,87,500
F
Total
Amount
Stored
(C-E)
1,90,625
3,81,250
1,53,547
12,51,268
23,50,323
30,68,914
30,31,337
29,29,663
27,39,038
25,48,413
23,79,068
21,88,443
G
Deficit/surplus
for Month
(B-D)
1,90,625
1,90,625
2,27,703
14,04,815
10,99,055
7,18,591
37,577
1,01,674
1,90,625
1,90,625
1,69,345
1,90,625
ANNEXURE D
Sine of the Roof angle: Multiply by Roof Dimensions
Angle
Sine
Angle
Sine
Angle
Sine
Angle
Sine
Angle
Sine
(Degrees) (Angle) (Degrees) (Angle) (Degrees) (Angle) (Degrees) (Angle) (Degrees) (Angle)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
0.0175
0.0349
0.0523
0.0698
0.0872
0.1045
0.1219
0.1392
0.1564
0.1736
0.1908
0.2079
0.2250
0.2419
0.2588
0.2756
0.2924
0.3090
0.3256
0.3420
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
0.3584
0.3746
0.3907
0.4067
0.4226
0.4384
0.4540
0.4695
0.4848
0.5000
0.5150
0.5299
0.5446
0.5592
0.5736
0.5878
0.6018
0.61557
0.6293
0.6428
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
0.6561
0.6691
0.6820
0.6947
0.7071
0.7193
0.7314
0.7431
0.7547
0.7660
0.7771
0.7880
0.7986
0.8090
0.8192
0.8290
0.8387
0.8780
0.8572
0.8660
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
0.8746
0.8829
0.891
0.8988
0.9063
0.9135
0.9205
0.9272
0.9397
0.9455
0.9951
0.9511
0.9563
0.9613
0.9659
0.9703
0.9744
0.9781
0.9816
0.9848
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
0.9877
0.9903
0.9925
0.9945
0.9962
0.9976
0.9986
0.9994
0.9998
1.0000

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A

PLANNING FOR RAIN WATER HARVESTING:

S.T.B.S. COLLEGE OF DIPLOMA ENGINEERING, SURAT

Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad

S.T.B.S. COLLEGE OF DIPLOMA ENGINEERING, SURAT

Head of the Department

Place: STBS collage, Surat

1.2 Research Definition and Objectives

1.3 Need for rain water harvesting

1.4 Identifying Problem

1.5 Expected Outcome

1.6 Research Methodology

2.2 Historical development of rainwater harvesting

2.3 From where we can harvest rainwater

Paved and unpaved areas

Storm water drains

2.4 Rainwater harvesting in the developed world

2.5 Rainwater harvesting around the world- case studies

Indore, Madhya Pradesh, Central India

Aizawl (North-East India)

South East Asia, Japan

RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM

3.2 Scale of operations

3.3 Elements of RWH System

Gutters and Downspouts/Conduits

Leaf Screens/Roof Washers

3.4 Types and configurations of RWH systems

Indirectly pumped systems

Directly pumped systems

Gravity fed systems

STUDY AREA PROFILE

4.2 City profile

Evolution of Present Form

4.3 Demographic Features

4.4 Land use Pattern

4.5 Urban Economy and Industrial Growth

Diamond Cutting and Polishing

Major Industrial Estates

4.6 Sources of Water Supply

Ground Water Sources

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

5.2 Survey Method

5.3 Study Parameters

Type of Roof & Roof Area

5.4 Questionnaires Design

4.7 South Zone: Study Area

Present Gain Water from SMC

Present Capacity of Tank

Future Water Demand

RWH SYSTEM DESIGN

6.2 Main RWH Component

6.3 The Catchment Area

6.4 The Conveyance System

First Flush Device

6.5 The Storage Device

Sizing of The Storage Facility

Tank Inlet & Outlet Configuration

Tank Overflow Configuration

Artificial Recharge Well

CONCLUSION AND DESIGN SUMMARY

7.2 Design Summary

Flowchart demonstrating fundamental Rainwater harvesting processes

Typical Rooftop rainwater Collection methods