Transilvania University of Braov

Chemistry Department

General Chemistry Course

Titular: Lecturer Dr. Eneca Alexandru
Is not allowed during the course:
- to make tel. calls;
- to make photos.

General chemistry
2007-2008
First point

Atoms and molecules

1. What its chemistry?

2. Material and chemistry

1. Electronic structure of the atom

2. Chemistry bounds

Quantitative aspects (chemistry of the solution)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Chemistry reactions
Reactions with protons transfer
Reactions with electrons transfer
Aqueous solutions
Reactions with ligands fixation
Chemistry kinetic
Chemistry analytic

Sorcery

Alchemy

Important Figures in Chemistry (and not only)

Descartes

R. Boyle

A. Lavoisier

J. Dalton

D. Mendeleev

Just a short history

Just a short history

Natural science:
study of the natural phenomena;
experiments;
interdisciplines.

CHEMISTRY

PHYSICS

BIOLOGY

GEOLOGY

How the (natural) science work?

HYPOTESIS

EXPERIMENT

THEORY, LAW
MODELS

UP-GRADE

ba
la
as
s
m

ic
et

kin

nc
e

We are focused on:

- atoms and molecules;
- quantitative aspect of the chemical reactions;

thermodynamic
- three type of chemical reactions: proton, electrons and
substrate transfer;
- analytical chemistry.

Course 1
Matter and chemistry

1.1 Matter states

1.2 Atoms, molecules and ions
1.3 Moles and concentration
1.4 Chemical bounds and the nature of the chemical
compound

Matter states:
Gas free particles in low motion (specific mass env. 10-3
gcm-3)

Liquid mobile particles yielding intermolecular forces

(specific mass env. 1 gcm-3)

Solid motionless particles (specific mass 1-20 gcm-3)

Other matter states

Liquid crystal intermediary state with a medium order of the particles

Other matter states

Plasma an ionized gas where the electrons in the atom
are separate from the nucleus, usually considered to be
the fourth distinct state of matter.
E.g. stars (sun), ionosphere

Application:
Lamps
TV screen
Nuclear fusion

Phase transformation: physics or chemistry?

E.g.: water, universal solvent
Water molecules are formed from two hydrogen atoms bounded
with an oxygen atom by covalent bounds. The water molecules are
partially charged, inducing a dipol moment.

Covalent bonds

Water molecules in
gaseous phase

Partial charged atoms form the molecule interacts with the neighbor
molecules, forming slim (low energy) bounds called hydrogen bounds.

Hydrogen bound
Energy:

So, isolated water molecules in gas phases have different properties

comparing with the liquid phase.

Water in
liquid phase
Hydrogen
bounds: 80%

Ice (water in solid phase)

Hydrogen bounds: 100%

Mixture
Heterogen

Physical process

Macroscopic
scale

Homogen
Physical process

Elements

Atoms

Nucleus

Chemical process

Chemical process

Electrons

Compounds

Molecules

Microscopic
scale

Back to atoms
back to the origin
How the
atoms
were
born???

BIG BANG Theory

15 billions years ago
Nuclear fusion
Quarks formation

The structure of the atom (Atomic structure)

W. Thomson develops the plum pudding model:

a cloud of positive charges;
randomly distributed electrons.
E. Rutherford develops an experimental model where the particle (the charge is +2
and the relative atomic weight is 4) depart from the source and pass through a thin gold
foil.
He registers the deviation of the particles:
most of the particles are not deviated (there is plenty of empty space in the
atom);
some of the particles are slightly deviated (there are negatively charged
particles, with much lower mass then the particles, in the atom the
electrons);
few particles are turned (there is a concentrated, positive atomic charge with
the mass comparable to the particles).

Conclusion: Nuclear model

all the positive charge and quite the entire mass of atom is concentrated in a nucleus;
the electrons are surrounding the nucleus.

The chemical reactions do not affect the nucleus. The

sum of the protons in the nucleus is called atomic number (Z).
+1 p
1

proton

0 n
1

neutron

The sum of the proton and neutron is called mass

number (A). Two species having the same Z and different A are isotopes.
E.g. 11H (proton); 21D (deuterium); 31T (tritium)

Some rules for filling the orbital up

There are not two species with all the quantum numbers equal (Paulis Exclusion
Principle).
n = principal quantum number describes the energetic level of orbital (how far is the
orbital from the nucleus); n = 1, 2,3 .
l = azimuth quantum number describes the shape of the orbital; for n fixed,
l = 1, 2,3, (n-1)
m = magnetic quantum number describe the orientation of the orbital; for n,l fixed,
m = -l, -(l-1), -(l-2), , 0, , (l-2), (l-1), l
s = spin number describe the electron movement around its own axis,
s= +1/2 and 1/2

Consequence
In one orbital there are maximum two electrons.

1s
2s
2p

3s
E.g.
3p

4s
11Na

3d

4p
4d

4f

5p
5d

5f

31Ga

5s
6s
6p
6d

7s
7p

8s

Chemical elements
Every elements is charactrised by:
- name;
- chemical symbol.
Atomic number = proton number
from the nucleus (its also the
electron numbers)

Chemical symbol

Information from the periodic

tables of the elements

Atomic mass

Atomic mass

MA = pi mi

pi = isotopic abundance
mi = isotopic mass

Units: 12 daltons = atomic mass of 12C

1 daltons (Da) = 1.660510-24 g

E.g. Chlorine
35Cl: 75,5%
37Cl: 24,5%
MA = 350,755 + 370,245 = 35,5 Da
MA exacte = 35,453 Da

Atomic mass
The mass number of an element, A, is the number of nucleons (protons
and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus.
Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass
numbers, which are conventionally written as a super-index on the left
hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g., 238U).
The relative atomic mass of an element is the average of the atomic
masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as found in a particular
environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass
unit (u). This number may be a fraction which is not close to a whole
number, due to the averaging process.
On the other hand, the atomic mass of a pure isotope is quite close to its
mass number.

Exercise

Naturally occurring carbon consists of three isotopes, 12C, 13C, and

14C. State the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of
these carbon atoms.
12C

13C

14C
6

#p+ _______

_______

_______

#no _______

_______

_______

#e- _______

_______

_______

Answers

12C

13C

14C
6

#p+ 6

#no 6

#e- 6

Learning Check

An atom has 14 protons and 20 neutrons.

A. Its atomic number is
1) 14
2) 16
B. Its mass number is
1) 14

2) 16

C. The element is
1) Si

2) Ca

D.

3) 34
3) Se

Another isotope of this element is

1) 34X
2) 34X
3) 36X
16

14

3) 34

14

Allotropy
Allotropy is a behavior exhibited by certain chemical elements: these
elements can exist in two or more different forms, known as allotropes of
that element. In each different allotrope, the elements atoms are bonded
together in a different manner.
Allotropic forms of the carbon

Diamond

Graphite

Molecular Mass (MM)

MM = niMAi

ni = nb of atoms i
MAi = atomic mass of atoms i

E.g.
Water H2O
MM = 21,008 + 115,999 = 18,015 daltons
Glucose C6H12O6

MM = 612,011 + 121,008 + 615,999 = 180,156 daltons

Ions
An ion is as atom or molecule which has lost or gained one or more
electrons, making it negatively or positively charged.
Formation of positive charged ions (cation)
Atome

Cations + Electrons

Cu
Cu

Cu+1 + 1eCu+2 + 2e-

Formation of negative charged ions (anions)

Atoms + Electrons
Cl + 1eS + 2e-

Anions
Cl-1
S-2

Charges
Charges on
on Common
Common Ions
Ions

-3 -2 -1

+1
+2

By losing or gaining e-, atom has same number

of e-s as nearest Group 8A atom.

Remember from the first chemistry course

Mole is a quantity of substance containing NA particles
Particles = atoms, molecules or ions

NA = 6.0221023 atoms/mol
Molar Mass (MM)
Mass of one mol from a substance, expressed in grams
The molar mass is equal with the molecular mass (or atomic), expressed
in grams.

E.g. water H2O

Molecular mass = 18.015 Da ; Molar mass = 18.015 mol/g

Exercise

Water
How many moles are in 1kg of water?
1000 g / 18.015 g/mol = 55,5 mol
How many molecules are in 1kg of water?
55,5(6,0221023) = 3,341025 molecules

Iron

MA = 55,847 daltons
1mole = 55,847g, contain 6,0221023 atomes

How many atoms are in 1g?

1g / 55,847 g/mol = 0.0179 mol
0,0179(6,0221023) = 1,0781022 atoms

The Chemistry Laws

Ca(OH)2 + 2HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O

Calcium hydroxide + Nitric acid Calcium nitrate + Water
Consequence: the coefficients

The low of perfect gas

An perfect gas is a gas where the molecules dont suffer any

interactions.

PV = nRT
P
pressure (Pascal Pa, 1 Pa = 1Nm-2 = 1kgm-1s-2;
1 atm = 1,014105 Pa
V

volume (m3)

moles number

temperature (K)

perfect gas constant (8,31 Jmol-1K-1 = 8,31 kgm2s-2mol-1K-1

Exercise

1) What is the volume occupied by 1 mol of perfect gas at 0C and 1 atm?

n=1
T = 273,15 K
P = 1 atm = 1,014105 Pa
V = nRT / P = (18,31273,15) / 1,014105 = 2,270103 / 1,014105 = 2,2410-2 m3
1m3 = 1000litres, V = 22,4 liters
1 mol occupied 22,4 liters at 0C and 1 atm

2) What is the volume occupied by 1 mol of perfect gas at 25C and 1 atm?
n=1
T = 298,15 K
P = 1 atm = 1,014105 Pa
V = nRT / P = (18,31298,15) / 1,014105 = 2,478103 / 1,014105 = 2,4410-2 m3
1m3 = 1000litres, V = 24,4 liters
1 mol occupied 24,4 liters at 25C and 1 atm

Calculation of chemical Equivalents

The Law of chemical equivalents the ratio between the mass and the chemical
equivalent is a constant for each participant in a chemical reaction.
Einorganic acid = Macid / number of hydrogen atoms
e.g.
EH SO /SO = M/2 = 98/2
2

24

Eorganic acid = Macid / number oh carboxyl groups

Ebases = Mbases / number of hydroxide groups
e.g.
ENaOH = M/1 = 40/1
Esalt and metallic oxide = M / number of metal atoms x
valence
e.g.
ECaO = M/2*1 = 56/2
Eelectrochemical reaction = A element / number of exchanged
electrons
e.g. 2Al + 3 Cl2 = 2AlCl3
EAl = AAl/3 = 27/3

The Quantum model

1. The duality particle wave.

2. The Principle of uncertainty (Heisenberg) for a dual particle we cant explicit the
position and the moment when that place is likely to be occupied.

Definition: The region of space where the electrons can be found with the most
likelihood is called orbital.

The Chemical Bonds

Chemical
bond

The chemical bonds are formed by the valence electrons (the electrons from the
exterior shell) due to the electronic interactions.

Its characterized by the distance, called bonds length (O-H : 96 pm) and by the
energy (O-H : 437 kJ/mol)

There are several type of chemical bond that allow to classified different
compounds

The Chemical Bonds

1.The Ionization Energy represents the energy necessary for one electron to leave the last shell.

I in group
< I > = Joule, eV
I in period
2. Affinity is the energy necessary necessary for accepting one electron on the last shell of one atom.

A in group
< A > = J, eV
A in period
3. XR = Relative Electronegativity

< X > = J, eV
AB
XR, A XR, B
XR, AB = XR, A XR, B

We can have:

a)

A A, covalent non polar bond

C H, covalent non - polar bond
M M, metallic bond

b)

A+ B-, ionic bond

c)

A B, covalent polar bond

XR, AB = 0
XR, AB > 2.3
0< XR, AB < 2.3

The Ionic Bond

If the relative electronegativty of an atom is low, there is a tendency
of releasing electrons. The atom is converted in a positive ion an
cation - via oxidation. Metal atoms are usually easily oxidized.
If an atom has a high relative electronegativity, it has the possibility
to accept electrons via the reduction process and the atom turns
into a negatively charged ion - a anion.
Between the anions and cations the ionic bond is formed.

e.g.: NaF

23

0
11Na

1e

23 Na+
11

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

1e

[ 1s2 2s2 2p6 ]+

oxidation

17

0
9F

1e
+

17 F9

1e
1s2 2s2 2p5 +

[ 1s2 2s2 2p6 ]-

reduction

Properties of the ionic substances

The driving force in an ionic substance is the electrostatic force (attractive among
differently charged ions, repulsive among ions of same sign).
Felectrostatic

strong forces in solids, orientating ions of alternative charges

solid crystalline state: breakable, with medium mechanical
properties
optical properties: transparent, colored or colorless: used as
optical prisms (KCl, KF)
conduction properties: the conduction is possible in the presence
of free charges: - solid state (charges in fixed positions):
insulators
- liquid state (melts and solutions) the charges
are free to move: ionic conductors

Solubility ionic substances are soluble in polar substances

Haber Born cycle a very good example for energy calculation:

in this case we need to know the energy lattice that can be calculate by measuring the
sublimation energy of the ionic substances.
Overall reaction:

Na (s) + Cl2(g) Na+Cl-(s)

Metallic bonds
Three-dimensional packing
of metallic ions

Iron: central cubic crystalline

structure

Copper: central cubic with central

faces crystalline structure

The covalent bond

Non polar covalent bonds
Between two identical atoms.
Simple covalent molecules example:

Hydrogen: simple bond

Oxygen: double bond
Nitrogen: triple bond
Represent one free electron pair which impose
some special properties:
- Lewis acidity;
- possible intermolecular interactions (noncovalent bonds)

Polar covalent bonds

Between two different atoms
a) Molecular compounds
Finite structure

C = O, carbon monoxide
polar substance (easily
absorbed by blood lethal
intoxication)

carbon dioxide CO2

(responsible for the
greenhouse effect)

Polar bonds
Polar molecule

Polar bonds
Non-Polar
molecule

CCl4 - try to see the symmetry in this substance:

(Carbon tetrachloride ) because this properties
induces the non polarity

Non polar substances: CH4 (methane), HC CH (acetylene), C6H6 (benzene)

Polar substances: H2O, NH3, HX, SO2, SO3, NxOy.

The multiplicity:
H

H
Simple covalent bond: H H, H C H , H O

..
,HNH

Double covalent bond:

O = O, O = C = O
HO

\
S

HO

sulfuric acid
\\
O

H3C
\
C=O

H3C

acetone

Triple covalent bonds: N N, H C N, H C C R

Do you know what represent the hybridization?
It is a process due to each electrons from the last shell (in
the carbon atom) on the s and p orbitals get the same
energy and become equivalent.
For example in the acetylene molecule the carbon atoms
are hybridized sp and there are two bond types: one type
is the bond for C H bond and C C bond and the
other is the bond (the other two bonds in C = C).
So, the covalent bond is formed with minimum two
electrons (one for each atom) and maximum 6 electrons
(three for each atom).

b) Macromolecular compounds and polymers

Infinite structure
Its formed by the condensation of small molecules

Poly(ethylene)terephtalate (PET)

c) Crystalline covalent solids

Three-dimensional packing of infinite number of atoms bonded in a
covalent manner.

Other examples: diamond, graphite

d) Amorphous covalent solids

E.g. Glass, plastics

Ion dipole bonds and the metal complex

(coordination bonds)
Between an metal ion (usually a cation) and a polar molecule

Notes:
1) This bond its usually considered as a non-covalent bond;
2) One molecule can contain different type of chemical bond.
(in this case we have coordination bond and covalent bond)

Intermolecular bonds
1. The van der Waals bond: between non polar molecules
Characteristic: very weak but additive
E.g.:
Small molecule: H2, O2, N2, CO2. gases
Large molecule: -(- CH2 CH2 -)n- polymer (solid)
Solubility YES in non polar solvents (C6H6, CCl4)
NO: in polar solvents (H2O)
Conductivity: insulators
2. the Keessom bond: polar molecule polar molecule
< 1
+
-
dipol

+
-

-
dipol

3. Hydrogen bonds (dipole dipole)

Length OH 180 200 pm
Degree HOH 120-180

bond (weak force)