Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MASTER THESIS
By:
Nasser Aboufazeli
Thesis supervisor:
Sweden 2011
Abbreviations
API
CNC
DML
DP
ERC
FR
FMS
FOF
HTM
RDI
RI
RMS
RMT
ii
Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 1 .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Types of Manufacturing System .................................................................................................. 5
1.1.
iii
iv
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express his gratitude to his supervisor, Prof. Daniel T. Semere
who was very helpful and offered invaluable assistance, support and guidance.
Special thanks to my nice Chinese friend Yujiang Li who helped me for NX
software patiently. Also I appreciate Mr. Per Johansson for providing required
softwares and supporting me generously when I needed some technical helps.
vi
Introduction
In todays competitive market because of the short life cycle of the products and
change in customer demand of quantity and type of the product a rapid respond is
an important key to compete with opponents. One of the solutions is evolvable
manufacturing system and reconfigurable machine tools as the heart of this kind of
manufacturing system. To implement such an idea we need standard
methodologies and some enablers to reconfigure machine tools rapidly. As I will
explain in the next chapters this concept is suitable when producing high variety of
the products with high throughput otherwise it is not cost-effective.
Other than competitive global market the other drivers like more educated
customers and rapid pace of the process technology and change in government
regulations that cause some changes like:
So, we need a rapid and cost-effective method to deal with these changes. In spite
of the old method that was used to replace the old machines or add some new
machines the new solution is reconfiguration of the manufacturing system
including machine tool.
National Research Council in USA has investigated about manufacturing
challenges for 2020[2]. This research shows the vision of the next two decades
about some changes happens in the manufacturing like changing in workforce,
consumer, the rise of bio and nanotechnology, prospects for waste-free processing,
simulation and modeling and global competitive market.
The six manufacturing grand challenges that show the gap between current
practices and the vision of manufacturing in 2020 are:
Getting concurrency in all operations.
Integrating human and technical resources to improve workforce
performance and satisfaction.
Instantaneous transform information gathering from broad different
sources to useful knowledge for effective decision making.
Reduction of production wastes
Figure 1.1: Reconfigurable tools fill the gap between dedicated tools and flexible
tools.[3]
Reconfiguration is based on modular hardware and software and is defined for part
family and quick change in capacity and functionality according to the change in
demand in competitive market.
Chapter 1
Types of Manufacturing System
On the basis of flexibility of the manufacturing systems and variety types of
products and production volume of company we can define three kinds of
manufacturing systems: Dedicated, flexible and reconfigurable.
1.1. DML (Dedicated Manufacturing Line)
DML is a kind of rigid production line and a single part is produced by operation
of several tools at the same time. So, the production rate is very high and these
kinds of manufacturing system are designed to make few variants of parts at high
volume and are highly productive.
As DML has low flexibility but high productivity, therefore it is cost effective
when it operates at full capacity that means demand should be more than supply.
When the number of the variants is high then it is not proper system.[1]
Figure 1.3: Flexible manufacturing line with high number of mixed variants.
CNC machines are used in these kinds of manufacturing systems and their
programmable controllers for automation are very expensive. In spite of DML
system FMS has low throughput because CNC machine use single tool to make a
product. So, because of expensive machines and low throughput of FMS systems
the cost per product is high. If we want to compare these two different
manufacturing systems it is like below:[1]
Manufacturing System
Limitations
Advantages
DML
-low Flexibility
-Fixed Capacity
-Low Cost
-Multi Tool Operation
FMS
-Being Expensive
-Low Throughput
-Flexible
-Scalable
Before explaining about the third type of manufacturing system we should know
about two technical terminologies: Modularity and reconfigurability and
consequently modular and reconfigurable machine tool or system. Generally
reconfigurability has broader meaning. It means that it has the modularity concepts
plus some extra characteristics.
In fact, RMS is designed for exactly needed functionality and capacity and
exactly when needed. So, the manufacturing system is ready to change according
to product change. It means in spite of DML (low flexibility and high capacity) and
FMS (high flexibility and low capacity) is dynamic manufacturing system and has
rapid responsiveness.
So, the definition of the reconfigurable manufacturing system as Professor Yoram
Koren (Director, NSF Engineering Research Center (ERC) for Reconfigurable
Manufacturing Systems) defined:[1]
A reconfigurable manufacturing system (RMS) is designed at the outset for
rapid change in structure, as well as in hardware and software components, in
order to quickly adjust production capacity and functionality within a part
family in response to sudden changes in market or regulatory requirements.
10
Chapter 2
Reconfigurable Machine Tools (RMT) Design
2.1. Types of Machine Tools
The principles of machine tools are exactly like manufacturing systems. Machine
tools can be dedicated, flexible and reconfigurable. The dedicated machine tool has
many tools to work on a single part. This type of machine tool will be suitable for
the low variant of products with high volume and consequently we can get the low
cost per product. The flexible machine tool can be a CNC machine that has flexible
functionality for producing the high number of variants with low volume. CNCs
are designed before specifying the exact process of machining and it has very
flexible functionality even more than needed to cover the machining process that
unexpectedly happens and because of its high flexibility it is expensive and it has
low throughput also. Reconfigurable machine tool fills the gap between these two
types of machine tools.
Production
Volume
Dedicated
Machine Tools
Flexible
Machine Tools
Flexibility
It means that this type of machine can be used for high number of variants with
high volume production rate and makes the cost-effective production with rapid
responsiveness possible. The main reason of cost-effectiveness of RMTs in spite of
CNCs is we exactly use what needed when it is needed not more and not
less. Also, it is adjustable to the new structure for producing of the new products
based on the customer demand of the competitive market that is impossible for
dedicated machine tool and expensive for CNCs.
11
Production
Volume
Dedicated
Machine Tools
Reconfigurable Machine
Tools
Flexible
Machine
Tools
Cost
Figure 2.2: Cost vs. production volume of different classes of machine tools
According to the above figure (Figure 1.5), practically dedicated machine tools are
used when we produce single part in high volume. Structure of this type of
machine is fixed but its throughput is high and is economical choice especially
when it works with full capacity. The capacity of this type of machine is not
changeable on the basis of the demand (i.e. it is not scalable).
When we need to produce low volume of the different types of product flexible
machine tools (CNCs) are the best choice. The structure of these machines is fixed
because they are made by machine builders before coming to the shop floor and
they try to apply every type of flexibility they imagine for the future that
sometimes they are useless so CNCs have high flexibility and cost.
Reconfigurable machine tools can be practically used for high volume of products
with different types and they have adjustable structures and scalable for different
costumer demand. Their cost is something between dedicated and flexible one but
there are some points we should consider:
When we have single product with high volume then dedicated machine
tool is a better choice than RMT. So, if we use an RMT with library of
modules is not justified economically and technically.
When the number of the variants is very high, if we want to use RMT then
maybe we need high number of the modules in the library and it cost more
than a high flexible CNC but there is a new concept called mass
customization that researchers are trying to find a way to use RMTs for
producing the high volume of different products that CNCs are not
designed for.
12
The below table shows the differences among different three classes of the
machine tools:
Machine Structure
Scalability
Flexibility
Cost
Dedicated machine
tools
Fixed
No
No
Low
Reconfigurable
machine tools
Adjustable
Yes
Customized
Medium
Flexible machine
tools( CNCs)
Fixed
Yes
High( General)
High
The below figures are two examples of reconfigurable machine tools. Figure 2.3
shows the schematic structure of the arc type RMT that is made by a research
group in Michigan University and Figure 2.4 is the picture of the real one at its lab.
The spindle is mounted on the arc to make the machine tool convertible to change
the angle of machining to produce, for instant, two different types of cylinder head
with different angels of cylinders and you can change its functionality from milling
to drilling by some changes in the spindle. As I explained before the customization
of the RMT is defined for a part family. Figure 2.5 shows a part family of cylinder
heads that they need similar machining features.[3]
13
The other real example of RMT that is used as multi functional machine tool i.e.
milling and turning is shown in Figure 2.5.[5]. It can be done by changing the
spindle functionality of the milling machine that is shown on the left side of the
picture.
14
Configuration2
Configuration1
Configuration2
Configuration1
- Connectivity matrix
- Geometrical Accuracy
- Evaluation Criteria
Evaluation of
Generated
Configurations
- Reconfiguration Indices to
choose the optimized RMT.
16
Description
Method
Description Procedure
Simplicity
Application Area
- Functional analysis of
machine tool
- Implicit representation of
flow of force
Functional
- Representation using
linear and rotational
movements in direction and
around X, Y and Z axes
- Decision of qualitative
similarities
- Classification of machine
tools
- Explicit representation of
flow of force
Structural
- Representation using GT
codes and flow of
force(structural pattern)
Certain
Difficulties in
description :
Deep knowledge
about machine
tool structure is
required
- Structural analysis of
machine tools
- Evaluation of structural
similarities
- Generation of structural
configuration (variants and
free types)
Table 2.1: Description Methods and the their areas of the application
Screw theory uses three dimensional motion of the rigid body by screw to show
the rotational and translational movements about an axis. The definition of the
pitch of movement is translation motion divided by rotation.[8]
Pitch
Translational Motion
Rotaional Motion
The disadvantage of screw shows itself when we have pure translation and no
rotation because the pitch becomes indefinite.
Homogeneous Transformation Matrix (HTM) shows the displacement between
the current position and the previous one but can not show the show the nature of
the motion
we define the translational and rotational motion task of machine tool according to
the operation plan including machining operation type, cutter location and the
process plan for the new product volume or new types of the products then by
defining the HTM matrices from cutter location and calculating displacement we
get the dual vector of the motion and we merge the motion in the same direction.
Finally, we have the final required motions we need to do with machine tool.
18
19
X, Y and Z are used for linear motions where Z aligns in the spindle orientation
A, B and C are used for rotational motions about X, Y and Z respectively.
To describe the flow of force we have to branches:
Mainflow of force: flow from the tool point in tool branch to the base or factory
floor as can be seen in figure 2.5.
Subflow of force: flow from machining point of the work branch joining the
mainflow within the machine (Figure 2.5).
20
There are some general rules to draw the lines of the flow of force:
Mail FOF starts from the machining point of tool and ends to the floor or
any foundation.
FOF only flows in one direction.
FOF flows in positive direction of the local coordinate with the right-hand
system.
When two FOFs overlap the counterclockwise one has priority.
When there are more than two FOF in a structure the main FOF nearest to
the foundation priority to others.[7]
21
Figures
Spindle Type I
Spindle Type II
Spindle slider
Column
22
Table Type I
Table Type II
Initial
Vertices
According to the primitives (Basic modules) we can make the some modular useful
complex units based on possibility of connectivity of the primitives together. We
can make a connectivity matrix like below:
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
Terminal Vertices
3
4
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
1
0
0
23
6
0
0
0
1
0
0
Spindle Type II
The next step is determination of the tool and work branches to generate different
configurations. According to what explained in flow of force (FOF) the main flow
of force passes through the spindle, column and the base and the subflow of force
goes through the work, table and base. So, the possible of the modules can make
two complex units of mainflow and two of subflow like shows the below table:
Sub flow of Force
1
Table 2.2: Main flow and sub flow of the force to generate possible configurations
To choose the proper modules to make the possible configurations in terms of the
kinematic characteristics of the machine tool to fulfill the motion requirements
given based on process planners specifications we define a task matrix that shows
24
the needed movements of the modules of the reconfigurable machine tool then
each we define movement matrices of the modules according to the screw theory
explained before. The definitions of the matrices are like below:
1
0
Task Mtrix=T=
0
0
Module
No.
Modules
0
1
0
0
0 100
0 200
1 300
0 1
Module Motion Matrices
1
0
M1 =
0
0
1
0
0
0 100
0 0
1 300
0 1
1
0
M2 =
0
0
1
0
0
0 0
0 0
1 300
0 1
1
0
M3 =
0
0
1
0
0
0 0
0 200
1 0
0 1
1
0
M4 =
0
0
1
0
0
0 100
0 200
1 0
0 1
25
Generally to fulfill the motional requirements for making ma machine tool with n
modules the below equation should be fulfilled:
T=M1M2...Mn
In our case we need combination of two modules to make the required
configuration for linear motion of 200, 100 and 300 mm in directions of X, Y and
Z respectively. If choose module number 1 of table 2.3 then the next module
should have a motion matrix like below:
1
0
-1
M x = TM1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0 100 1 0
0 200 0 1
1 300 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0
0 200
1 300
0 1
0 100
0 0
M3
1 0
0 1
It means the next module that fulfills the required motion is module number 3.
Similarly if we choose module number 2 then:
1
0
-1
M x = TM 2
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0 100 1 0
0 200 0 1
1 300 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0
0 0
1 300
0 1
0 100
0 200
M4
1 0
0 1
26
So, among four different configurations of table 2.2, two of them can make
machine tools with three linear and one angular required motion. Configuration 21
can not move in Y axis direction and Configuration 12 has one unnecessary motion
in Y axis direction.
From table 2.2 the suitable configurations in terms of kinematic characteristics are
configuration11(X/YZC) and configuration 22 (XY/ZC) as shown in below
figures:
Configuration 11(Y/XZC)
Configuration 22 (XY/ZC)
In order to show the different arrangements of the motions to make machine tool
structure we can use symbols like Y/XZC, XY/ZC and so on. / shows the
foundation or the common base of the work and the tool branch. The right side
shows the tool branch and the left side shows the work branch of the force flow.
After generating the variant configurations we need to evaluate them and choose
the best one the suits our requirements. There are some evaluation criteria to assess
the generated RMTs to get cost-effective and stable structures with the least
redundancies.
27
Ideally, the designed RMT work envelope should be the same as the required one.
If the designed work envelope be less than range of the required envelope then
machine tool does not cover the range needed to machine the workpiece and if it is
much larger machine has over designed that means higher cost without any added
value. There is an index to define the measure to check if the work envelope is in
an acceptable range like below[8]:
WVI=
i=1
R i of Design
R i of Requirement
28
29
30
Chapter 3
Enabler of generation of RMTs
Since RMT is a solution to the fluctuation in customer demand and demand of the
new products to survive in competitive market based on its cost-effective and rapid
change to produce high quality products, we need some enablers that enable us to
generate RMTs rapidly in a cost-effective way. Before explaining about this
enabler I should notice again that reconfigurable machine tools are good solution
only when we have different types variants with medium volume in product
families otherwise this type of machine tools are not economical (for instance it is
more economical to use dedicated production lines for a single product with high
volume). Essential enablers are open-architecture controllers, standard interfaces
and integrated softwares. By means of these three we can make new configuration
or reconfigure the existence RMT rapidly and accurately.
Figure 3.1: Configuration of the open architecture platform for open architecture
reconfigurable control system[9]
3.2. Interfaces
To make RMT, one of the most important enablers is interface. Interfaces make the
connection of the modules together and generally the reconfiguration process
possible because reconfiguration is possible when the modules can connect
together properly. There are three main interfaces: mechanical, power and
informational or control interfaces.
Mechanical interfaces are used to connect the modules mechanically like
screws, keys and so on.
Power interfaces are the interfaces to transfer power between the modules
.The power can be electric, hydraulic or pneumatic.
Informational interfaces are used to transfer information among modules
and control network generally.
32
33
Briefly, the software should be able to get the motion requirements as input and
give as the proper configuration as output after simulations. There is a software
called PREMADE (Program for REconfigurable MAchine tool DEsign) that is
used by Engineering Research Center (ERC) for Reconfigurable Manufacturing
Systems of Michigan University. Below figure shows the steps of making
configuration by this software we discussed above [10]:
34
Task Definition
Structural module
Design
Selection of
Modules from
Suppliers
35
This software does not include stiffness and dynamic evaluation modules and it
should be used with some CAE modules of other softwares.
The software I worked with to do my thesis is NX 7.5 that is a PLM Software
made by Siemens Company. NX 7.5 is integrated software including CAD, CAE,
CAM, Machining Knowledge Editor, Knowledge Fusion, Motion Simulation and
some other modules.
36
37
38
One of the most important factors in industrial activities is ease of use of the
equipments by operators with medium knowledge (non-experts) and using the
fewest number of tools to change or repair them.
One of the useful indices that I tried to define is difficulty of reconfiguration. If
reconfiguration of the machine tool needs a pile of information in the format of
instructions (i.e. it is very complex to change the modules) then we need some
experts to consult with or they should be in the factory while making
reconfiguration. Also, it will need some expensive complex tools to do
reconfiguration. These two are costly and need long time to change modules
according to the new requirements and with long term perspective they are not
suitable structures because the aim RMT is having a machine tool that is costeffective and rapid responsiveness. The index I defined can measure the difficulty
of reconfiguration and the configuration with lowest index is the best choice.
39
40
Chapter 4
Measuring Reconfigurability for Design Evaluation
After generation of the configurations and evaluation on the basis of the criteria
and applying some dynamic and static and kinematic analysis, the last stage is to
get the optimized RMT by some reconfiguration Indices. Two of them are
explained in this chapter.
Process
Requirements
Definition
Possible
Configuration
Generation
Refine After
Preliminary
Evaluation
Decoupling
Reorganizing
Coupling
41
7
Test
42
Since we are looking for a configuration that has all of the above characteristics, an
index to evaluate the reconfiguration ease should be combination of the all above
criteria with considering the importance of each of criterion in compare with each
other by defining some weights.
We can define Reconfiguration difficulty Index (RDI) like below:
RDI=w1C1 w 2C2 while
w =1
i
i=1
43
(N cm )i
(N cm )max
p2
)
p1
Where:
I: information content
p1: probability of success before getting information
p2: probability of success after getting information
44
After receiving some information, we expect the system works 100% well and then
the above equation becomes:
I=log 2 (
1
1
)= log 2 ( )
p1
p
Since the base of the logarithm is 2, if we rewrite the above equation in terms of
natural logarithm then we have:
1
I=K ln( )= -K ln(p)
p
Where K=1.443.
According to above equation when the probability of success (of manufacturing,
assembly ) is 100% then the information needed to do the job is zero it means
the job is very easy (not complex) to do and needs no information. Information can
be something like steps of guidance in an instruction to join modules together by
means of their interfaces.
For a system with some independent functional requirements the information of the
whole system is the sum of individuals. For machine tool, as explained in previous
chapter, consists of mechanical, power and information interfaces. The power
interfaces can be electric, hydraulic or pneumatic.
We assume all of above three are independent of each other and consequently the
information content of the whole system is like below:
Where:
I1, I2 and I3 are the information required to fix two modules together for mechanical,
power and informational interfaces respectively and I is for the whole system.
p1, p2, p3 are the probability of success of mechanical, power and informational
interfaces respectively before getting some information by the system.
45
These probabilities can be achieved by the some historical data, operators and
production engineering experience. For instance the number of failure out of the
total tries can give us a probability based on historical data.
The more complex is the interface the less the probability of success is and the
more information is required and we get a higher C2.
If we want to summarize the reconfiguration difficulty index we have:
RDI= w1C1 +w 2C2 = w1
(Ncm )i
- w 2 1.443 ln(p1 ) ln(p 2 ) ln(p3 )
(Ncm )max
The next step is getting the values of w1 and w2. Since it is practically obvious that
the interface complexity is a bigger cause against reconfiguration ease than number
of the modules then w2 is bigger than w1. These weights can change case by case
based on experience and historical data.
N Aop .Ncm
ln(NStc )
Where:
RMT: Reconfigurability of Machine Tool.
Nconf: Number of the possible configuration to make different operations like
milling, turning
NAop: Number of the auxiliary operations to develop the machine tool.
Ncm: Number of cutting tool motions.
NStc: Number of the structural components used in the machine tool
46
The value of RMT is between zero and one. The higher the value of RMT the more
reconfigurable machine tool we have.
There is another index proposed some Chinese researchers of Beijing Jiaotong
University that is based on the above equations but includes the ease of
reconfiguration and flexibility of the structure of machine tool at the same time and
is more comprehensive than above two equations.
This equation is [13]:
b
N AR N Aop
N Mct
( NCed 0.2)
RI= ln( NCF ).ln(
) ln((( NCpf NCa ) 0.8)
) / ( DAop si )
ln( N BM N AM )
b 1 i 1
Where:
NCF: Number of possible configurations to do generic technological operations.
NMct: Number of the translational and rotational motions of cutting tools.
NBM: Number of the basic modules for all of configurations.
NAM: Number of the auxiliary modules for all of configurations.
NCpf: Number of cutting profile that develop the organ of the machine tool.
NCa: Number of the different cutting area which can execute the organ of the
machine tool.
NCed: Number of the cutting edges.
NAR: Number of adding/removing steps required to change the module layout of
configuration
47
Module cost
Cost of inventory of Module
Tools needed to mount and disassemble
Experts wage to do the reconfiguration or give instruction depending on
case
So, to get sure that the reconfigurable machine tool is cost-effective, we should
consider all of the above costs and we should pay attention that the case of single
product with high volume, RMTs are not a good choice and it is preferred to have
dedicated machine tools.
48
Summary
To summarize the machine tool design, the highlight points are:
Reconfigurable machine tools are cost-effective and rapid responsive
solution for global competitive market with changes in customer
demand volume and variety of products.
RMT is economical for medium volume of the products and high
variant in production line and fills the gap between dedicated machine
tools and CNCs.
To make RMT possible to use we need some enablers like: interface
standards, comprehensive software and an open-architecture controller
system.
The steps of making RMT are :
Getting the process requirements from the process planner.
Analyze the required motions to make the product by defining
task matrix.
Creating library of the modules and their motion matrices.
Fulfill the mathematical formula of the task matrix and module
matrices.
Creating the connectivity feasibility of the modules matrix.
Specifying the work (sub) and tool (main) branches of the flow
of force.
Making the matrix of the subflow and mainflow of force.
Generate all possible configurations based on the above matrix.
Evaluate the configurations based on some criteria to eliminate
infeasible configurations.
Doing dynamic and static analysis to test the stability of the
configurations.
The last stage is using some reconfiguration indices like RDI
and RI to get the optimized structure.
49
Process
Requireme
nts
Configurations
Generation Step
Generating
Module Library
and Their Matrix
Motion Analysis
and Defining Task
Matrix
Drawing FOF
on Work and
Tool
Generating FOF
matrix
Making
Connectivity
Matrix
Generate the
Possible
Configuration
s
Applying
Evaluation
Criteria
Dynamic and
Static Analysis
Evaluation and
Analysis Step
Calculating the
Reconfiguration
Indices
Getting Optimized
Configuration Step
50
Future Works
RMT is a concept that makes the simultaneous change in product and production
line (concurrent engineering) possible. To implement the RMT concept in reality
we need to have some tools and standards like interface standard and
comprehensive integrated software. The two important works in the future that
helps us to design and make RMT are:
1. Interface Standard
To implement reconfiguration of the RMT the short reconfiguration time is
necessary for cost-effectiveness and rapid responsiveness. So, we need some
tools to achieve this goal. Lack of an interface standard is one of the
problems that should be worked on. By means of interface standard we can
be sure that two modules can connect properly and the achieved RMT will
machine the work piece with desired quality. By making such standard
suppliers can follow that to make the modules and we can buy the modules
from different suppliers to complete out module library.
2. Comprehensive Software
One of the other tools we need to generate the RMT is network-based and
integrated software to use it from drawing the modules and assemble them
based on knowledge base rules and analyzes the generated structures and
getting us the optimized configuration as output. It should be kind of PLM
software to apply it for concurrent production engineering and any change in
design will change the product data and can be shared with the other
departments of the company. It will help us to generate proper RMT very fast
to fulfill the process requirements.
There are some fields of work that may be beneficial to work on after we
solve the design problem. These subjects are:
Ramp-up time methodologies to decrease this time.
Methodologies to control and monitor and auto correct the
misalignments.
Adaptable control systems for RMTs
Relationship between machine builders and RMT users.
51
52
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
53
54