Seam Welding

EUR. ih .
s so
*
***
Commission of the European Communities
technical steel research
Properties and service performance
HIGH SPEED RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

OF UNCOATED AND COATED STEELS
Blow-up from microfiche original
Commission of the European Communities
iGUililtfli sitiei l i ^ c t i y i l
Properties and service performance
HIGH SPEED RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

OF UNCOATED AND COATED STEELS
N.T. WILLIAMS, W. WADDELL

BRITISH STEEL CORPORATION
9, Albert Embankment
GB-LONDON SE1 7SN
Contract No 7210-KA/809
(1.7.1984 - 30.6.1987)
FINAL REPORT
PARI nr
Directorate-General
Science, Research and Development
1988
N.C./E
CL EUR 11550 EN
ri IIW1.W
Published by the
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Directorate-General
Telecommunications, Information Industries and Innovation
L-2920 LUXEMBOURG
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting
on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of
the following information
ECSC-EEC-EAEC, Brussels Luxembourg, 1988
HIGH SPEED RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING OF UNCOATED AND COATED STEELS
Summary
Sheet steel in the thickness range 0.5-1.5mm is currently resistance seam welded in mass production
industries for domestic appliances, central heating radiators, fuel tanks and container/drum
manufacture. Welding speeds of 2-4m/min are typical in many applications. The various factors which
limit the welding speed were therefore determined for the many variants of the seam welding process. A
comparison was made of conventional wide seam welding with narrow wheel and wire seam welding
techniques, using either an AC or DC secondary current.
A range of uncoated and coated mild steels was used for this assessment. Results indicated that welding
speeds up to 14 to 16m/min could be attained with narrow seam and mash welding of uncoated steels. As
the welding speed was increased, the available current range between weld formation and weld splash
decreased thereby decreasing the available range for satisfactory welding. The maximum speed
attainable depended on the welding conditions, steel thickness and the type of seam welding process used.
The decrease in the available welding range could be attributed to the relatively earlier onset of weld
splash as welding speed was increased. This generally resulted from an increased rate of nugget growth
towards the surface of the weld seam and consequent expulsion of liquid through the sheet surface.
Nugget growth in the through thickness direction was promoted by increasing the proportion of the
welding current which flowed towards the exit side of the arc of contact between the welding electrodes
and the sheet being welded. This had the result of concentrating the welding current over a shorter
distance and also resulted in a decrease in the rate of heat abstraction through the electrodes. Factors
which facilitated current now towards the exit side of the electrode arc of contact were increased steel
thickness, the presence of a low resistance coating and increased welding speeds. Weld nugget growth in
the through thickness direction and the earlier onset of weld splash were also promoted by low electrode
force levels and the use of steels of high resistivity.With regard to welding configuration, wide seam
welding generally resulted in lower maximum welding speeds than either narrow or mash seam welding,
e.g. 6-8m/min compared to 14-16m/min. This was attributed to the greater volume of liquid nugget
produced in this process and the consequent difficulty in achieving the necessary solidification before the
nugget exited from the electrode arc of contact.
The influence of a DC welding current compared to an AC current depended on the factors which limited
the maximum speed when an AC welding current was used. In situations where the welding speed was
limited by weld splash, the use of a DC current generally resulted in a slight decrease in the maximum
welding speed attained. This was attributed to the higher surface temperatures with DC current which
resulted from the absence of the low/zero current region which occurs with an AC current waveform. In
situations where the welding speed was limited by nugget separation when using an AC current, e.g.
mash welding, then the use of a DC current resulted in an increase in the maximum welding speed
attained by at least 30%.
It was noted that the presence of different surface oil levels had little effect on weld formation.
Minimum indentation welds could be produced over a range of welding currents and welding speeds.
With the higher welding currents slight bulging was produced on the non-indentation side. At welding
speeds above 6m/min, the limiting factor was a ripple effect on the weld surface, this being due to the
oscillating nature of the AC current.
With coated steels, the maximum welding speeds were less than those obtained with uncoated mild steel
both with narrow seam and wire welding, e.g. 8-12m/min compared to 14-16m/min. Coated steels
exhibited narrower welding ranges because of the higher currents necessary for weld formation and the
relatively early onset of weld splash. This effect arose from the additional current shunting which
occurred through the region of bonded coating around the periphery of the weld nugget, from increased
-IV-
current flow towards the exit side of the electrode arc of contact, and from the high surface temperatures
which resulted.
Another factor which limited the welding range with coated steels was weld cracking. The coated steels
could be classified into three groups based on their susceptability to cracking, i.e.
- High susceptability to cracking - hot dipped and electroplated zinc coatings
- Intermediate susceptability to cracking - iron-zinc alloy, zinc-5% aluminium and lead-tin coatings
- Low susceptability to cracking - zinc - 55% aluminium and aluminium
coatings
Cracking resulted from intergranular penetration of liquid copper, brass or bronze phases which formed
on the surface of the weld seam as a result of alloying between the coating and the copper electrode. The
use of interrupted current programmes and relatively low welding speeds improved the heat abstraction
from the surface of the seam and reduced/eliminated the problem of weld cracking.
Monitoring of welding current, electrode force, electrode movement, and dynamic resistance was carried
out during welding. With roller-spot seam welding the parameters exhibited responses similar to those
observed in spot welding. With continuous current the parameters varied d u r i n g the initial weld
formation then reached a steady-state condition which was generally maintained along the remainder of
the seam.
The electrode force pattern during welding was predominantly a function of machine and welding current
characteristics. Any force which tends to separate the electrode wheels will result in an increase in the
force recorded in any machine where the welding head cannot react quickly enough to the expansion
forces.
The steady-state condition recorded for the electrode head movement was explained in terms of the basic
stiffness of the welding head preventing oscillations at 100Hz and also the fairly constant volume of liquid
which forms under the electrode wheels once a steady-state condition is reached. The steady-state level of
the dynamic resistance was influenced by welding and material parameters, the welding process and the
extent of weld formation. The latter suggests that it may be possible to use dynamic resistance as a basis
for monitoring seam weld quality.
A basic model of weld formation was developed which showed that weld growth was governed by the
distribution of resistance in the weld zone and the corresponding variation in current density in this zone.
From the proposed model it was concluded that factors which may allow an increase in the attainable
welding speed are:1) The use of increased electrode force levels and/or the use of larger diameter electrodes.
2) Improved cooling of the surface of the welding seam by more efficient water cooling and/or electrode
extension systems.
3) The use of a two-stage process, i.e. a low heat weld to initiate bonding followed by a high heat stage to
ensure acceptable weld quality.
4) In situations where the welding speed is limited by nugget separation, DC c u r r r e n t or higher
frequency AC welding current can be beneficial.
It should also be noted that the maximum welding speed may be increased in many instances by reducing
the width of the weld seam to the minimum width compatable with the requirements of the end product.
v
CONTENTS
Page No.
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION
2.1.
Basic Principles of Seam Welding
2.2.
Objectives of Investigation
3.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.5.1.
3.5.2.
3.5.3.
3.5.4.
3.5.5.
3.5.6.
4.
Materials Examined
Welding Equipment
Welding Procedure
Assessment of Weld Quality
Instrumentation
Secondary Current
Dynamic Resistance
Electrode Force Measurement
Displacement/Head Movement
Eliminationof Noise Signals
Storage and Recovery of Data
WELDABILITY OF UNCOATED MILD STEEL
3
4
4
5
5
5
6
7
7
7
8
8
4.1.
4.1.1.
4.1.1.1.
4.1.1.2.
4.1.2.
4.1.3.
4.2.
4.2.1.
4.2.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.
Influence of Steel Quality

Influence of Sheet Thickness
Effect of Sheet Thickness on the Weldability Lobe
Effect of Thickness Tolerance
Effect of Surface Oil
Influence of Bulk Resistivity
Influence of Current Waveform
Effect of Interrupted Current Programmes
DC Welding Currents
Effect of Electrode Force
Effect of Welding Configuration
Roller-spot Welding
Low Indentation Welding
9
9
9
10
11
11
12
13
13
14
15
16
17
5.
WELDABILITY OF COATED STEELS
17
5.1.
5.1.1.
5.1.2.
5.1.3.
5.2.
5.2.1.
5.2.2.
5.2.3.
5.2.4.
5.3.
5.3.1.
5.3.2.
Narrow Seam Welding

Terne Coated Steels
Aluminium Coated Steels
Zinc Coated Steels
Soudronic Wire Welding
Continuous Welding
Interrupted Current Programmes
Metallographic Examination of Welds
Factors Limiting the Welding Range
Cracking in Narrow Seam Welds
Incidence of Cracking
Mechanism of Crack Formation
18
18
18
18
19
19
20
21
22
23
23
24
6.
MONITORING OF THE SEAM WELDING PROCESS
25
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
Welding Current
Voltage between the Welding Electrodes
Electrode Force
26
26
26
-VI
6.4.
6.5.
6.5.1.
6.5.2.
6.5.3.
Electrode Displacement
Dynamic Resistance
Influence of Welding Current Programme
Factors Influencing Initial Peak
Factors Influencing Steady-State Condition
27
27
28
28
29
7.
METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF WELD FORMATION
30
7.1.
7.1.1.
7.1.2.
7.1.3.
7.1.4.
7.1.4.1.
7.1.4.2.
7.1.4.3.
7.2.
Uncoated Steels
Weld Nugget Structures
Weld Start Position
Distribution of Current Flow in the Weld Zone
Influence of Welding/Material Parameters
Narrow Seam Welds
Wide Seams Welds
Mash Welds
Coated Steels
30
30
31
33
34
34
34
35
36
8.
GENERAL MODEL OF WELD FORMATION
36
8.1.
8.1.1.
8.1.2.
8.1.3.
8.2.
Uncoated Mild Steel

Stages of Weld Formation
Current Distribution in the Weld Zone
Factors Influencing the Available Welding Range
Coated Steels
36
37
38
39
40
8.3.
Guidelines for Increasing Welding Speed
41
9.
CONCLUSIONS
42
10.
REFERENCES
45
TABLES
47
FIGURES
70
VII
List of Table
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Chemical Analysis of Mild Steels used in the Investigation

Chemical Analysis of High Strength Steels Examined.
Chemical Analysis of Base Steels and Coatings in the Coated Steels Examined.
Comparison of Maximum Welding Speeds for AC and DC Power Supplies with Narrow, Wide
and Mash Seam Welding.
Comparison of Minimum Current Requirements for AC and DC Power Supplies with
Narrow, Wide and Mash Seam Welding.
Comparison of Available Welding Current Ranges for AC and DC Power Supplies with
Narrow, Wide and Mash Seam Welding.
Effect of Steel Variables - Metallographic Examination.
Resistivity Values Determined for the Steel Types Used.
Effect of Increasing the Electrode Force on the Maximum Welding Speed for 1.2/1.4mm
Thick Steel.
Comparison of Maximum Welding Speeds for Steels of Different Composition and Thickness
- Narrow Seam/Continuous AC Current.
Minimum and Maximum Welding Currents for 1.2/1.4 mm Thick Mild and High Strength
Steels.
Effect of Electrode Force on Maximum Welding Speeds Attainable.
Maximum Welding Speeds for Uncoated and Coated Steels.
Comparison of Minimum AC Current Requirement for Mild Steel and Coated Steel.
Comparison of AC Welding Current Giving Rise to Splash/Pitting for Mild Steel and Coated
Steel.
Decrease in Welding Current for Continuous Plug Formation when using DC Compared to
AC Current.
General Results from Soudronic Welding Trials.
Comparison of Available Welding Range Narrow Seam vs Wire Weld.
Comparison of Minimum Currents for Continuous Weld Formation Narrow Seam vs Wire
Weld.
The Effect of Electrode Force on the Resistance at the Minimum and Maximum Welding
Conditions at 6 m/min.
Dynamic Resistance Level at Minimum and Maximum Welding Currents for 1.2/1.4 mm
Thick Steels of Different Resistivity.
Comparison of Resistance Level for AC vs DC and Narrow vs Wide Seam Welding at a
Welding Speed of 6 m/min.
IX
List of Figures
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
Schematic Current vs Time Cycle

Waveform of Secondary. Voltage in a Rectified Welding System.
Basic Types of Resistance Seam Welding.
Principle of the Soudronic Process.
Kuka Narrow Seam Welding Machine together with British Federal DC Power Pack,
Instrumentation Rack, Microcomputer and Plotters.
Soudronic Welding Machine Model Rdk 100 TEpP.
Typical Weldability Lobe obtained when Seam Welding Mild Steel.
Weldability Lobes for Narrow Seam Welding Mild Steel with AC Current.
Weldability Lobes for Narrow Seam Welding Mild Steel with DC Current.
Weldability Lobes for Wide Seam Welding Mild Steel with AC Current.
Weldability Lobes for Wide Seam Welding Mild Steel with DC Current.
Comparison of Weldability Lobes for Mash Seam Welding of 0.6 and 1.2mm Mild Steel.
Effect of Steel Tolerance on Welding Range.
Relationship Between Weld Nugget Width and Weld Plug Width.
Effect of the Level of Surface Oil on the Weldability Lobes.
Weldability Lobes for 0.55mm, 0.7mm and 1.2mm Thick Rephosphorised Steels.
Weldability Lobes for 0.75mm and 1.2mm Thick Dual Phase Steels.
Weldability Lobes for 1.4mm Niobium Treated Steel at Different Force Levels, (a) 4.5 kN, (b)
6.75 kN.
Weld Growth Curves for 1.2mm Rephosphorised Steel (Narrow Seam AC).
Individual Spot Welds Produced when Using Pulsation Welding at a Welding Speed of 6
m/min.
Weldability Lobes for Mash Seam Welds in 0.6mm Mild Steel (a) AC Current (b) DC
Current.
Effect of Electrode Force on the Weldability of 1.2mm Mild Steel - Wide Seam Welding/AC
Current.
Effect of Electrode Force on Weld Growth Curves.
Weldability Lobe for Roller-Spot Welding of 1.2mm Mild Steel (Wide Seam, AC Current).
Different Heat Patterns as the Welding Speed Increased with Roller Spot Welding; Welding
Current 7 Cycles On-Time.
Weldability Lobes for Non-Marking Welds in 1.2mm Mild Steel at Three Force Levels.
Cross-sections from non-marking welds.
Weldability Lobes for Lead-Tin Coated Steel.
Weldability Lobes for Al Coated Steel.
Weldability Lobes for HDG
Weldability Lobes for EZ
Weldability Lobes for IZ
Weldability Lobes for Zn 5% Al
Weldability Lobes for Zn 55% Al
Peeled Surface of Low Temperature Weld in Galvanised Steel Shows Fracture Through Zinc
Along the Edge of the Weld.
Peel Tested Specimen in Electroplated Zinc Showing Cracks Along the Edge of the Weld
Plug.
Weldability Lobe for 0.75mm Terne Coated Steel - Soudronic Welding.
Weldability Lobe for 0.88IZ and 0.85 HDG Steel - Soudronic Welding.
Examples of Different Solidification Structures with Different Coated Steels - Wire Welding.
Example Where Bond Formed Between Electrode Wire and Sheet Surface at High Heat
Input.
Examples of Brass Penetration in Hot Dipped Zinc Weld
Hot Dipped Zinc - Electron Probe Images Showing that Intergranular Network Consists of
Cu and Zn.
Schematic Diagram of Factors Affecting Grain Boundary Wetting.
Current and Voltage Traces for Mild Steel, Dual Current/Speed Programme, Maximum
Current Conditions.
Effect of AC and DC Current on Electrode Force.
Effect of Current Pulsation on Electrode Movement.
Dynamic Resistance, Electrode Force and Electrode Movement Traces for Roller-Spot
Welding at 2 m/min.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
"
Welding at 6m/min.
Welding at 10 m/min.
Dynamic Resistance Curves for an Interrupted Current Programme of 3 Cycles on/2 Cycles
Off Showing the Effect of Welding Speed and Welding Current.
Dynamic Resistance for AC and DC Welds on 1.2mm Mild Steel (6m/min).
Dynamic Resistance and Current Traces at the start of the Weld for 0.6mm and 1.2mm Mild
Steel.
The Effect of Increasing Welding Current on the Steady State Dynamic Resistance Level for
a Range of Steels (2m/min).
The Effect of Steel Composition and Speed on the Dynamic Resistance at Minimum and
Maximum Current for 0.7/0.75 mm Thick Steels.
Typical Weld Structure Revealed by Nital Etch.
Effect of Current Waveform on Weld Nugget Formation.
Effect of Light Aperture and Focus on Revelation of Weld Bands.
Effect of Using a Current Programme of 2 Cycles on /l Cycle Off on Band Formation.
Production of Bands in Spot Welds.
Influence of Speed on Nugget Geometry.
Nugget Development from 2 to 4 Cycles of Welding Current.
Changes in the Weld Zone During the First Few Cycles of Welding Current.
Comparison of Heat Patterns, with One Cycle of Weld Current, Between 1.2 and 0.6mm
Thick Mild Steel.
Heat Pattern Under Electrodes at Welding Speeds of 2, 6 and 10 m/min.
The Effect of Welding Current on Nugget Geometry.
The Effect of Welding Speed on Nugget Geometry.
The Effect of Electrode Force on Nugget Geometry.
The Effect of Resistivity on Nugget Geometry.
The Effect of AC and DC Current on Nugget Geometry.
"High Temperature Tunnel" Effect Observed in DC Welding.
Rotation of Weld Nugget from Horizontal to a Position Along the Inclined Interface Occurred
as the Welding Speed was Increased.
Transverse Sections Taken from the Region of Weld Formation Showing that 'Mash-Down'
Occurs before any Liquid is Formed at Low and High Welding Speeds.
Comparison of Nugget Formation with AC and DC Current in Mash Seam Welding.
Initial Weld Formed after 1 Cycle With Mild Steel 2 Cycles with Pb (Sn) Coatings and 3
Cycles with Hot Dipped Zinc Coated Steel.
Longitudinal Sections Showing Heat Pattern in the Region of Weld Formation at 2, 6 and 10
m/min, for Mild Steel.
m/min, for Electroplated Zinc Coated Steel.
m/min for Hot Dipped Zinc Coated Steel.
Four Stages of Weld Development as Indicated by the Dynamic Resistance.
Resistance Paths Between Welding Electrodes.
Current Flow Between Welding Electrodes.
Effect of Welding Speed on Current Flow.
XI
SOUDAGE A RESISTANCE EN LIGNE CONTINUE A GRANDE VITESSE D'ACIERS

REVETUS ET NON REVETUS
Rsum
Des tles d'une paisseur comprise entre 0,5 et 1,5mm sont actuellement
soudes par soudage rsistance en ligne continue dans des usine de
production en srie d'appareils mnagers, de radiateurs de chauffage
central, de rservoirs de carburant et de conteneurs/fts. Des vitesses
de soudage de 2 4 mtres par minutes se rencontrent couramment dans
l'industrie. On a donc dtermin les facteurs qui limitent la vitesse
de soudage applicable de nombreuses variantes du soudage en ligne
continue. On a compar les techniques de soudage avec rouleau troit
et large et avec fil mtallique.
Dans le cadre de cette tude, on a utilis des aciers doux revtus et non
revtus. D'aprs les rsultats, on peut conclure qu'il est possible
d'atteindre des vitesses de 14 16 m par minute pour le soudage
recouvrement troit et par crasement d'aciers non revtus. Si on augmente
la vitesse de soudage, l'cart entre la formation de la soudure et
l'apparition des claboussures diminue, ce qui signifie que l'on dispose
en fait de moins de temps pour produire une soudure de bonne qualit.
La vitesse maximum atteinte dpend des conditions de soudage, de l'paisseur de l'acier et du type de soudage en ligne effectu.
La diminution du temps disponible peut s'expliquer par l'apparition prcoce des claboussures au fur et mesure que la vitesse de soudage
augmente. En rgle gnrale, le phnomne se traduit par l'apparition de
ppites la surface de la soudure et le rejet de liquide la surface
de la tle. L'apparition des ppites est 'encourage par l'augmentation
du courant qui circule du ct sortie de l'arc de contact entre les
lectrodes de soudage et la tle soude. Le courant est alors concentr
sur une courte distance et la vitesse des pertes de chaleur dans les
lectrodes diminue. Les facteurs qui stimulent le flux de courant vers
le ct sortie de l'arc de contact sont une tle plus paisse, un
revtement faible rsistance et des vitesses de soudage plus grandes.
L'apparition des ppites et des claboussures prcoces est due la
faible force des lectrodes et l'utilisation d'aciers haute
rsistance. En ce qui concerne le soudage, les vitesses maximum sont
moins grandes pour le soudage rouleaux larges que pour celui
rouleaux troits et par crasement (par exemple 6 8 min contre 14
16 min). Cette diffrence s'explique par le plus grand volume de
ppites liquides gnres et, par consquent, par les difficults
rencontres pour obtenir la solidification des ppites avant qu'elles
ne sortent de l'arc de contact des lectrodes.
XII-
L'effet du courant continu compar celui du courant alternatif dpend

des facteurs qui limitent la vitesse maximum de soudage lorsque du courant alternatif est utilis. Dans les cas o la vitesse de soudage est
limite par des claboussures, le courant continu provoque, en gnral,
une lgre diminution de la vitesse de soudage. Ce phnomne s'explique
par des tempratures de surface plus leves en prsence de courant continu, et leur tour, ces tempratures plus leves s'expliquent par
l'absence de courant bas/zro rencontr en prsence d'une forme d'onde
de courant alternatif. Dans les cas o la vitesse de soudage est limite
par la sparation des ppites et o du courant alternatif est utilis,
par exemple lors de soudage par crasement, on constate une augmentation
d'au moins 30% de la vitesse maximum de soudage si l'on utilise du courant
continu.
L'on a constat que la prsence de niveaux d'huile de surface diffrents
n'avait gure d'effet sur la formation de la soudure.
Des soudures indentation minimum peuvent tre gnres l'aide d'une
srie de courants et de vitesses de soudage. A des vitesses de soudage
suprieures 6m/m, la limite.'est l'ondulation sur la surface de la soudure qui s'explique par les oscillations du courant alternatif.
Avec les aciers revtus, les vitesses maximum de soudage sont infrieures
celles obtenues avec ce l'acier doux non revtu, soud par soudage
troit et fil mtallique, par exemple 8 12m/min contre 14 16m/min.
les aciers revtus atteignent des vitesses moins leves car ils exigent des courants plus forts pour la formation de la soudure et parce
que des claboussures font leur apparition assez rapidement. Ce phnomne s'explique par le shunt de courant qui se produit dans la rgion
du revtement, autour de la priphrie des ppites, partir du dbit
de courant plus lev prs du ct sortie de l'arc de contact de
l'lectrode et des tempratures de surface plus leves.
Un autre facteur qui limite le soudage des aciers revtus est la fissuration des soudures. Les aciers souds peuvent tre classs en trois
catgories, selon leur propension la fissuration :
Haute propension la fissuration - aciers revtus galvaniss chaud
et lectrolytiquement
Propension moyenne la fissuration - aciers revtus allis au zinc avec
5% d'aluminium, aciers plombs et tams
Faible propension la 'issuration - aciers allis au zinc avec 5%
d'aluminium et aluminiu-.
Les fissures proviennert de la pntration intergranulaire de cuivre, de
.laiton ou de bronze liquide qui se forme la surface de la soudure la
suite de l'alliage entre le revtement et l'lectrode en cuivre.
L'utilisation de courarts interrompus et de vitesses de soudage relativement basses amliorent les pertes de chaleur la surface de la soudure
et rduisent ou limine-t les fissures.
Pendant le soudage, on c contrl le courant de soudage, la force et le
mouvement des lectrodes et la rsistance d>namique. Lors du soudage pas
XIII-
pas par molette, les paramtres ont produit des ractions similaires
celles rencontres lors du soudage par points. Avec du courant continu,
les paramtres varient pendant la formation de la soudure initiale, puis
se stabilisent pour se maintenir le long du reste de la soudure.
La force des lectrodes au cours du soudage est essentiellement fonction
des caractristiques de la machine et du courant de soudage. Toute force
qui a tendance sparer les roues des lectrodes provoque une augmentation de la force enregistre dans n'importe quelle machine o la tte
de soudage est incapable de ragir suffisamment rapidement aux forces
de dilatation.
La stabilit du mouvement de la tte des lectrodes s'explique par la
rigidit de la tte de soudage qui empche les oscillations 100Hz et
galement par le volume relativement constant de liquide qui se forme
sous les roues des lectrodes une fois que la stabilit est atteinte.
La stabilit de la rsistance dynamique est influence par les paramtres
de soudage et des matriaux, le processus de soudage et l'tendue de la
formation de la soudure. Ceci indique qu'il est possible d'utiliser la
rsistance dynamique pour contrler la qualit de la soudure.
On a dvelopp un modle lmentaire de formation de soudure qui montre
que la croissance d'une soudure dpend de la distribution de la rsistance dans la zone de soudage et de la variation correspondante de la
densit du courant dans cette zone.
A partir de ce modle, on a conclu que les facteurs susceptibles de
permettre une augmentation de la vitesse de soudage sont :
1) L'utilisation d'une plus grande force des lectrodes et/ou d'lectrodes
de plus grand diamtre.
2) L'amlioration du refroidissement de la surface de la soudure l'aide
de systmes plus efficaces de refroidissement par eau et/ou d'lectrodes plus grandes.
3) L'utilisation d'un processus deux tapes, savoir un soudage faible
chaleur pour gnrer l metallisation, suivi d'une tape de forte chaleur qui garantit la bonne qualit de la soudure.
4) Dans les cas o la vitesse de soudage est limite par la sparation des
ppites, du courant continu ou du courant alternatif haute frquence
peuvent se rvler bnfiques.
Il faut noter que la vitesse maximum de soudage peut tre augmente dans
beaucoup de cas en diminuant la largeur de la soudure, en tenant compte
bien entendu du produit final requis.
XV-
SOMMAIRE
PAGE
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
RAYON DE L'ETUDE
2.1
Principes fondamentaux du soudage en ligne continue
2.2
Objectifs de l'tude
3.
PROCEDURE EXPERIMENTALE
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.4
3.5.5
3.5.6
4.
Matriaux tudis
Equipement de soudage
Procdure de soudage
Evaluation de la qualit de la soudure
Instruments
Courant secondaire
Rsistance dynamique
Mesure de la force des lectrodes
Dplacement/mouvement de la tte
Elimination des signaux sonores
Mmorisation et rappel des donnes
SOUDABILITE DE L'ACIER DOUX NON REVETU
3
4
4
5
5
5
6
7
7
7
8
8
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.1.1.
9
9
4.1.1.2.
4.1.2.
4.1.3
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2.
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Influence de la qualit de l'acier

Influence de l'paisseur de l'acier
Effet de l'paisseur de l'acier sur l'oreille de
soudabilit
Effet de la tolrance d'paisseur
Effet de L'huile de surface
Influena de la rsistivit de masse
Influence de la forme d'onde de courant
Effet des programmes de courant interrompus
Courants continus de soudage
Effet de la force des lectrodes
Effet de la configuration du soudage
Soudage pas pas par molette
Soudage indentation basse
9
10
11
11
12
13
13
14
15
16
17
5.
SOUDABILITE DES ACIERS REVETUS
17
5.1
5.1.1.
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
Soudage recouvrement troit

Aciers ternes
Aciers revtus d'aluminium
Aciers revtus de zinc
Soudage par fil soudronique
Soudage continu
Programmes de courant interrompus
Examen mtallographique des soudures
Limite de la gamme de soudage
Fissuration des soudures recouvrement troit
Incidence des fissures
Mcanisme de la formation des fissures
18
18
18
18
19
19
20
21
22
23
23
24
XVI
6.
CONTROLE DE LA SOUDURE EN LIGNE CONTINUE
25
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
Courant d e soudage
Tension entre les lectrodes de soudage
Force d e s lectrodes
Dplacement des lectrodes
Rsistance dynamique
Influence du programme de courant de soudage
Facteurs qui influencent la crte initiale
Facteurs qui influencent la stabilit
26*
26
26
27
27
28
28
29
7.
ETUDE M E T A L L O G R A P H I Q U E DE LA FORMATION DE SOUDURE
30
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.4.1
7.1.4.2
7.1.4.3
7.2
Aciers non revtus

Structures d e s ppites d e soudure
Position d e dpart d e la soudure
Distribution du courant dans la zone d e soudure
Influence des paramtres de soudage/matriaux
Soudures recouvrement troit
Soudures recouvrement large
Soudures p a r crasement
Aciers revtus
30
30
31
33
34
34
34
35
36
8.
MODELE GENERAL DE LA FORMATION DE SOUDURE
36
8.1
8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3
8.2
Acier doux non revtu

Stades de la formation d'une soudure
Distribution du courant dans la zone d e soudure
Facteurs qui influencent la gamme de soudures
Aciers revtus
36
37
38
39
40
8.3
Principes d'augmentation d e la vitesse d e soudage
41
9.
CONCLUSIONS
42
10.
REFERENCES
45
TABLEAUX
47
FIGURES
70
- XVII -
LISTE DES TABLEAUX

1.
2.
3.
Analyse chimique des aciers utiliss dans l'tude

Analyse chimique des aciers haute rsistance tudis
Analyse chimique des aciers de faible teneur et des revtements
des aciers revtus tudis
4. M Comparaison des vitesses maximum de soudage avec des courants continu
et alternatifs pour des soudages en ligne continue par crasement et
avec recouvrement troit ou large
5.
Comparaison des courants minimum continu et alternatif requis pour des
soudages en ligne continue par crasement et avec recouvrement troit
ou large
6.
Comparaison des gammes de courant minimum continu et alternatif disdisponibles pour des soudages en ligne continue
avec recouvrement troit ou large et par crasement
7.
Effet des variables des aciers - tude mtallographique
8.
Valeurs de la rsistivit pour les types d'acier utiliss
9.
Effet de l'augmentation de la force des lectrodes sur la vitesse
maximum de soudage pour de l'acier de 1,2/1,4mm d'paisseur
10. Comparaison des vitesses de soudage maximum pour des aciers de
composition et d'paisseur diffrentes - recouvrement troit/courant
alternatif continu
11. Courants de soudage minimum et maximum pour des aciers de 1,2/1,4mm
'
d'paisseur, doux et haute rsistance
12. Effet de la force des lectrodes sur les vitesses maximum de soudage
13. Vitesses de soudage maximum pour des aciers revtus et non revtus
14. Comparaison des courants minimum alternatifs requis pour de l'acier
doux et de l'acier revtu
15. Comparaison du courant de soudage alternatif provoquant des claboussures /piqres pour de l'acier doux et de l'acier revtu
16. Diminution du courant de soudage pour la formation continue de soudage
en bouchon en utilisant du courant continu par comparaison du
courant alternatif
17. Rsultats gnraux des essais de soudage soudroniques
18. Comparaison de la gamme de soudage disponible - recouvrement troit/
fil mtallique
19. Comparaison des courants minimum peur la formation de soudure continue recouvrement troit/fil mtallique
20. Effet de la force des lectrodes sur la rsistance aux conditions
de soudage minimum et maximum, 6m/min
21. Niveau de rsistance dynamique avec des courants de soudage minimum
et maximum pour des aciers d'paisseur de 1,2/1,4mm de rsistivit
diffrente
22. Comparaison du niveau de rsistance pour du courant alternatif et
continu et un soudage en ligne continue recouvrement troit et
large, une vitesse de soudage de 6m/min
XIX-
LISTE DES FIGURES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Schma du cycle courant/temps

Forme d'onde de tension secondaire dans un systme de soudage rectifi
Types fondamentaux de soudage rsistance en ligne continue
Principes du processus soudronique
Machine de soudage recouvrement troit Kuka et gnratrice de courant continu British Federal, tableau d'instruments, micro-ordinateur et tables traantes
6.
Machine souder soudronique, modle Rdk 100 TEuP
7.
Oreille de soudabilit typique obtenue par soudage en ligne continue
d'acier doux
8.
Oreilles de soudabilit pour acier doux soud en ligne continue avec
recouvrement troit, courant alternatif
9.
Oreilles de soudabilit pour acier doux soud en ligne continue avec
recouvrement troit, courant continu
10. Oreilles de soudabilit pour acier doux soud en ligne continue avec
recouvrement large, courant alternatif
11. Oreilles de soudabilit pour acier doux soud en ligne continue avec
recouvrement large, courant continu
12. Comparaison des oreilles de soudabilit pour le soudage par crasement d'aciers doux de 0,6 et 1,2mm
13. Effet de la tolrance de l'acier sur la gamme de soudage
14. Rapport entre la largeur des ppites de soudage et la largeur des bouchons de soudage
15. Effet du niveau d'huile de surface sur les oreilles de soudabilit
16. Oreilles de soudabilit pour des aciers rephosphoriss de 0,55, 0,7
et 1,2mm d'paisseur
17. Oreilles de soudabilit pour des aciers deux phases de 0,75 et
1,2mm d'paisseur
18. Oreilles de soudabilit pour de l'acier trait au niobium,
diffrents niveaux de force, (a) 4,5kN, (b) 6,75kN
19. Courbes de croissance de soudure pour de l'acier rephosphoris
(recouvrement troit, courant alternatif)
20. Soudures par points individuelles gnres par soudage impulsions
une vitesse de 6m/min
21. Oreilles de soudabilit pour les soudures par crasement dans de
l'acier doux de 0,6mm, (a) courant alternatif, (b) courant continu
22. Effet de la force des lectrodes sur la soudabilit d'acier doux
de 1,2mm - soudage recouvrement large/courant alternatif
23. Effet de la force des lectrodes sur les courbes de croissance de soudure
24. Oreille de soudabilit pour le soudage pas pas par molette d'acier
doux de 1,2mm (recouvrement large, courant alternatif)
25. Diagrammes de chaleur diffrents au fur et mesure de l'augmentation
de la vitesse de soudage avec le soudage pas pas par molette
26. Oreilles de soudabilit pour des soudages sans marquage dans de
l'acier doux de 1,2mm trois niveaux de force
27. Sections transversales de soudures sans marquage
28. Oreilles de soudabilit pour de l'acier plomb-tam
29. Oreilles de soudabilit pour de l'acier l'aluminium
30. Oreilles de soudabilit pour HDG
31. Oreilles de soudabilit pour EZ
32. Oreilles de soudabilit pour IZ
33. Oreilles de soudabilit pour zinc avec 5% d'aluminium
34. Oreilles de soudabilit pour zinc avec 55% d'aluminium
-XX
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
Surface caille de soudure basse temprature dans de l'acier

galvanis, montrant une fracture dans le zinc le long du bord de
la soudure
Spcimen caill dans du zinc galvanis lectrolytiquement, montrant
des fissures le long du bord du bouchon de soudage
Oreille de soudabilit pour de l'acier terne de 0,75mm - soudage soudronique
Oreille de soudabilit pour de l'acier 0,881IZ et 0,85HDG - soudage
soudronique
Exemples de structures de solidification diffrentes entre des aciers
revtus diffrents - soudage par fil mtallique
Exemple d'agglomration entre le fil des lectrodes et la surface de
la tle sous forte chaleur
Exemples de pntration d'tain dans une soudure en zinc galvanis
chaud
Zinc galvanis chaud - illustrations de sonde lectronique montrant
que le rseau intergranulaire se compose de Cu et de Zn
Diagramme des facteurs qui influencent le mouillage de la limite des
grains
Traces de courant et de tension pour de l'acier doux, double programme
courant/vitesse, conditions de courant maximum
Effet du courant continu et alternatif sur la force des lectrodes
Effet des impulsions lectriques sur le mouvement des lectrodes
Rsistance dynamique, force et mouvement des lectrodes pour le
soudage pas pas par molette 2m/min
soudage pas pas par molette 6m/min
soudage pas pas par molette lOm/min
Courbes de rsistance dynamique pour un programme de courant interrompu
de 3 cycles de marche/2cycles d'arrt, montrant l'effet de la
vitesse et du courant de soudage
Rsistance dynamique pour des soudages courant alternatif et
continu sur de l'acier doux de 1,2mm (6m/min)
Traces de rsistance dynamique et de courant au dbut du soudage
d'acier doux de 0,6 et de 1,2mm
Effet de l'augmentation du courant de soudage sur le niveau de
rsistance dynamique stable pour une gamme d'aciers (2m/min)
Effet de la composition de l'acier et de la vitesse sur la rsistance
dynamique avec du courant minimum et maximum pour des aciers de
0,7/0,75mm d'paisseur
Structure de soudure caractristique, gravure Nital
Effet de la forme d'onde du courant sur la formation de ppites de
soudure
Effet de l'ouverture et de la mise au point sur la rvlation de
bandes de soudure
Effet d'un programme de courant de 2 cycles de marche et d'un cycle
d'arrt sur la formation de bandes
Gnration de bandes dans des soudures par points
Influence de la vitesse sur la gomtrie des ppites
Dveloppement de ppites entre 2 et 4 cycles de courant de soudage
Modifications dans la zone de soudage au cours des quelques premiers
cycles de courant de soudage
Comparaison des diagrammes de chaleur, avec un cycle de courant de
soudage, pour de l'acier doux de 1,2 et 0,6mm d'paisseur
-XXI
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
Diagramme de chaleur sous les lectrodes des vitesses de soudage

de 2,6 et 10m/min
Effet du courant de soudage sur la gomtrie des ppites
Effet de la vitesse de soudage sur la gomtrie des ppites
Effet de la force des lectrodes sur la gomtrie des ppites
Effet de la rsistivit sur la gomtrie des ppites
Effet du courant alternatif et continu sur la gomtrie des ppites
Effet de "Tunnel haute temprature"constat lors du soudage
courant continu
Rotation de la ppite de soudage de la position horizontale une
position sur l'interface incline se produisant au fur et mesure
que la vitesse de soudage augmente
Sections transversales provenant de la zone de formation de la soudure et montrant que "l'crasement" se produit avant la formation de
liquide des vitesses de soudage basses et leves
Comparaison de la formation de ppites avec du courant continu et
alternatif dans le soudage en continu par crasement
Soudure initiale forme aprs un cycle avec de l'acier doux, 2 cycles
avec des revtements de Pb (Sn) et 3 cycles avec de l'acier au zinc
galvanis chaud
Sections longitudinales montrant le diagramme de chaleur dans la
zone de formation de la soudure 2,6 et lOm/min pour de l'acier doux
zone de formation de la soudure 2,6 et 10m/min pour de l'acier
au zinc galvanis lectrolytiquement
zone de formation de la soudure 2,6 et 10m/min pour de l'acier
au zinc galvanis chaud
Quatre tapes du dveloppement d'une soudure reprsentes par la
rsistance dynamique
Parcours de la rsistance entre les lectrodes de soudage
Flux de courant entre les lectrodes de soudage
Effet de la vitesse de soudage sur le flux de courant
XXIII
Schnellwiderstandsnahtschweien der unbeschichteten

und beschichteten Sthle
Zusammenfassung
Stahlblech mit einer Dicke von 0,5-1,5 mm fr Einsatz zur Serienherstellung von
Haushaltsgerten, Zentralheizkrpern, Brennstoff tanks, Containern und Trommeln wird zur Zeit in
den
Industriebranchen widerstandsnahtgeschweit. Schweigeschwindigkeiten von 2-4 m/min sind typisch in vielen Anwendungszwecken.
Aus dem Grunde sind die verschiedenen, die Schweigeschwindigkeit
begrenzenden Faktoren fr viele Varianten des
Nahtschweiverfahrens ermittelt worden, und man hat einen Vergleich zwischen
dem herkmmlichen Breitnahtschweien und den Schmalrollen- und
Drahtschweinahtmethoden unter Einsatz von entweder WS- oder GSSekundrstrom gezogen.
In dieser Bewertung sind verschiedene unbeschichtete und beschichtete Weichsthle eingesetzt worden. Die Ergebnisse deuten
darauf hin, da man Schweigeschwindigkeiten bis zu 14-16 m/min
mit dem Schmal- und Quetschnahtschweien der unbeschichteten
Sthle erzielen knnte. Mit zunehmender Schweigeschwindigkeit
ist der verfgbare Strombereich zwischen der Schweinahtbildung
und dem Schweinahtspritzen reduziert worden, und deshalb wurde
auch der vorhandene Bereich an hinreichendem Schweien reduziert.
Die maximal erreichbare Geschwindigkeit ist von den Schweibedingungen, der Stahldicke und der Art des eingesetzten Schweinahtverfahrens abhngig gewesen.
Man konnte die Abnahme des vorhandenen Schweiumfanges dem
verhltnismig frheren Einsetzen des Schweinahtspritzens wegen
zunehmender Schweigeschwindigkeit zuschreiben. Allgemein hatte
das ein zunehmendes Ausma an Linsenwachstum zur Oberflche der
Schweinaht hin und
der
anschlieenden
Ausscheidung
der
Flssigkeit durch die Blechoberflche zur Folge. Linsenwachstum
in der Dickerichtung ist durch den greren Anteil des Schweistromes gefrdert worden, der zur Ausgangsseite des Kontaktbogens
zwischen den Schweielektroden und dem zu schweienden Stahlblech
fliet. Aus diesem Grunde wird der Schweistrom ber einem
krzeren Abstand konzentriert, und das hat auch eine Abnahme des
Wrmeentzugausmasses durch die Elektroden zur Folge. Faktoren,
die den Stromflu zur Ausgangsseite des Kontaktbogens zwischen
den Elektroden gefrdert haben, sind eine grere Stahldicke, das
Vorliegen von berzgen mit einem niedrigen Widerstand und
grere Schweigeschwindigkeiten. Das Schweinahtlinsenwachstum
in der Dickerichtung und das frhere Einsetzen des Schweinahtspritzens sind auch durch niedrige Elektrodenkraftniveaus und
durch den Einsatz von Sthlen mit einem hohen, spezifischen
Widerstand gefrdert worden. Hinsichtlich der Schweianordnung
hat Breitnahtschweien allgemein niedrigere, maximale Schweigeschwindigkeiten, d.h., 6-8 m/min im Vergleich zu 14-16 m/min,
XXIV-
als entweder das . Schmal- oder Quetschnahtschweien zur Folge

gehabt. Man hat das der greren, in diesem Verfahren erzeugten
Menge an Flssiglinsen zugeschrieben und ebenfalls der anschlieenden Schwierigkeit, die erforderliche Erstarrung
zu
erzielen,
bevor
die Linsen den Kontaktbogen zwischen den
Elektroden verlassen.
Der Einflu eines GS-Schweistromes im Vergleich zu
einem
WS-Strom ist von den Faktoren abhngig gewesen, die die maximale
Geschwindigkeit begrenzen, wenn ein WS-Schweistrom eingesetzt
wird.
In
Situationen, wo die Schweigeschwindigkeit durch
Schweinahtspritzen begrenzt worden ist, hatte der Einsatz eines
GS-Stromes allgemein eine geringe Abnahme der maximal erreichbaren Schweigeschwindigkeit zur Folge. Man hat dies den hheren
Oberflchentemperaturen wegen des GS-Stromes zugeschrieben, das
das Ergebnis des NichtVorliegens
eines
Ni edrig-/NulIstrombereiches gewesen ist, der mit einer WS-Stromwellenform auftritt.
In Situationen, wo die Schweigeschwindigkeit durch Linsenseigerung begrenzt worden ist, wenn ein WS-Strom eingesetzt wird,
d.h. Quetschnahtschweien, dann hat der Einsatz eines GS-Stromes
eine Zunahme der maximal erreichbaren Schweigeschwindigkeit von
mindestens 30% zur Folge gehabt.
Man hat bemerkt, da das Vorliegen von unterschiedlich starken
lniveaus auf der Oberflche eine geringe Auswirkung auf die
Schweinahtbildung hat.
Man konnte Schweinhte mit minimalen Eindrcken fr verschiedene
Schweistrme und -geschwindigkeiten produzieren, und leichtes
Ausbauchen auf der Seite ohne Eindrcke ist durch einen hheren
Schweistrom erzielt worden. Bei Schweigeschwindigkeiten ber
6 m/min ist der Welleneffekt auf der Schweinahtoberflche der
begrenzende Faktor gewesen, und das liegt an dem oszillierenden
Wesen des WS-Stromes.
Im Falle von beschichteten Sthlen lagen die maximalen Schweigeschwindigkeiten
unter denen, die man mit unbeschichteten
Weichsthlen whrend des Schmalnaht- und DrahtSchweiens, d.h.,
8-12 m/min im Vergleich zu 14-16 m/min, erzielen konnte. Beschichtete Sthle haben engere Schweibereiche aufgewiesen, und
das hat an dem hheren, erforderlichen Strom fr die Schweinahtbildung und dem verhltnismig frheren Einsetzen des Schweinahtspritzens gelegen. Dies ist der Effekt wegen des zustzlichen
Stromnebenschlieens gewesen, das im Bereich des gebundenen
berzugs an der Peripherie der Nahtlinse eingetreten ist, d.h.
durch den greren Stromflu zur Ausgangsseite des Kontaktbogens
zwischen den Elektroden und durch die resultierenden hohen
Oberflchentemperaturen.
Schweinahtribildung ist ein anderer Faktor gewesen, der den
Schweiumfang im Falle von beschichteten Sthlen begrenzt hat,
und deshalb knnen diese Sthle z.B. aufgrund ihrer
Ribildungsempfindlichkeit in den folgenden drei Gruppen eingestuft
werden:
-XXV- Hohe Ribildungsempfindlichkeit - feuerverzinkte

plattierte Zinkberzge
- Mittlere
Ribildungsempfindlichkeit
Zink-5%. Aluminium- und Blei-Zinnberzge
- Niedrige Ribildungsempfindlichkeit
Aluminiumberzge
und
elektro-
Eisen-Zinklegierung,
55%
Aluminium-
und
Ribildung ist das Ergebnis von intergranularer Durchdringung der

flssigen Kupfer-, Messing- und Bronzephasen gewesen, die auf der
Schweinahtoberflche wegen Legierung zwischen dem berzug und
der Kupferelektrode gebildet wurden. Der Einsatz von Unterbrechungsstromprogrammen
und
relativ
niedrigen
Schweigeschwindigkeiten hat den Wrmeentzug von der Schweinahtoberflche
verbessert und das Problem der Schweinahtribildung reduziert
oder ausgeschaltet.
Man hat den Schweistrom, die Elektrodenkraft und -bewegung sowie
den dynamischen Widerstand whrend des Schweiens berwacht. Im
Falle vom Rollenpunktnahtschweien haben die Parameter Reaktionen
aufgewiesen,
die denen hnlich sind, die man whrend des
Punktschweiens beobachtet hat, und im Falle von GS-Strom haben
die Parameter whrend der ersten Schweinahtbildung geschwankt,
und dann einen Dauerzustand erreicht, der allgemein an der restlichen Naht beibehalten werden konnte.
Das Schema der Elektrodenkraft ist whrend des Schweiens hauptschlich eine Funktion
der
Maschinenund
Schweistromeigenschaften gewesen. Jede Druckkraft, die zur Trennung der
Elektrodenscheiben neigt, hat eine Zunahme der in jeder Maschine
aufgezeichneten Kraft zur Folge, in der der Schweikopf nicht
schnell genug auf die Ausdehnungskrfte reagieren kann.
Man hat den fr die Elektrodenkopfbewegung aufgezeichneten Dauerzustand im Sinne der grundlegenden Steifheit des Schweikopfes
erklrt, der Oszillation bei 100 Hz und auch das ziemlich
konstante Flssigkeitsvolumen verhindert, das unter den Elektrodenscheiben gebildet wird, nachdem der Dauerzustand erreicht
worden ist. Das Dauerzustandsniveau des dynamischen Widerstands
wird von den Schwei- und Werkstoffparametern, dem Schweiverfahren sowie dem Ausma an Schweinahtbildung beeinflut, und
Letzteres deutet darauf hin, da der Einsatz des dynamischen
Widerstandes als eine Grundlage zur berwachung der Schweinahtgte vielleicht mglich ist.
Man hat ein grundlegendes Modell der Schweinahtbildung entwickelt, mit dem man zeigen konnte, da die Schweinahtzunahme
von der Widerstandsverteilung in der Schweizone
und
der
entsprechenden Schwankung der Stromdichte in dieser Zone bestimmt
wird.
XXVI
Anhand des vorgeschlagenen Modells hat man gefolgert, da die

Faktoren, die eine Zunahme der erreichbaren Geschwindigkeit
ermglichen, wie folgt sind:
1. Einsatz von hheren Elektrodenkraftniveaus und/oder
von Elektroden mit einem greren Durchmesser
Einsatz
2. Bessere Khlung der Schweinahtoberflche durch leistungsfhigere Wasserkhlung und/oder durch Elektrodenvergrerungssysteme
3. Einsatz eines zweistufigen Verfahrens, d.h. eine Schweinaht
bei niedriger Wrme zur Einleitung von Bindung, gefolgt von
grerer
Wrme
zur
Sicherstellung einer akzeptierbaren
Schweinahtgute
4. In Situationen, wo die Schweigeschwindigkeit durch Linsenseigerung begrenzt wird, kann ein GS-Strom oder WS-Schweistrom bei hheren Frequenzen vorteilhaft sein.
In diesem Zusammenhang sollte darauf hingewiesen werden, da die
maximale Schweigeschwindigkeit in vielen Fllen durch Reduzierung der Schweinahtbreite auf die minimale Breite erhht
werden knnte, die mit den, an das Endprodukt gestellten Anforderungen kompatibel ist.
-XXVII
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Seite
1.
Einleitung
2.
Umfang der Untersuchung
2.1
Grundlegende Prinzipien des Nahtschweiens
2.2
Ziele der Untersuchung
3.
Experimentelles Verfahren
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.4
3.5.5
3.5.6
4.
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.1
3
4
4
5
5
5
6
7
7
7
8
8
9
9
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Untersuchte Werkstoffe
Schweigerte
Schweiverfahren
Bewertung der Schweigte
Instrumentierung
Sekundrstrom
Dynamischer Widerstand
Messung der Elektrodenkraft
Verschiebung/Kopfbewegung
Ausschaltung der Strsignale
Datenspeicherung und -Wiedergewinnung
Schweibarkeit der unbeachichteten Weichsthle
Einflu der Stahlgte
Einflu der Blechstrke
Effekt der Blechstrke auf das Schweibarkeitsdiagramm
Effekt der Dicketoleranz
Effekt des Oberflchenls
Einflu des spezifischen Massenwiderstands
Einflu der Stromwellenform
Effekt der Unterbrechungsstromprogramme
GS-Schweistrom
Effekt der Elektrodenkraft
Effekt der Schweianordnung
Rollenpunktschweien
Schweien mit geringen Eindrcken
9
10
11
11
12
13
13
14
15
16
17
5.
Schweibarkeit der beschichteten Sthle
17
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
Schmalnahtschweien
Blei-Zinnbeschichtete Sthle
Aluminiumbeschichtete Sthle
Zinkbeschichtete Sthle
'Soudronic' Drahtschweien
Kontinuierliches Schweien
Unterbrechnungsstromprogramme
Metallographische Untersuchung der Schweinhte
Den Schweiumfang begrenzende Faktoren
Ribildung in Schmalschweinhten
Ribildungsvorkommen
Mechanismus der Ribildung
18
18
18
18
19
19
20
21
22
23
23
24
XXVIII
Seite
6.
berwachung des NahtSchweiverfahrens
25
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
Schweistrom
Spannung zwischen den Schweielektroden
Elektrodenkraft
Elektrodenverschiebung
Dynamischer Widerstand
Einflu der Schweistromprogramme
Die erste Hauptbelastung beeinfluende Faktoren
Den Dauerzustand beeinfluende Faktoren
26
26
26
27
27
28
28
29
7.
Metallographisehe Untersuchung der

Schweinahtbildung
30
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
Unbeschichtete Sthle
Schweilinsengefge
Schweistartposition
Verteilung des Stromes in der Schweinahtzone
7.1.4.1
7.1.4.2
7.1.4.3
7.2
Einflu der Schwei-/Werkstoffparameter
30
30
31
33
Sehmalschweinhte
BreitSchweinhte
Quetschschweinhte
Beschichtete Sthle
34
8.
Allgemeines Modell der Schweinahtbildung
36
8.1
8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3
Unbeschichtete Weichsthle
Stadien der Schweinahtbildung
Stromverteilung in der Schweinahtzone
Den vorhandenen Schweiumfang beeinfluende
Faktoren
36
37
38
7.1.4
8.2
Beschichtete Sthle
34
34
35
36
39
40
8.3
Richtlinien fr eine erhhte Schweigeschwindigkeit
9.
Schlufolgerungen
42
10.
Literaturverzeichnis
45
Tabellen
47
Abbildungen
70
41
-xixxAufstellung der Tabellen

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Chemische Analyse der in der Untersuchung eingesetzten Weichsthle

Chemische Analyse der untersuchten, hochfesten Sthle
Chemische Analyse der untersuchten Grundstoffsthle und der
berzge der beschichteten Sthle
Vergleich der
maximalen Schweigeschwindigkeiten fr die
WS- und GS-Stromversorgung mit Schmal-, Breit- und Quetschnah t schwei en
Vergleich des minimalen Strombedarfs fr die WS- und GSStromversorgung mit Schmal-, Breit- und Quetschnahtschweien
Vergleich des verfgbaren Schweistromumfanges fr die WSund GS-Stromversorgung mit Schmal-, Breit- und Quetschnahtschweien
Effekt der Stahlvariablen - metallographische Untersuchung
Fr
die eingesetzten Stahltypen festgelegte spezifische
Widerstandswerte
Effekt der erhhten Elektrodenkraft auf die maximale Schweigeschwindigkeit fr den 1,2/1,4 mm dicken Stahl
Vergleich der maximalen Schweigeschwindigkeiten fr verschieden zusammengesetzte und dicke Sthle - Schmalnaht-/
kontinuierlicher WS-Strom
Minimaler und maximaler Schweistrom fr 1,2/1,4 mm dicke
Weich- und hochfeste Sthle
Effekt der Elektrodenkraft auf die maximal erreichbaren
Schweigeschwindigkeiten
Maximale Schweigeschwindigkeiten fr unbeschichtete
und
beschichtete Sthle
Vergleich des minimalen WS-Strombedarfs fr Weich- und
beschichtete Sthle
Vergleich des WS-Schweistromes mit Zunahme von Spritzern/
Poren im Weich- und beschichteten Stahl
Abnahme des Schweistromes fr kontinuierliche Knopfbildung
unter Einsatz von GS- anstatt von WS-Strom
Allgemeine Ergebnisse der 'Soudronic' Schweiversuche
Vergleich des vorhandenen Schweiumfanges, Schmalnaht- gegen
Drahtschweien
Vergleich des minimalen Stroms fr kontinuierliche Schweinah tbildungen, Schmalnaht- gegen Drahtschweien
Effekt der Elektrodenkraft auf den Widerstand bei minimalen
und maximalen Schweibedingungen bei 6 m/min
Dynamisches Widerstandsniveau beim minimalen und maximalen
Schweistrom fr 1,2/1,4 mm dicke Sthle mit unterschiedlichem, spezifischem Widerstand
Vergleich des Widerstandsniveaus fr WS- gegen GS-Strom und
Schmal- gegen Breitnahtschweien bei einer Geschwindigkeit
von 6 m/min
XXXI
Aufstellung der Abbildungen

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Schematische Darstellung des Stromes gegen den Zeitzyklus

Wellenform der Sekundrspannung in einem gleichgerichteten
Schweisystem
Grundlegende Typen des Widerstandsnahtschweiens
Prinzipien des Soudronic Verfahrens
Kuka Schmalnahtschweimaschine zusammen mit dem britischen
GS-Landesnetzanschlugert, Instrumentierungsgestell, Mikrocomputer und Plottern
Soudronic Schweimaschine, Modell RdK 100 TEuP
Typisches whrend des Weichstahlnahtschweiens gewonnenes
Schweibarkeitsdiagramm
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr Schmalnahtschweien des Weichstahls mit WS-Strom
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr Schmalnahtschweien des Weichstahls mit GS-Strom
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr Breitnahtschweien des Weichstahls mit WS-Strom
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr Breitnahtschweien des Weichstahls mit GS-Strom
Vergleich der Schweibarkeitsdiagramme
fr
Quetschnahtschweien des 0,6 und 1,2 mm dicken Weichstahls
Effekt der Stahltoleranz auf den Schweiumfang
Verhltnis zwischen der Nahtlinsen- und Schweiknopfbreite
Effekt des lniveaus an der Oberflche auf das Schweibarkeit s diagramm
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr 0,5 5 mm, 0,7 mm und
1,2 mm
dicke, wiederphosphorisierte Sthle
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr 0,75 mm und
1,2 mm
dicke,
doppelphasige Sthle
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr den
1,4 mm
dicken,
niobbehandelten Stahl bei verschiedenen Kraftniveaus, (a) 4,5 kN,
(b) 6,75 kN
Schweinahtzunahmekurven
fr den 1,2 mm dicken, wiederphosphorisierten Stahl (Schmalnaht-WS)
Individuelle unter Einsatz von Mehrimpulsschweien bei einer
Geschwindigkeit von 6 m/min erzeugte PunktSchweinhte
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr QuetschSchweinhte im 0,6 mm
Weichstahl (a) WS-Strom, (b) GS-Strom
Effekt der Elektrodenkraft auf die Schweibarkeit des 1,2 mm
dicken Weichstahls - Breitnahtschweien/WS-Strom
Effekt der Elektrodenkraft auf die Schweinahtzunahmekurven
Schweibarkeitsdiagramm fr Rollenpunktschweien des 1,2 mm
dicken Weichstahls (Breitnaht, WS-Strom)
Verschiedene Wrmeschemas
bei
erhhter
Geschwindigkeit
whrend des Rollenpunktschweiens; Schweistrom mit 7 Zyklen
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr Schweinhte ohne Eindrcke im
1,2 mm dicken Weichstahl bei drei Kraftniveaus
Querschnitte der Schweinhte ohne Eindrcke
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme
fr den mit Pn-Sn-beschichteten
Stahl
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr den Al-beschichteten Stahl
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr den feuerverzinkten, galvanisierten Stahl
-XXXII
31.
32.
33.
34.
3 5.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr den elektroplattierten Zinkstahl

Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr den Eisen-Zinkstahl
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr den Zn 5%. Al Stahl
Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr den Zn 5 5%. Al Stahl
Abgebltterte Oberflche der NiedrigtemperaturSchweinaht im
galvanisierten Stahl, gezeigt wird der Bruch durch das Zink
an der Schweikante
Auf Abbltterung geprfte Probe im elektroplattierten Zink,
gezeigt werden die Risse an der Kante des Schweiknopfes
Schweibarkeitsdiagramm fr den 0,75 mm dicken Blei-Zinnbeschichteten Stahl - Soudronic Schweien
Schweibarkeitsdiagramm fr den 0,88. Eisen-Zink und 0,85.
feuerverzinkten, galvanisierten Stahl - Soudronic Schweien
Beispiele der verschiedenen Erstarrungsgefge in verschieden
beschichteten Sthlen - Drahtschweien
Beispiel, wo eine Bindung zwischen dem Elektrodendraht und
der Blechstahloberflche bei hoher Wrmeeingabe gebildet
wurde
Beispiele der Messingdurchdringung in der feuerverzinkten
Schweinaht
Feuerverzinkung - Elektronsondenbilder zeigen, da das intergranulare Netz aus Cu und Zn besteht
Schematische Darstellung der die Korngrenzenbenetzung beeinfluenden Faktoren
Strom- und Spannungsspuren fr Weichstahl, Doppelstrm-/
Geschwindigkeitsprogramme, maximale Strombedingungen
Effekt des WS- und GS-Stromes auf die Elektrodenkraft
Effekt des Strompulsierens auf die Elektrodenbewegung
Dynamische Widerstands-, Elektrodenkraft- und -bewegungsspuren fr Rollenpunktschweien bei 2 m/min
Dynamische Widerstandskurven fr ein Unterbrechungsstromprogramm der 3 Zyklen an/2 Zyklen aus, gezeigt wird der
Effekt der Schweigeschwindigkeit und des Schweistromes
Dynamischer Widerstand fr WS- und GS-Schweinhte im 1,2 mm
dicken Weichstahl (6 m/min)
Dynamische Widerstands- und Stromspuren am
Anfang
der
Schweinaht des 0,6 und 1,2 mm dicken Weichstahls
Effekt des zunehmenden Schweistromes auf das dynamische
Widerstandsniveau im Dauerzustand fr verschiedene Sthle
(2 m/min)
Effekt der Stahlzusammensetzung und Geschwindigkeit auf den
dynamischen Widerstand bei einem minimalen und maximalen
Strom fr 0,7/0,75 mm dicke Sthle
Typisches durch das tzmittel aus alkoholischer Salpetersure
gezeigtes Schweinahtgefge
Effekt der Stromwellenform auf die Schweinahtlinsenbildung
Effekt der Lichtblende und des Fokusses auf die gezeigten
Schweinahtbnder
Effekt des Einsatzes eines Stromprogrammes mit 2 Zyklen an/l
Zyklus aus auf die Bandbildung
Produktion der Bnder in Punkt Schweinhten
XXXII
60. Einflu der Geschwindigkeit auf die Linsenform

61. Linsenbildung von 2 bis zu 4 'Zyklen des Schweistroms
62. Vernderungen der Schweizone whrend der ersten paar Zyklen
des Schweistromes
63. Vergleich der Wrmeschemas mit einem Zyklus des Schweistromes zwischen dem 1,2 und 0,6 mm dicken Weichstahl
64. Wrmeschema unter den Elektroden bei Schweigeschwindigkeiten
von 2, 6 und 10 m/min
65. Effekt des Schweistromes auf die Linsenform
66. Effekt der Schweigeschwindigkeit auf die Linsenform
67. Effekt der Elektrodenkraft auf die Linsenform
68. Effekt des spezifischen Widerstandes auf die Linsenform
69. Effekt des WS- und GS-Stromes auf die Linsenform
70. Whrend des GS-Schweiens beobachteter "Hochtemperaturtunnel"
Effekt
71. Drehung der Schweinahtlinse von der horizontalen zur einer
Lage entlang der geneigten Grenzflche ist whrend der
hheren Schweigeschwindigkeit eingetreten
72. Aus dem Bereich der Schweinahtbildung genommene Querprofile,
gezeigt wird, da das "Herunterquetschen" vor Bildung irgendeiner Flssigkeit bei niedrigen und hohen Schweigeschwindigkeiten eintritt
73. Vergleich der Linsenbildung mit WS- und GS-Strom whrend des
Quetschnahtschweiens
74. Erste Schweiung, nach 1 Zyklus mit Weichstahl, 2 Zyklen mit
Pb (Sn) berzgen und 3 Zyklen mit feuerverzinktem, beschichteten Stahl gebildet
75. Lngsprofile, gezeigt werden die Wrmeschemas im Bereich der
Schweinahtbildung bei 2, 6 und 10 m/min fr Weichstahl
Schweinahtbildung
bei 2, 6 und 10 m/min fr elektroplattierten, mit Zink beschichteten Stahl
Schweinahtbildung bei 2, 6 und 10 m/min fr feuerverzinkten,
beschichteten Stahl
78. Vier Stadien,durch den dynamischen Widerstand angezeigten
Schweinahtentwicklung
79. Widerstandsbahnen zwischen den Schweielektroden
80. Stromflu zwischen den Schweielektroden
81. Effekt der Schweigeschwindigkeit auf den Stromflu
1-
HIGH SPEED RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING OF UNCOATED AND COATED STEELS

British Steel Corporation
ECSC Agreement No. 7210.KA/809
Final Technical Report
1.
INTRODUCTION
Sheet steel in the thickness range 0.5-1.5mm is currently resistance seam welded in mass production
industries for domestic appliances, central heating radiators, vehicle parts and container/drum
manufacture. While welding speeds of up to 10m/min are feasible in some of these applications, welding
speeds of 2-4m/min are typical in industry. These limitations on welding speed can frequently be
attributed to a lack of a basic understanding of the seam welding process.
Very little basic work has been carried out in this area and a greater understanding of the principles
involved and, how the various factors influence weldability, could result in higher production rates with a
lower incidence of poor or unsatisfactory weld quality. Such a development would assist greatly in
maintaining the competitiveness of steel products in such applications.
In addition, quality requirements for seam welded components are becoming more stringent, for example,
the need exists in many instances to produce welds of a good aesthetic appearance, i.e. non-marking or
free from indentation on the exposed side of the joint. A requirement for fluid and/or pressure tightness
can also impose limitations, particularly if high speed welding is used. Also, in many instances the buildup (i.e. total thickness) at the weld is frequently specified within tight tolerances which again causes
difficulties in operating at high welding speeds. While considerable work*1-2) has been carried out to
understand the factors limiting the attainment of high welding speeds, i.e. >30m/min in the field of
canmaking using tinplate, very little attention has been given to high speed seam welding of thicker
materials, i.e. greater than 0.5mm.
A programme of work was therefore undertaken to determine the various factors which control welding
speed in the many variants of the seam welding process.
2.
SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION
2.1.
Basic Principles of Seam Welding
A seam weld corresponds to a series of overlapping spot welds. The main difference between seam welding
and spot welding is that in the former process, current shunting occurs at all times and the weld is made
continuously at speed.
The important operating parameters in resistance welding and their influence particularly in seam
welding are:i)
Welding current - the major factor governing the amount of heat generated during welding.
ii)
Welding time - the overall weld time governs the relative balance between the time
available to make and to consolidate the weld.
iii)
Electrode force - controls the contact resistance between the welding electrodes and also
assists to confine the molten weld nugget in the appropriate area. Too high an electrode force
will cause the molten weld nugget to be splashed out at the weld interface. A similar effect is
caused by too low an electrode force.
Conventional seam welding is carried out using a welding current supplied at 50Hz either in an
interrupted or continuous manner. The latter is used if high welding speeds are to be achieved.
In continuous seam welding, using an alternating current type of waveform, a weld nugget is formed
corresponding to each half cycle of the waveform. For example at 50Hz, there are 6,000 half cycles per
minute and the maximum number of weld nuggets which can be produced within this time.when using a
50Hz welding current, is equal to this number. The extent to which overlapping weld nuggets and a leak
proof seam can be formed under these conditions depends on both the welding current and the welding
speed.
The maximum possible weld nugget length is governed by the number of half cycles in the current
waveform and , the distance which the workpiece travels during each half cycle. Maximum pulse length
Wixmai) can be calculated from the equation:
WL(max) = 1000 S
120 f
(D
where S = welding speed m/min

f = frequency Hz
However, a limiting speed is reached at each frequency level due to the inability to supply sufficient
energy into the weld zone without burning the sheet or giving rise to excessive surface or interfacial
splash.
Contact resistance is considered^3) to be an important factor in seam welding particularly:
1)
2)
3)
At the start of each seam

In seam welding with interrupted current schedules
As the welding speed is increased to high values
The resistance at the faying surfaces is made up of two components, firstly, a constriction resistance due
to concentration of the current at the points of contact and secondly, the contact resistance arising from
the presence of surface films.
In practical situations, it has been observed that in some instances surface cleanliness can have a
pronounced effect on the quality of the weld seam. This effect has been attributed^4) to the presence of
surface films which influences the steel/steel contact resistance and the electrode/steel resistance. It is
quite possible that during the welding operation, the electrode/steel resistance may be changed due to a
progressive chemical reaction between the surface film and the electrode material. Differences in the
surface topography of the steel sheet may also affect the contact resistance and therefore influence weld
formation.
In high speed seam welding, it has been shownd) that the resistivity of the steel being welded can also
influence the current level at which splash occurs. For example, increasing the carbon content of a steel
and thereby the resistivity resulted in a narrowing of the weldability range. Similarly, narrow
weldability ranges have been observed in the high speed mash seam welding of high strength low alloy
steels.
It is quite possible that the surface and internal characteristics of the steel influence the total dynamic
resistance between the welding electrodes. It is considered therefore, that a knowledge of the dynamic
resistance, i.e. the change in resistance during welding, is necessary to gain an understanding of weld
formation. While a number of investigations have been carried out to determine the dynamic resistance
during spot welding, little is known regarding the dynamic resistance behaviour during seam welding.
A number of investigations .2> have been carried out on the high speed seam welding of tinplate and an
understanding has been gained regarding the mechanism of weld formation in this situation. However,
although some basic work*3"5) has been carried out on the mechanism of weld formation in thicker steels,
i..e. 0.5 to 1.5mm, no general model of weld formation is available.
2.2.
Objectives of Investigation
The basic objectives of the work programme undertaken may be sumarised as follows:-
-3
(i)
Determination of the factors which influence weld formation at high welding speeds for both
uncoated (both unalloyed and high strength) and coated steels.
(li)
Determination of the influence of material tolerances, i.e. analysis, thickness and surface
condition on the ability to make acceptable welds at welding speeds up to 20m/min.
(iii)
Comparison of the effectiveness of welding at high speed using the various variants of seam
welding, i.e mash, wide,narrow seam and roller spot welding.
(iv)
To determine the feasibility of producing non marking seam welds at high speeds.
(v)
Investigation of the feasibility of high speed seam welding of coated steels, such as hot dip
and electrolytic zinc, iron-zinc alloy, zinc-5% aluminium, zinc 55% aluminium, terne, and
aluminium coatings.
Anumber of variants of the seam welding process were investigated which included:(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Conventional single phase AC - Fig. 1.

Secondary rectified DC - Fig.2.
Wide and narrow seam welding techniques
Mash welding
\.
Wire welding
Fig. 3
The majority of welding machines are single phase AC machines in which a welding current is supplied as
a simple 50Hz sine wave. Recent developments in rectifier technology have led to a more widespread
interest in DC machines. These machines are in fact rectified AC machines where the 3-phase primary
supply is rectified into six uni-directional half phases, i.e. hexa-phase systems. The power requirement is
therefore balanced over the three primary phases and this, together with the minimisation of inductive
losses, makes the process more energy efficient than single-phase AC machines.
In wide seam welding, the electrode tread width is normally flat and set to 5 V t where t is the single sheet
thickness in mm. "Mash welding", used in high speed seam welding of containers or coil joining
applications, involves the use of a narrow overlap which is forged together under a high electrode force.
This technique is used to reduce the amount of build up at the joint. In narrow seam welding, domed
electrodes are used of thicknesses 8-10mm with a tip radius of 5-6mm resulting in a weld width of
approximately 2-3Vt.
To enable a meaningful comparison of the different welding techniques , narrow, wide and mash seam
welding, with both AC and DC current supplies were carried out on the same machine. By this means, it
was possible to eliminate any variations in the response of the mechanical systems or electrode head
assemblies which would be encountered if different machines were used.
Seam welding of coated steels presents problems of the coating being picked-up by the electrode. This
pick-up results in a variable resistance between the electrode and the component to be welded thereby
giving rise to a variable heating effect and inconsistent weld quality. The problem of electrode pick-up
has been approached in different ways, e.g. "narrow seam" welding and "wire welding". In "narrow seam"
welding an electrode wheel with a radiused profile is friction driven by a roller thereby breaking down
any pick-up and maintaining a constant electrode/component resistance. In "wire welding" electrode
pick-up is overcome by constantly presenting an uncontaminated electrode to the work piece. This is
achieved by the use of a copper wire fed between the electrode and the work piece, Fig.4.
3.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
3.1.
Materials Examined
A range of materials were investigated as follows:(a)
Mild Steel - narrow, wide and mash seam welding trials were carried out on a range of mild
steels of thicknesses between 0.60mm to 1.2mm. Details of these are given in Table 1.
-4-
(b)
High Strength Steels. - three high strength steels were included in the studies, each steel
being chosen to give pronounced differences in their resistivity. These steels may be
summarised as follows:Rephosphorised:
Niobium treated:
Titanium treated:
Dual-phase:
0.55mm, 0.7mm and 1.2mm

1.4mm
1.2mm
0.75mm and 1.2mm
Details of their chemical analyses are given in Table 2.

(c)
Coated Steels - Various coated steels were examined as follows:

Hot dipped galvanised steel
Electro-zinc
Iron-zinc alloy
Zinc - 5% aluminium
Zinc - 55% aluminium
Aluminium
Lead-tin
Details of these steels are given in Table 3.
3.2.
Welding Equipment
Narrow, wide and mash seam welding operations were carried out on a KUKA narrow seam welding
machine, type EWNR/K50/M150/6, of nominal rating 150 kVA, Fig.5. Modified side drive rollers were
used to accommodate wide and mash seam welding electrodes.
-DC current welding was carried out on the same machine using a British Federal secondary rectified DC
welding power unit transformer, type 310 HDC, connected to the machine in place of the conventional
single phase AC welding current transformer.
Welding electrodes manufactured from a class A2/1 - IS05182 material (1% Cr/Cu) were used for welding
the mild and high strength steels whereas, class A 2/2 - ISO 5182 electrodes (1% Cr/0.1% Zr/Cu) were
used for welding the various coated steels. The electrodes were approximately 300mm diameter in all
cases and were water cooled at a flow rate of 19 L/min
An Avil Presstotest oil filled load cell was used to set the initial electrode force prior to welding. Welding
speed was set using the dial control on the welding machine and checked with a commercial tachometer.
The coated steels were welded using narrow seam and wire welding techniques. The latter employs an
intermediate copper wire between the electrode wheel and sheet surface to maintain a constant
electrode/sheet resistance, Fig.4. Any coating pick-up is continuously removed on the copper wire and the
weld is effectively made by "clean" electrodes at all times. The trials were carried out on a High
Performance Fully Automatic Contour Seam Welding Machine, Model Rdk 100, TEuP, Fig.6, made
available by Soudronic AG at Dietikon, Switzerland. This machine had a nominal rating of lOOkV at
50%. duty cycle and was designed for the tight seam welding of coated steel fuel tanks. The position of the
weld was controlled by using a toothed template, whose profile corresponded to the weld contour, and
which was driven by means of a servo motor with reduction gear. The toothed template was pivoted about
its centroid and the pivot point mounted on a pantograph arm. The pantograph arm was controlled by a
screw shaft which was driven by a variable speed motor such that as the toothed template rotated, the
welding wheels were always tangential to the desired weld line.
The Soudronic tri-elliptic wire welding system was used and during this process, a round copper wire was
rolled to the required profile by means of two profiling units fitted to the welding machine and guided to
the correspondingly profiled welding electrodes.
3.3.
Welding Procedure
After setting the electrode force and welding speed, the welding current was progressively increased by
means of phase shift control to determine the onset of weld formation and thereafter increased in regular
5-
steps until weld splash occurred. This procedure was repeated at the selected welding speed until there
was no obvious range between weld formation and weld splash. The maximum speed used during the
trials was 22m/min.
3.4.
Assessment of Weld Quality
Weldability lobes were constructed, the limits of which were defined as follows:(a)
(b)
A lower limit corresponding to a stuck weld condition

Intermediate limits, which varied according to the steel and welding conditions, including:(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(c)
The formation of a continuous weld

The formation of a 4Vt weld
The onset of pronounced surface bulging or convexity
Pronounced brassing on the surface of the weld { For coated
Cracking of the weld
J steels only
An upper limit corresponding to liquid metal expulsion, or in the case of wire welding, high
surface temperature resulting in, or likely to result in, breaking of the intermediate copper
electrode wire.
The lower limit or minimum welding condition was determined by manually peel testing the seam
produced. A more accurate indication of weld quality was subsequently determined using an automated
peel test carried out in an Instron tensile testing machine. A 25mm length of weld, removed from the
weld seam at a position 250mm from the weld start point, was used for this purpose.
This test was also used to give an indication of the onset of a continuous weld, the 4Vt weld limit and to
show the presence of cracks at the edge of the weld plug. The presence of cracks in welds made using the
wire process was determined by examining the surface of the weld at a magnification of X10 to X30.
The remaining limits were assessed from a visual examination of the welds. In some instances detailed
metallographic studies were carried out to confirm or quantify the presence of the above features.
3.5.
Instrumentation
An essential part of the work was the development of suitable instrumentation to allow monitoring of the
various welding parameters. Consequently, an instrumentation and computerisation package was
developed which allowed continuous mesurement of the following parameters:1.
2.
3.
4.
3.5.1.
Welding current
Dynamic resistance
Electrode force
Electrode displacement
Secondary Current
In resistance welding, current measurements may be made either on the primary or secondary side of the
welding transformer. Measurements on the primary side, which gave an indication of the input to the
machine, are useful for line maintenance purposes. Measurements made on the secondary side provide
information regarding the actual input to the workpeices and are useful for monitoring the weld
operation. The three most commonly used values of weld current are peak current, average current and
RMS (root-mean-square) current. As illustrated in Fig.l, the peak current is the maximum current
attained in any half cycle whereas, the average current is usually expressed for the positive cycles or after
rectification. The RMS current is calculated using the equation.
/ ; i2dt
Irms=V
t-t o
(2)
6-
Since the value of root-mean-square current represents the heating value of current, it is the most useful
value which gives an indication of the available heat for weld growth. A typical instrument generally
used for such measurements in resistance welding is the British Federal DWM/2 meter which, measures
RMS values of either primary or secondary weld current in the range 20-200.000A. A digital display of
the current value is obtained and utilises a toroid located around a limb of the secondary welding circuit
as a means of sensing the current field. In the current study, this technique was used to set-up the
welding current prior to welding.
This procedure does not lend itself to continuous monitoring of the current and in the p r e s e n t
investigation, it was necessary to consider the use of an alternative system. Various methods are
available to obtain the desired current measurements, viz
a)
b)
c)
A shunt placed in the secondary current path.

A Hall effect transducer
A toroid
The shunt method is the most accurate, however, it adds additional resistance to the circuit and dissipates
a fairly large amount of heat because of the large currents used in resistance welding. Hall effect
transducers give excellent results and are linear over a wide range of field strengths. However, they
suffer from the disadvantage that they are sensitive to location and usually cannot be moved after
installation. The toroidal coil offers a linear response and while position sensitive, can be located to
minimise such an effect.
A toroid was therefore used in the present investigation which gave an output proportional to the rate of
change of net current flowing through the toroid. However, the output from the toroid does not have the
same waveform as the net current flowing through the welding machine secondary circuit. Because of the
need to obtain a continuous true current recording, it was necessary to integrate the waveform from a
cosine to a sine output. The weld current integrator, processed the toroid signal such that it gives an
output of the same waveform as the net current flowing through the secondary circuit. This principle was
used by the monitor to give an output which can be calibrated in ranges of 0-1 kA, 0-1 OkA and 0-100kA.
In order that rapid secondary weld current and voltage signal waveforms could be recorded accurately, it
was found necessary to use a different technique to that employed for recording the slower output signals
such as force and displacement etc. For this purpose, a Datalab DL1200 waveform recorder was used, this
being a flexible high precision instrument with recorded signal resolution of 12 bits (0.025%) by means of
a high resolution analogue to digital convertor.
3.5.2.
Dynamic Resistance
(a)
Measurement with AC Current
Some of the most interesting and relevant information, which can best give an indication of weld growth,
can be obtained from the dynamic resistance. This can be calculated by dividing the weld voltage by the
current. However, since there will in most instances be a phase shift between the welding voltage and
current waveforms, simply dividing these waveforms point by point will yield incorrect results. It has
been claimed that accurate calculations can be obtained by dividing the maximum voltage in each half
cycle by the maximum current in the corresponding half cycle. This yields one resistance point in each
half cycle which should be sufficient to allow analysis of the welding process unless very short-time welds
are being evaluated. However, the peaks can be difficult to locate and evaluate precisely especially when
sampling discrete points of data. Because of this a curve fitting routine has been used by a number of
investigators but this procedure will only yield accurate results for a purely resistive load, e.g. in a pure
DC system. In the case of a single phase AC resistance welding machine, the loading is inductive thereby,
giving a lag between the maxima of the voltage and current waveforms. There is a need therefore to sense
the true voltage when the current is at a peak i.e. when the inductance is zero. Circuitry has been
developed which allows such a measurement and at the same time calculation of the resistance. This
device, while less versatile, is more precise than numerical sampling as used by other investigators.
Using the former technique, the true or dynamic resistance of the secondary circuit of any resistance
welding machine can be measured at the high current levels used in resistance welding and under
inductive loading. The monitor required two inputs from the secondary circuit of the machine being
tested, firstly a toroid output representing the current flowing in the circuit and secondly, the voltage
across the points to be measured.
The position of the voltage sensing leads obviously affects the final resistance value calculated. In the
present investigation, the voltage pick-up leads were placed on the machine at the ends of the transformer
leads. Thus, the resistance value measured represented a background resistance from the machine
circuit with the dynamic resistance in the weld zone superimposed. While the dynamic resistance value
obtained was not absolute, it reflects changes in resistance which occur in the weld zone.
(b)
Measurement with DC Current
The same system was used for measurement of dynamic resistance when welding with a DC current. In
resistance welding, a DC waveform is produced either by frequency conversion or by secondary
rectification. The waveforms obtained using these systems are shown in Fig.2, from which it can be seen
that the DC rectified system corresponds to a low cycle ripple DC waveform. Consequently, the system
devised calculated the resistance at the peak of each ripple cycle in the same way as for a conventional AC
signal.
3.5.3.
Electrode Force Measurement
Electrode force was measured using a Kistler load cell washer of the quartz piezo-electric type, placed into
the frame of the seam welding machine immediately below the bottom wheel assembly and mounted on a
solid pedestal base. This ensured that all the electrode force was transmitted directly through the load
cell.
By this means the load cell washer acted as a transducer, converting any applied force into an electrical
charge. The latter was converted into a proportional voltage by means of a Kistler charge amplifier for
display, recording or data processing. Once the charge amplifier was adapted to the particular load cell
washer, it allowed operation with fixed scales graded in mechanical units per volt (1 volt = lkN etc.) with
a maximum voltage output of 10V.
3.5.4.
Displacement/Head Movement
The thermal expansion/contraction which occurs during resistance welding as a result of the heating or
cooling process causes the electrode head to move during the welding process. This movement follows the
welding process extremely accurately and can be used to give an insight into the mechanism of weld
growth.
An amplifying circuit was developed for use with the resistive potentiometer which gave an accurate
output of voltage which was proportional to the position of the potentiometer wiper.
The potentiometer installed was of the hybrid track rectilinear type with infinite resolution and a stable
temperature coefficient. It was fitted to the machine such that all the head movement was applied to the
transducer. This was achieved by fitting the transducer to the upper or moving head attached to the
pneumatic air cylinder. A Penny and Giles type HLP190 transducer with a 50mm full scale movement
was used in the present investigation.
The voltage output from the device was proportional to the distance moved by the potentiometer wiper
and was of the order of + 10V DC for full scale at maximum gain control settings.
3.5.5.
Elimination of "Noise" Signals
All the recording monitors and instrumentation required a mains voltage input of 240V AC 50Hz. It was
found that mains interference was picked up on the instruments during the welding operation,
particularly on the recording oscilloscope and the computer system. This interference was generated by
the welding machine transformer and affected the instruments via mains power cables.
To eliminate most of this interference, it was necessary to use power supplies remote from the machine on
a different main circuit. In addition, all earth connections were disconnected from the monitor power
supplies thereby removing the possibility of earth loop interference.
The monitor input signals from the toroid to the resistance meter and current integrator could not be
shared and both monitors were fitted with separate input signals. Screened co-axial cable of impedance
502 of the uniradio type was used throughout while most of the monitor input/output sockets were of the
BNC type 50. Some difficulty was experienced in interfacing the monitors to the measuring devices. The
computer to monitor connections were made with a 3-way DIN plug fitment on the analogue to digital
convertor and all earth loops were kept to a minimum as previously described. By this means very little
radiated interference was picked up.
All the cable connections used were suitable for recording differential voltage signals in the range 0 to
+ 10 volts DC. Further screening was necessary in some instances and this was achieved by using
screened twisted pairs of cable. In addition, all the monitoring devices were positioned carefully to
minimise any interference from the electric/magnetic field set up during welding.
3.5.6.
Storage and Recovery of Data.
A Commodore series 4000 computer was used to process the instrument outputs after they were modified
in a 12 bit 8 channel A/D convertor. A Wantanabe type WX4671 flat bed X-Y intelligent plotter and a
Gould X-Y plotter were used for producing hard copies of the data obtained.
4.
WELDABILITY OF UNCOATED MILD STEEL
Weldability lobes were determined for the variants of the seam welding process, i.e. narrow, wide and
mash seam welding, using either AC or DC current waveforms and programmes. Mild steel in the
thickness range 0.6mm to 1.2mm was used in the studies. The effect of electrode force and the presence of
surface oils was also determined.
A measure of weldability was determined from weldability lobes produced under a range of welding
conditions, Fig.7. The main purpose being to determine the maximum welding speeds which could be
attained for each variant of the process and to highlight the factors which limit the ability to achieve
higher speeds.
To enable comparison of the maximum welding speed, the minimum welding range between continuous
weld formation and weld splash was set as 750A, i.e. at the maximum welding speeds quoted the available
current range or lobe width, was 750A. The width of the weldability lobes was observed to be dependent
on how the minimum and maximum current varied with welding speed. For example, in the case of the
minimum welding current, i.e. the current to give a continuous weld, it was observed that:
1)
2)
The minimum current increased as the welding speed increased.

The amount of increase and the rate of rise in the minimum welding current increased as
the sheet thickness increased.
The trends in the maximum welding current were more difficult to define since this limit was obtained by
a visual assessment of splash which to some extent is subjective. However, the following points were
noted:1)
2)
An initial decrease in the current to give splash was observed as the welding speed was
increased
The rate of increase in the splash limit was less than the rate of increase in the minimum
current. Therefore, the width of the weldability decreased as the welding speed increased,
this being due to the relatively earlier onset of weld splash.
Other trends noted were that the current required to give a stuck weld was generally 500-1000A below
that necessary for continuous weld formation in the case of narrow seam welding and, 1000-2000A below
for wide seam welding.
Excessive surface convexity, which is generally associated with a high heat input and is in many
applications a limiting factor, was found to occur at 500-2000A below the splash limit when using an AC
welding current.
- 9
4.1.
Influence of Steel Quality
A number of factors*4* concerning steel characteristics have been considered to influence weldability. For
example, steel cleanness has been cited in the past as being a major factor influencing weld quality.
Modern steelmaking practices have led to a significant improvement in steel cleanness and very few
problems are encountered in seam welding applications which can be related to this factor. However, it
should be stated that poor weld quality can be obtained if severe lamination is present in the sheet.
Surface films such as rust, heavy oxide films and surface contaminants have also been cited as having an
adverse effect on the ability to satisfactory seam weld a material. It is general practice therefore to avoid
such films since they can result in variations in surface resistance and consequently, variable weld
quality.
The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the factors which limit the attainment of high
welding speeds. In this context, material parameters could play an important role. For example, factors
which could influence either surface resistance or bulk resistivity must be considered. In addition, factors
which influence the geometry between the welding electrodes, e.g. sheet thickness, can affect either, the
overall resistance path between the welding electrodes and/or, the heat flow characteristics.
Consequently, in the current investigation, the effects of the following on weldability were investigated:(a)
(b)
(c)
Sheet thickness
Surface oils
Steel resistivity
4.1.1.
Influence of Sheet Thickness
Two aspects of sheet thickness were studied viz.

(a)
Determination of weldability lobes for various sheet thicknesses in the range 0.6-1.2mm in
order to evaluate the influence of sheet thickness on weld formation.
(b)
Determination of the tolerance of a predetermined welding condition, specified for a

particular sheet thickness, to permitted variations in thickness as specified in international
standards.
The first of these objectives was investigated for different welding configurations combined with either an
AC or DC welding current. Wide seam welding using an AC current only was used to study the second
objective.
4.1.1.1.
Effect of Sheet Thickness on the Weldability Lobe
The effect of large differences in steel thickness on weldability depended on the welding configuration
and, whether AC or DC welding current was used. The results obtained are summarised in Figs. 8-11 and
Tables 4,5 and 6, and show the influence of steel thickness on the maximum welding speed, the
minimum current requirement and, the available welding ranges respectively.
These results were obtained using electrode force settings recommended in BS6265-1982.
(a)
Narrow Seam - With this welding configuration and using an AC current, the maximum
welding speed which could be achieved was lower for the 1.2mm steel compared to the 0.6,
0.75 and 0.95mm steels, see Fig.8. Using a DC current increased the maximum speed from
8m/min to 20m/min, when the sheet thickness was decreased from 0.75mm to 0.60mm, Fig.9.
With respect to the minimum current requirement, a slight increase in the necessary
current for weld formation was observed as the sheet thickness increased. Weldability lobes
obtained using either an AC or DC current, Figs. 8 and 9, show that, the minimum current
for weld formation increased progressively as the welding speed increased, and the rate of
change in current requirement increased as the steel thickness was increased.
The shape of the line defining the splash limits also changed with steel thickness. With an
AC current, the splash limit exhibited a mimimum at a speed of 8m/min for steels in the
10
thickness range 0.60 to 0.95mm, whereas for a sheet thickness of 1.2mm, the speed at which
a minimum occurred was 6m/min.. With DC current, the splash limit exhibited a minimum
at 8m/min for 0.60mm thick steel, 6m/min for the 0.75 and 0.95mm thick steels and at 2 to
4m/minforthe 1.2mm thick steel.
(b)
Wide S e a m - In the case of the wide seam welding configuration, the effect of thickness on
the maximum welding speed was minimal, Table 4 and Figs. 10 and 11, within the range of
steel thickness 0.75mm to 1.2mm. The current for weld formation increased progressively as
the welding speed was increased whereas, the minimum current level and the gradient of the
minimum current line was greater for the 1..2mm thick steel compared to the 0.75 and
0.95mm thick steels, for both AC and DC welding currents.
The shape of the splash limit was observed to change with steel thickness, Figs. 10 and 11.
Using an AC welding current, the minimum occurred at welding speeds of 8m/min, 5m/min
and 4m/min for 0.75mm, 0.95mm and 1.2mm thick steel respectively. In the case of DC
welding, the minimum occurred at 4m/min for both the 0.75 and 0.95mm thick steels,
whereas, with the 1.2mm thick steel the splash limit showed little change as the welding
speed was increased.
(c)
Mash Seam - Using mash seam welding and an AC current, the same maximum welding
speed was observed for both 0.60mm and 1.2mm mild steel, i.e. 14m/min, see Fig. 12. This
result can be attributed to nugget separation at this speed. However, in this instance, there
was a large increase in the minimum current requirement for the thicker steel which, was
attributed to the larger initial weld overlap used with the thicker steel. The most notable
feature observed in mash seam welding was that, the available welding range was very
much larger with the 1.2mm thick steel than with the 0.60mm steel, Table 6, this being
contrary to the findings observed for narrow and wide seam welding.
4.1.1.2.
Effect of Thickness Tolerance
To examine the effect of variations in steel thickness and composition within generally specified
tolerances on welding performance, a selection of steels of nominal thicknesses 1.1mm was chosen. The
permissible tolerances at this sheet thickness were 1.1mm 0.1mm. Consequently, sheet thicknesses
between 1.0 and 1.2mm were examined, details of which are given in Table 1. Average thickness values
measured varied between 0.99mm and 1.20mm. The eight steels were similar in composition and surface
roughness.
Wide seam welding trials, carried out at a welding speed of 4m/min, gave acceptable welding ranges
which are presented in Fig. 13. These indicate that, all the eight steels could be welded using similar
welding currents. In general, the steels at the thicker end of the range required slightly higher welding
currents (of the order of lkA) to achieve stuck welds and a continuous weld seam. The current at which
weld splash occurred did not exhibit any obvious relationship with steel thickness in the range examined.
This resulted in a slightly reduced welding range for steels at the thicker end of the range. However, the
range would still be within normal production tolerances.
To examine the nugget width, sections were taken through peeled s a m p l e s for m e t a l l o g r a p h i c
examination. The results, Table 7 and Fig. 14, indicated that with steels in the range 1.0 to 1.2mm thick,
the relationship between nugget size and weld plug size was not consistant. These results confirm well
known findings observed for spot w e l d i n g ^ in that the weld plug width is dependent on the nugget
width, the width and strength of the solid phase bond and the method of testing.
It can be concluded from the results that, it would be possible to weld mild steels in the thickness range
1.0 to 1.2mm using the same welding condition. Thus, with a nominal steel thickness of 1.1mm, it would
be possible to accommodate the maximum thickness tolerance specified in BS1449 of 0.100mm. In the
current study, welding was carried out at a speed of 4m/min, i.e. a typical production speed. It is
considered that at a lower welding speed of 2m/min, the tolerance in welding conditions would be even
greater.
11
4.1.2.
Effect of Oil
Depending on the application, strip mill products may be supplied in the oiled condition in order to inhibit
rust formation and/or assist in press forming. In general, the amount of oil applied is between 1.5 and
2.0g/m2 . A number of investigations have, in the past, suggested that the presence of this oil can
influence weld quality. Consequently, welding trials were carried out in which the amount of the oil film
was varied between 0.5-4.0g/m2. An electrostatic oiling system was used to coat samples on both sides
immediately prior to welding and a typical mill applied oil was used, viz. Croda oil PQ6The weldability lobes obtained are shown in Fig. 15 from which it can be seen that coating oil levels
between 0.5 and 4g/m2 had little or no influence on the maximum welding speed attained or the
available welding current range. In addition, the necessary current for continuous weld formation was
independent of oil level.
Weld growth curves, showed that the amount of surface oil, in the range investigated, had no obvious
effect on the weld growth characteristics or the maximum width of the weld seam.
Observations made during welding indicated that the heat flow ahead of the welding wheel caused the oil
to be burnt off prior to welding. Further, oil tended to flow away from immediately ahead of and from the
side of the welding wheels. The effect of the heat upon the oil resulted in fumes which appeared to be
more pronounced at the higher heat settings and higher oil levels.
While the results obtained indicated that weldability was independent of the amount of oil on the surface
of the sheet, the effect of any oil may depend on the composition and properties of the oil and, whether the
oil is effectively burnt off ahead of the welding electrodes. It is possible that different oils could influence
weld formation and also, adversely affect electrode life depending on the residues left on either the sheet
or electrode surface. This has been noted for spot welding but in this case, there is little chance of
removing the oil from the weld zone during the welding operation. It is concluded therefore, that oil has a
secondary effect on weldability.
4.1.3.
Influence of Bulk Resistivity
In order to evaluate the influence of the resistivity of a steel on weld formation, weldability lobes were
produced using a range of high strength steels. Such steels would, because of differences in composition,
possess different resistivities, Table 8, and it is assumed in this investigation that steel strength per se
would have no influence on weld growth. The steels were welded using a narrow seam welder with
continuous AC current.
The following steels were used:
Rephosphorised: 0.55mm, 0.7mm and 1.2mm
Niobium treated: 1.4mm
Dual Phase
: 0.75mm and 1.2mm
(a)
Rephosphorised Steel - Weldability lobes for 0.55mm, 0.7mm and 1.2mm thick steels are
given in Fig. 16. It was observed that, the current necessary to form a continuous weld
nugget increased progressively as the welding speed was increased while at the same time,
the current necessary to cause weld splash decreased only slightly as the welding speed was
increased.
Increasing the electrode force by 50% resulted in a slightly wider weldability lobe but no
increase in the maximum welding speed was noted, Table 9.
(b)
Dual Phase Steel - Weldability lobes were also determined for both a 0.75mm and a 1.2mm
thick dual phase steel, Fig. 17. It was observed that, the rate of increase in the minimum
current necessary to produce a continuous weld was lower for the thinner steel than the
thicker 1.2mm steel and the current necessary for weld splash was observed to decrease
progressively as the welding speed was increased. Increasing the electrode force by 50%
resulted in a marginal increase in the lobe width, but the maximum welding speed which
could be achieved was increased by up to 50%, Table 9.
-12
(c)
Niobium Treated HSLA Steel - Weldability lobes for a 1.4mm thick niobium treated steel, at
two electrode force levels, are shown in Figi8. When using an electrode force level similar to
that used for mild steel of equivalent thickness, it was difficult to obtain continuous plug
failures using this steel. This was attributed to the fact that, the ability to pull a plug rather
than an interface failure is related to the ratio of the weld width to the steel thickness. In the
narrow seam welding trials carried out in the current studies, the weld width is limited to
the electrode tread width which remained the same for different steel thicknesses. Thus at a
sheet thickness of 1.4mm, the weld widths obtained were too narrow using conventional
electrode force levels thereby, resulting in failure through the weld in a peel test. Thus, this
mode of failure was more related to the weld geometry rather than the inherent properties of
the steel. The ability to produce plug failures at higher force levels may be therefore
attributed to the increased contact area of the electrode and, the development of slightly
wider welds. A wide current range, i.e. over 4kA, was observed at a welding speed of
2m/min, between the stuck weld and weld splash conditions, but the current range between
the formation of a continuous plug and weld splash was only 500 A. Increasing the electrode
force by 50% to 6.75kN enabled a wider range of current to be obtained between the
production of a continuous plug failure and weld splash, i.e. at 2m/min the range was 4kA.
The minimum current for weld formation increased progressively as the welding speed
increased. With respect to splash, the current level was constant between welding speeds of
2-6m/min and then increased progressively as the welding speed was increased above 6m/
min.
Conventional weld nugget growth curves were determined from the peel tests for the different steels and
a typical example for a 1.2mm rephosphorised steel is shown in Fig.19. These curves indicated that:1) The rate of weld growth increased as the welding speed increased
2).The maximum plug width decreased as the welding speed increased
3) The rate of weld growth was greatest for the thicker steels
4) The rate of weld growth was slower at the higher electrode force levels
The maximum welding speeds attained with steels of different thickness and composition are summarised
in Table 10. It can be seen that, as the steel thickness increased in the range 0.55 to 1.4mm the maximum
welding speed which could be achieved without splash decreased. In addition, the results indicated that,
as the resistivity of the steel increased, the maximum welding speed which could be achieved decreased.
The results obtained indicate that, the minimum current level necessary to produce continuous welds in
steels of high resistivity was generally similar to that required for mild steel, Table 11. However, the
current level at which splash occurred was lower in the case of the high resistivity steels compared to
mild steel and generally, the splash current decreased as the alloy content/resistivity of the steel
increased.
In general, the maximum welding speed which could be attained with high resistivity steels was
observed to be lower than that for mild steels. The reduced maximum welding speeds observed can be
attributed to the higher resistivity of these steels as compared to mild steel which, results in a larger
amount of heat being developed in the body of the steel. This will result in a lower temperature gradient
between the weld interface and the electrode/sheet interface which in turn, causes a faster rate of growth
of the weld nugget towards the outside sheet surface. Consequently, surface splash can occur at lower
welding currents in high resistivity steels than in mild steel. The earlier onset of surface splash also
reduces the available welding range and the maximum welding speed which can be attained as the
resistivity of the steel is increased.
4.2.
Influence of Current Waveform
Conventional seam welding is carried out using a welding current supplied at 50Hz. Although
continuous current is required for high speed operation, interrupted current programmes are used at low
welding speeds. Such current programmes minimise the effects of current shunting because of the
larger gap between weld pulses. Also, a reduction in the surface temperature can be achieved because of
the increased amount of heat abstraction during the off period.
-13
Because of the inherent cyclical nature of the AC current, low heat regions can be produced in the weld
seam when high welding speeds are used. Therefore, weldability lobes were determined for the various
combinations of welding configuration/steel thickness using a DC welding current. When high welding
currents are required, DC welding can be beneficial in distributing the power required over the three
incoming phases rather than the single phase used with conventional AC welding machines. This also
gives a marked improvement in the power factor. Since the purpose of the work was to examine high
speed welding, the majority of the effort was concentrated on DC welding rather than welding with an
interrupted current programme, although work on the latter was included in order to give a progressive
indication of weld growth through from roller spot welding to continuous welding.
4.2.1.
Effect of Interrupted Current Programmes
Welds were made on 1.2mm mild steel using wide seam welding and AC current programmes of either 2
cycles on/2 cycles off, or 3 cycles on/2 cycles off. Continuous weld seams were observed at a welding speed
of 2m/min. However, at a welding speed of 4m/min, there was virtually no available current range
between the formation of a continuous weld seam and the splash condition and at 6m/min, it was not
possible to produce a continuous weld seam see Fig.20. With these current programmes, the maximum
welding speed which resulted in a continuous weld seam was less than 4m/min, whereas, when using a
continuous AC welding current, the maximum welding speed was 8m/min. In situations where a pressure
tight joint is not required, then interrupted current programmes could be used at higher speeds.
With interrupted current programmes, slightly higher welding currents were required to produce a
continuous weld seam at a welding speed of 2m/min. Compared to continuous AC currents, the level
necessary was approximately 10% higher for a 3 on/2 off and 30% higher for a 2 on/2 off current
programme. The available welding current range at 2m/min using an interrupted AC current was
similar to that obtained using a continuous AC current.
Welding with interrupted current programmes of 3 cycles on/2 cycles off and 2 cycles on/2 cycles off
resulted in maximum welding speeds of less than 4m/min if standards representing continuous pressure
tight seams were stipulated. With interrupted current programmes, a continuous seam could only be
produced if heat conduction resulted in the formation of weld during the current off period. This was more
difficult to achieve as the welding speed increased since, the length of seam corresponding to the off time
increased proportionally. For example, at welding speeds of 4m/min and 6m/min, the seam length
corresponding to 2 cycles off time was 2.6mm and 4mm respectively. With these welding conditions, it
was considered that there was insufficient heat available to form a continuous weld over the whole seam
length.
4.2.2.
AC vs. DC Welding Current
The use of a DC welding current rather than an AC welding current can result in changes in the current
requirements, the splash limit and the maximum welding speed which can be achieved in any welding
situation. The influence of DC current was observed to depend on the welding configuration and the steel
thickness, see Tables 4-6 and Figs. 8-11.
With a DC current, the minimum current required to produce a continuous weld was less than that
necessary using an AC current, Table 5 and Figs. 8-11. On average, DC welding required a current level
approximately 20% below that required with AC welding to give equivalent results. As with AC welding,
the current levels at which splash occurred decreased as the welding speed was increased from 2m/min
until a stage was reached when the current necessary for splash increased with welding speed. In the case
of narrow seam welding, the minimum occurred at lower welding speeds with DC compared to AC
welding at sheet thicknesses > 0.60mm. At these sheet thicknesses, the results obtained with AC and DC
welding currents were similar in terms of the relationship between splash and welding speed. When wide
seam welding of steels in the thickness range 0.75 to 1.2mm, the use of a DC welding current reduced the
speed at which the minimum in the splash limit occurred whereas, in the case of mash welding a 0.6mm
thick steel, the use of a DC current increased the welding speed at which the minimum in the splash limit
occurred from 6 to 14m/min, Fig.21
With respect to the maximum welding speed developed in narrow and wide seam welding of steel of
thickness in the range 0.75 to 1.2mm, use of a DC current reduced the maximum welding speed, see Figs.
8-11, Table 4. With a 0.60mm thick steel, using a DC current increased the maximum welding speed from
-14
14-16m/min to 18-20m/min compared with AC welding for both narrow seam and mash seam welding,
Figs. 8,9 and 21.
The results suggest that in situations where an AC current is used and, the maximum speed is limited by
weld splash rather than nugget separation, i.e. a non- continuous weld, then the use of DC current does
not result in an increase in the maximum welding speed that can be achieved and in fact, a reduction
would be expected. In situations where AC current is used, and the maximum welding speed is limited by
the separation of individual weld nuggets, i.e. maximum speeds in the order of 14-16m/min, the use of a
DC welding current can be beneficial in many instances and results in an increase in the maximum
welding speed attainable.
Where weld splash is the limiting factor, DC current may lead to the earlier onset of splash due to one or
both of the following: 1)
The high tendency for surface heating to occur in preference to heat generation at the weld
interface.
2)
The tendency for the weld nugget to grow towards the positive electrode, i.e. Peltier effect.
Evidence of pronounced surface heating with DC welding was observed in the current investigation. For
example, severe blueing of the sheet surface was evident even when the heat input was insufficient to
result in bonding across the interface. Additionally, with thicker steels, small ripples were observed on
the surface of the weld seam which were considered to result from local surface melting rather than
growth of the liquid nugget through to the sheet surface. The extensive surface heating which occurs
with DC welding is considered to result from the absence of a current off-period which is typical of AC
welding when the polarity of the current flow is reversed. As a consequence, the temperature of the
welding electrode is higher in the case of DC welding and the amount of heat abstraction through the
welding electrode is therefore decreased.
The second factor which could affect the splash limit in DC welding is the Peltier effect which causes the
weld nugget to grow preferentially towards the positive electrode. Metallographic examination of welds
did not show any pronounced nugget displacement in the vertical direction and the Peltier effects must
therefore be a second or third order effect.
It is considered that the additional surface heating that was observed with DC current was a limiting
factor responsible for the reduced welding ranges and lower maximum speeds obtained in some
situations. In the other cases, where the maximum speed observed with AC current is limited by nugget
separation, then the use of a DC current eliminated the low/zero current period and therefore a
continuous weld seam resulted. This only applied to situations where heating of the surface was
minimised, i.e. with thin material or, in situations where a high force was used for example, mash seam
welding.
With DC mash welding, it is considered that welding speeds in excess of those obtained in the present
investigation could be attained if weld splash could be minimised, i.e. welding speeds > 18m/min may be
possible by the use of a higher electrode force. However, this was not possible to investigate in the present
study due to the inability to maintain the pre-weld overlap with the available jigging arrangements and
with high electrode force levels. It is considered that an increase in welding speed of 30% or more could be
achieved by using a DC current in preference to an AC current at the higher electrode force levels.
4.3.
Influence of Electrode Force
The effect of electrode force was determined for both narrow and wide seam welding using both AC and
DC welding currents for mild steel in the thickness range 0.75 - 1.2mm. Typical weldability lobes for wide
seam welding determined for the 1.2mm mild steel are shown in Fig.22. It can be seen that, increasing
the electrode force within the range 2.4-7.2kN resulted in wider weldability lobes and, enabled higher
welding speeds to be attained - speeds of up to 8m/min being achieved. The results obtained also indicated
that much higher speeds could be achieved at sheet thicknesses < 1.2mm.
Similar trends were obtained with narrow seam welding, see Table 12.
It may be summarised that increasing the electrode force resulted in:-.
15
a)
b)
c)
d)
The need for higher currents for weld formation

A larger available welding current range
Higher maximum welding speeds for a particular seam welding configuration
A lower rate of weld growth
In many instances, a value of electrode force was evident above which increasing the electrode force had
little or no effect on the weldability lobe or, the maximum welding speed.
The increase in the current necessary for weld formation can be attributed to the larger arc of contact
between the sheet being welded and the welding electrode and therefore, a higher current is required to
achieve the necessary current density. Also, increasing the electrode force resulted in a lower contact
resistance although, it is considered that the former is the dominant factor. Increasing the electrode force
was observed to reduce the rate of weld growth in all cases, Fig.23.
4.4.
Effect of Welding Configuration
The importance of welding configuration, i.e. narrow, wide or mash seam welding is dependent on the
current type used, i.e. AC or DC current and on the steel thickness and as such, has already been
discussed to some extent. However, there is a need to discuss these findings to determine the relevance, if
any, of the process configuration on weldability.
It may be summarised from the results presented , see Figs. 8-12, that:a)
The maximum welding speeds for wide seam welding were significantly lower than those
achieved with narrow seam and mash seam.see Table 4.
b)
The minimum current requirements for narrow seam welding were less than those required
for either wide or mash seam welding, see Table 5.
c)
The available welding ranges decreased much faster as the welding speed was increased in
the case of wide seam compared with narrow welding.see Table 6.
The influence of the narrow, wide and mash configurations on the weldability can be related to the
different electrode thicknesses and tread widths (overlap in the case of mash seam welding) together with
the different force levels used in practice. These factors influence:1)
2)
3)
4)
The
The
The
The
minimum current requirement to achieve the necessary current density

arc of contact between the welding electrode and the sheet being welded
volume of the weld nugget produced
amount of heat abstraction from the surface of the weld through the welding electrode
The results showed that much higher welding speeds were achieved with narrow seam welding compared
to wide seam welding. This increase in maximum welding speed was related to the lower welding currents
required for weld development in narrow seam welding. It should be emphasised that for a given applied
welding current, the effective current density is higher in narrow seam welding. Further, production of
welds at lower current levels may result in a lowering of the heating effect at the electrode and thus, the
narrow seam electrode configuration may be able to concentrate the heat more effectively at the faying
surface thereby, allowing high welding speeds to be achieved before the onset of splash. The effective
weld pressure may also be higher with narrow seam welding than with wide seam welding because of the
smaller electrode contact area.
The arc of contact can be calculated from the equation:
,F
D
t = 0.029 V .
W 2
where
F = electrode force kp
(3)
16
W = electrode tread width mm

D = electrode diameter mm
i = length of contact mm
It should be noted that Equation (3) is an approximation and the actual value depends greatly on the
current level and the amount of electrode indentation.
Metallographic examination of narrow seam welds in a 1.2mm mild steel made using an electrode force of
4kN indicated that the width of contact was approximately 2.75mm which in the current investigation
was equal to half the width of a wide seam. Using the above equation indicated that, the arc of contact
was approximately 3.35mm for wide seam and 4.3mm for narrow seam for a 1.2mm thick steel. This
equated to an equivalent contact area of 18.4mm 2 and 11.8mm 2 for wide and narrow seam welding
respectively, which in t u r n corresponded to electrode pressures of 0.26kN/mm 2 and 0.34kN/mm 2
respectively. Thus, as well as the nugget geometry, the increased arc of contact and electrode pressure
may also account for some of the improvement in maximum welding speed, which was obtained with
narrow seam welding.
The relatively large volume of liquid produced in wide seam welding makes it more difficult to solidify all
the molten liquid before it exits from the arc of contact between the welding electrodes and the sheet
being welded. .This can therefore promote the earlier onset of weld splash through the surface of the
seam.
Although high current values are used for mash seam welding, the high electrode force values and the
larger mass of the electrodes will result in more effective heat abstraction from the surface and also, an
increase in the arc of contact as compared to the other seam welding processes. Both these factors will
allow a wider current range between weld formation and weld splash and consequently, a higher
maximum welding speed.
4.5.
Roller Spot Welding
Roller spot welding trials were carried out on a 1.2mm mild steel using AC wide seam welding. A weld
current on-time of 7 cycles was selected while the off-time was varied between 5-24 cycles to give a
separation of between 15 to 20mm between weld nuggets. The weldability lobe obtained is shown in
Fig.24 from which it can be seen that the maximum welding speed which could be allowed approximated
to 8m/min. It was also noted that, the current necessary for weld nugget formation was similar to that
required when producing a continuous seam weld. However, weld splash occurred at lower current levels
in roller-spot welding, thereby resulting in a narrower welding c u r r e n t range compared with that
obtained using a continuous current.
As the welding speed was increased, the individual weld nuggets became more elongated until a speed
was reached at which, what were effectively small regions of seam weld were formed. Peel testing of
roller-spot welds, revealed that, welds made at low welding speeds exhibited a single nugget. At speeds
of 6m/min, the weld nugget separated into two distinct regions while at a welding speed of lOm/min, three
distinct regions were observed, Fig.25. At 10m/min, the three separate regions of weld formation in the
elongated spot corresponded to a high heat region at the start, a lower heat region in the middle and the
lowest heat region at the end of the small seam weld which was formed at these speeds, Fig.25. Thus
multiple welds were produced as the welding speed was increased, although the amount of heating in the
separate heat regions decreased from the start to the end of welding. Similar effects were indicated at the
start of seams produced with continuous current. These results indicated that shunting tended to occur in
a definite pattern during the early stages of weld formation. During the first half cycle of current, no
shunt path existed and a high resistance is recorded. After the first half cycle, the welding current tends
to flow through the low resistance path created by the initial weld and consequently, the resistance falls..
When the distance between the point of current entry and the first weld reaches a critical value, some of
the current flows through this weld and some flows directly through the path between the welding
electrodes thereby, leaving a gap between the first weld and the second weld nugget. A similar effect gave
rise to a gap between the second and third heat regions. Steady state conditions are eventually reached
where part of the current shunts to the previous nugget and part is used to form the next nugget.
17-
4.6.
Low Indentation Welding
In a number of applications, it is desirable to produce a "non-marking" or "minimum indentation" weld

for aesthetic reasons. Such welds are difficult to produce in practice, since if the amount of heat generated
is sufficient to produce a weld at the interface, then the combined action of the applied electrode force,
together with the low strength of the steel at welding temperatures, results in indentation of the sheets by
the welding electrodes. This indentation can be controlled and restricted to one side of the weld by using
electrodes of a much larger width on the "minimum indentation" side. By this means, the heat generated
during welding is spread over a much larger area and in addition, the applied welding load is distributed
over a larger area. Both these factors combined, act to limit the amount of indentation on the sheet
surface in contact with the larger electrode. A series of tests were carried out to assess the conditions
under which "minimum indentation" welds could be produced in a 1.2mm mild steel. Welds were
produced using different current programmes and different electrode configurations. The use of pulsed
current programmes, i.e. 2 cycles on, 2 cycles off, and other on/off combinations, resulted in welds with no
indentation at the edge of electrode on the minimum indentation side. However, a slight ripple effect was
evident on the surface of the weld which corresponded to the on/off periods of the welding current. The use
of a radiused tread profiled top electrode coupled with a flat electrode resulted in a slight convexity of the
surface on the "minimum indentation "side of the weld.
Weldability lobes were therefore determined using a continuous current programme and a top electrode of
tread width 5.5mm coupled with a lower electrode of 16mm tread width, the latter corresponding to the
"minimum indentation" side of the joint.
Weldability lobes produced at the three force levels of 2.4kN, 4.8kN and 6.0kN, are shown in Fig.26. No
evidence of indentation was observed, either visually or metallographically, in any of the welds produced
and a typical weld section is shown in Fig.27. The factors which limited the available welding range and
the maximum welding speed were excessive convexity of the upper surface coupled with weld ripple.
These effects were observed to be more pronounced at the higher levels of heat input. It was noted that
pronounced convexity of the upper surface was associated with slight convexity on the "non-indentation"
side, Fig.27. The maximum welding range determined, between the formation of a continuous weld and
surface convexity, corresponded to a welding speed of 2m/min and an electrode force of 4.8kN. At higher
values of electrode force, surface convexity was considered excessive and occurred before a continuous
weld was formed, Fig.26. It was noted that although the weld nugget was fairly central, there was a
tendency for nugget growth to extend towards the narrow tread electrode thereby, giving more convexity
at this side of the weld, Fig.27. Additionally, the high force level reduced the current necessary for splash
at low welding speeds. This can be attributed to the action of the applied electrode force causing the
molten weld nugget to be forced out either through the surface or at the interface.
The other factor which limited the available welding range for "non-indentation" welds was the formation
of a ripple on the surface of the weld seam at welding speeds of 6m/min and above. This feature was
generally very faint at the low heat settings but became more pronounced as the welding current was
increased.
It can be concluded that, welds with no indentation on one side of the seam can be produced over a range of
welding speeds. With the higher welding currents, slight bulging is produced on the non-indentation side
and, at welding speeds of 6m/min and above, a faint ripple effect is observed due to the oscillating nature
of the AC current.
5.
WELDABILITY OF COATED STEELS
It is generally considered that, the resistance seam welding of coated steels is a critical process requiring
very closely defined operating limits. As with resistance spot welding, the major problems encountered
are the avoidance of electrode pick-up and difficulties in determining optimum welding conditions. In
forming a seam weld, the electrodes are subjected to a more severe mechanical and thermal treatment
than during spot welding. It is also more difficult to effectively water cool seam welding electrodes.
Consequently, conventional seam welding practice is not recommended for the welding of most coated
steels, particularly if zinc coated, because of the problems of excessive contamination of the electrode
wheels, this resulting in the need for excessive wheel maintenance. However, modifications to the basic
system can enable satisfactory resistance seam welding to be achieved, and a number of techniques are__
18
now available which allow effective seam welding without the problems of low electrode life and
inconsistent weld quality.
5.1.
Narrow Seam Welding
In narrow seam welding machines, high pressure profile rollers are used to clean and profile the welding
wheels. These can result in a marked improvement in electrode life compared with conventional seam
welding and typical values of electrode life of up to 30,000 meters of welded seam can be obtained with
various types of zinc coated steels. The profiling rollers, which are hydraulically loaded, have a dual
function. Firstly, their use as drive rolls results in a friction roll system which provides a welding speed
independent of electrode diameter. The roller is knurled only on the angle sides of the electrode wheel,
the root face of the roller being smooth and radiused. A second function of the profiling rollers is to
maintain the profile of the electrode wheels and maintain a consistent surface condition. Under the
action of the applied force, which is in the region of 10-15kN, the coating layer is broken up and removed
from the surface. The electrode wheel thickness is between 8-10 mm with a tip radius of 5-6mm, this
resulting in a weld width of about 2-3Vt where t = sheet thickness in mm.
In addition to the profiling rollers, a spring loaded scraper device located ahead of the rollers is beneficial
in removing any heavy build-up of coating on the electrode. It should be emphasised that the action of the
rollers should not remove completely the build-up on the electrode, but should result in a consistent
electrode/workpiece geometry and surface condition. By this means, the current density and contact
resistance at the electrode/workpiece interface is kept constant which in turn, results in a consistent weld
quality over an extended production run.
Details of the coated steels examined are given in Table 3. All steels were narrow seam welded using
AC and DC welding current.
5.1.1.
Terne Coated Steel
Narrow seam welds were produced using continuous current and interrupted current programmes of 2
on/2 off or 3 on/1 off. The weldability lobes obtained are presented in Fig.28 from which it can be seen
that, maximum welding speeds of 4,5 and 7m/min were achieved for 2 on/2 off, 3 on/ 1 off and continuous
AC current respectively. It was observed that, the minimum currents required to produce a continuous
weld were slighty lower with continuous current than when using an interrupted current programme. A
maximum welding speed of 7m/min was also achieved using DC current but at lower current levels,
Fig.28.
5.1.2.
Aluminium Coated Steel
Weldability lobes produced using either a DC or an AC welding current are shown in Fig.29, from which
it can be seen that maximum welding speeds of 5m/min and 10m/min respectively were obtained.
5.1.3.
Zinc Coated Steels
The zinc coatings investigated included:Pure zinc

Iron-zinc alloy
Zinc-aluminium
( 5% Al and 55% Al)
Hot dip, electrolytic

Hot dip
Hot dip
Weldability lobes determined for these steels using either AC or DC welding currents are shown in Figs.
30-34.
The maximum welding speed attainable when welding coated steels was found to be less t h a n t h a t
obtained with mild steel of a similar thickness using either AC or DC welding currents, Table 13. It was
observed that, for AC welding, the necessary current for welding was on average, between 50% and 100%
higher than that required for the same thickness of uncoated mild steel, Table 14. Weld splash occurred at
current levels, on average, between 10% and 35% higher than for mild steel of similar thickness, Table 15.
The maximum welding speeds attained with DC current were generally lower than those obtained with
AC current, Table 13. In addition, with DC welding, the current necessary for weld formation was, on
19-
average, 20% to 40% less than that required when using an AC welding current, Table 16. Splash
occurred at lower currents and, the current giving rise to surface splash was reduced by a larger amount
than the current necessary for weld formation thereby, resulting in a narrower welding range. This
situation was exacerbated by the fact that the weld "opened up" in some instances when the seam exited
from between the welding electrode, i.e. sticking between the coating and the electrode was sufficient to
pull open the low strength weld at the faying surface.
The main factor responsible for the lower maximum welding speeds which could be attained for coated
steels, was the significantly higher current required for weld formation since this led to a reduction in the
available welding range. This can be attributed to the lower contact resistance of the various coated steels
investigated which was exacerbated by the fact that melting of the coating occurred at the surface. This
resulted in a further decrease in the contact resistance and an increase in the effective area of contact
between the electrodes and the sheet as a consequence of the spread of the molten coating to the edge of
the welding electrode. By this means, the width of the current path was increased significantly which
caused an effective reduction in the current density at the weld interface. Evidence of the bonding at the
edge of the weld can be seen from Fig.35.
In the case of hot dipped and electroplated zinc coated steels, the limiting factor controlling the welding
speed was observed to be surface cracking which was visible at the edge of the weld nugget, see Fig.36.
These cracks were evident at relatively low welding currents and severely limited the available welding
range. While these results indicated that the use of a DC welding current significantly reduced the
incidence of cracking in these steels, this was not borne out during a more detailed metallographic
examination, see Section 5.3.
With respect to the other zinc based coatings examined, severe cracking, as revealed by the test method
used, was not observed at the edge of the tensile peel specimen in the iron-zinc alloy, Zn-5% A or Zn- 55%
A coating even although pronounced brassing was observed in the case of the latter two coatings. It
should be noted that cracking has been previously observed in such seam welds, i.e. in terne <7.8> and the
iron zinc alloy coated steel (8)f near the maximum current level.
5.2.
Soudronic Wire Welding
Narrow seam welding aims to overcome coating pick-up by the welding electrodes by the use of friction
drive side rollers which compact the pick-up at the electrodes and thus maintain a constant interfacial
resistance between the electrode and the sheet surface. In the case of the Soudronic wire system, the
electrode/sheet resistance is maintained constant by feeding a copper wire between the electrode wheels
and the sheet surface. By this means any coating pick-up is continuously removed on the copper wire and
the weld is effectively made by "clean" electrodes at all times.
The present trials were carried out using a "High Performance, Fully Automatic Contour Seam Welding
Machine, Model Rdk 100 TEuP". This machine was made available by Soudronic AG, Dietikon,
Switzerland. Weldability lobes were produced by making a range of welds at welding speeds of 1.9m/min,
5.8m/min and 10m/min. The current was progressively increased from the stuck weld condition to the
maximum tolerable current in each case. The effect of interrupted current programmes and electrode
force levels were also examined.
5.2.1.
Continuous Current Welding
A summary of the results obtained are given in Table 17, and typical weldability lobes are presented in
Figs. 37 and 38. These results indicate that it was possible to weld all the coated steels investigated at
welding speeds of 6m/min and 10m/min. The welding machine used in the trials was designed primarily
to operate at welding speeds between 4 and 8m/min. However, in order to allow comparison with previous
work on narrow seam welding, some welds were made at a speed of 2m/min. At this welding speed, it was
not possible to obtain a satisfactory welding range using continuous current because, as shown
previously, the amount of heat abstracted by the electrodes is large, at low welding speeds. In the case of
the wire welding process, excess heat can result in overheating and breaking of the electrode wire before a
satisfactory welding range can be achieved. At welding speeds of 6 and 10m/min, the amount of current
which could be inputted into the weld was generally limited by the ability of the copper wire to carry the
current. However, at these higher speeds, overheating of the wire occurred near the weld splash level and
a workable range was evident between the minimum current for weld formation and the maximum
current which could be tolerated. In general, the welding range was slightly larger at a welding speed of
-20
lOm/min than at 6m/min. This can be attributed to the decrease in the amount of heat abstracted by the
electrode wheels as the welding speed is increased.
The effect of electrode force was studied using electroplated zinc and iron-zinc alloy coated steels. A
welding speed of 10m/min was used and the electrode force was varied between 300daN and 500daN. The
results obtained indicated that, increasing the electrode force resulted in an increased current
requirement for weld formation. This can be attributed to the lower contact resistance, coupled with the
increased contact area and thereby, better heat abstraction, obtained as a consequence of increasing the
electrode force.
The higher force levels also resulted in an increase in the available current range between weld formation
and the maximum current which could be tolerated. However, electrode force values within the range
300 to 500 daN had little effect on the available current range between weld formation and crack
formation.
It was not possible to observe any consistent trends with respect to the effect of coating type on the
minimum current requirement, Table 17. The minimum current required for continuous weld formation
was similar in all the coating types examined.
With respect to the effect of coating type on the welding range, the results indicated that those steels
susceptable to cracking showed a reduced welding range.
Cracking or intergranular penetration of the grain boundaries by a liquid phase is generally difficult to
quantify. In the work carried out on narrow seam welding of coated steels, the extent of cracking was
assessed by examining the edge of a tensile peel sample. Although this gave a good indication, in many
instances, the presence of cracks was not always revealed. Also, with this technique, the area examined is
necessarily limited. Metallographic examination of sections taken longitudinal to the weld seam revealed
the presence of'cracks' where none had been indicated from the peel test. With respect to cracking in the
Soudronic wire welds, the weld seams were scanned with a binocular microscope at a magnification of x 10
to x 30. This allowed a much larger area to be examined and the technique was able to reveal cracks
irrespective of their position or orientation. One limitation of this technique however, was the inability to
detect the extent of liquid metal penetration under a surface brass or oxide film.
Welding ranges between 0.50kA and 3.25kA were achieved at 6m/min the limiting factor in 5 out of the 7
coated steels examined being weld cracking, the exceptions being aluminium coated and zinc - 55% Al
coated steels. It was observed that the cracks tended to lie within the weld seam depression and were not
necessarily concentrated at the edge of the seam as in narrow seam welding. The current range between
continuous weld formation and crack formation varied for the different coated steels and was observed to
increase in the order, hot dipped zinc, electro-deposited zinc, iron zinc alloy, zinc - 5% Al, and finally the
lead-tin coated steel.
At a welding speed of 10m/min, the "cracking order" was found to be similar although it was observed
that there was a slight increase in the available welding range between weld formation and crack
formation in the case of the hot dipped zinc, electrolytic zinc and iron-zinc alloy coatings.
5.2.2.
Interrupted Current Programmes
Welding trials were also carried out using an interrupted current programme of 1 cycle on/ 1 cycle off at a
welding speed of 4.8m/min. Under these conditions, the upper current limit was found to correspond to
weld splash rather than overheating of the wire or weld cracking. Consequently, those coated steels
where the welding range was limited by weld cracking when using a continuous welding current
generally exhibited a wider weldability range at the lower welding speeds when using an interrupted
current. In the case of hot dipped zinc coated steel, it was found that, if the welding speed was reduced
from 4.8m/min to 3.3m/min and a current programme of 2 cycles on/2 cycles off was used, the welding
range was increased to 2kA. It can be concluded that, where weld cracking is a problem, it can be
beneficial to use an interrupted current programme and adjust the welding speed to give a suitable
number of welds per unit length us dictated by the end application.
The use of an interrupted current also reduced the amount of surface brassing observed on the weld seam
particularly in those coated steels which were prone to this effect.
-21
Observations made, with respect to cracking and brassing, indicated that the use of an interrupted
current resulted in a relative increase in the amount of heat abstraction from the surface. The slightly
higher peak current levels observed during the "on" cycles of current flow are, under these conditions,
more than compensated for by the greatly increased cooling rate which is obtained during the current
"off' period and the reduced energy input.
5.2.3.
Results of Metallographic Examination
(a)
Continuous Current Programme - Although the lead-tin and hot dipped zinc coated steels
exhibited weld solidification structures similar to those observed in uncoated mild steels, the
remainder of the coated steels showed a variety of solidifications structures, Fig.39. In the
case of the iron-zinc alloy coated steel, a much more homogeneous structure was observed
through the cross-section of the weld than was observed with the other coated steels. With
respect to the aluminium coated steel, the weld pool was delineated by a light etching
structure, with solidification chevrons just visible. The weld zone in the zinc - 55% Al coated
steel also corresponded to a slightly lighter etching region. Electroplated zinc and zinc - 5%
Al coated steels exhibited a less consistent solidification structure with indications of
individual weld nuggets within the weld seam.
The differences in solidification structure which were observed can be explained in terms of:
(a) Differences in base steel chemistry.
(b) Entrapment of the coating within the weld pool.
(c) The influence of the coating on the current flow pattern.
In the thickness range 0.6mm to 0.85mm, welds in mild steel exhibited similar solidification
structures. Therefore, any differences in base steel thickness were not considered to
contribute to the differences observed in the solidification structures. In the majority of
cases, the base steel chemistries of the coated steels were similar to those in the mild steels
examined where minor differences in base steel chemistry did not significantly affect the
solidification structure. The one exception with respect to base steel chemistry was the ironzinc alloy coated steel. In this instance, the carbon content was very low, i.e. 0.009%
compared to 0.048% to 0.064% in the remainder of the coated steels. The lower carbon level
of the base steel used for the iron-zinc alloy coated steel may have resulted in reduced
segregation differences during solidification of the weld nugget and therefore account for the
more homogeneous weld structure observed in this coated steel.
With respect to the aluminium coated steel, the light etching structure of the weld, see
Fig.39, probably resulted from some entrapment of the coating within the liquid weld nugget
as confirmed by electron probe micro analysis. Weld structures observed in the zinc - 55% Al
coated steels indicated that some entrapment of the coating had occurred.
The electroplated zinc and zinc - 5% Al coated steels exhibited less regular solidification
patterns than the other coated steels. With these two coated steels, individual weld nuggets
were observed within the weld seam and the structure and weld profile were similar to those
in welds produced with interrupted current programmes. However, examination of the weld
current traces, which were taken for every weld produced, confirmed that the current used
was continuous with no abnormal effects. It is considered that, in the case of these two
steels, the weld current passed through the nugget towards the exit side of the wheels and
then shifted to a low resistance path created by contact of the coating near the entry side of
the electrode wheels. This is similar to the current flow pattern observed for hot dipped
galvanised steel in narrow seam welding.
(b)
Interrupted Current Programme - With a welding programme of 1 cycle on/1 cycle off, a
welding speed of 4.8m/min and a secondary current at 50 Hz, a weld is formed with the first
two half cycles of current flow, during which time the seam has travelled 1.6mm. The weld
cools during the next two half cycles when no current flows, while the seam travels a further
1.6mm. To determine the effect of the interrupted current programme on weld formation,
longitudinal sections were taken through the welds. These welds exhibited a continuous
weld bond with the individual weld nuggets immediately adjacent to each other.
-22-
It was observed that, using an interrupted current programme resulted in an increase in the
amount of aluminium picked-up in the weld nugget, when welding aluminium coated steel.
This occurred because of the reduction in temperature ahead of the weld during the current
off-period thereby causing less melting and dispersion of the coating. This phenomena is
more pronounced with an aluminium coating because of its higher melting point compared
to lead or zinc coatings.
The interrupted current programme also resulted in a ripple effect, on the surface of the weld
seam. During the current off-period, the material entering the weld zone is colder and
stronger thereby resulting in a reduction in the amount of indentation. At the next weld
current on-cycle, the material heats up and because of the reduction in strength the amount
of indentation increases. The combined effect of this is to promote rippling ahead of the
rotating welding electrodes. Another factor which may contribute to the formation of ripples
is the effect of the electrode force on the hydrostatic pressure set up in the molten nugget.
At the leading edges of each weld nugget, the heat pattern expands to one or both surfaces of
the weld seam if high heat inputs are used. The position of this increased heat development
corresponds to the peak in the surface ripple described above, i.e. it corresponds to the
extremity of the arc of contact between the electrode and the sheet surface at the exit side of
the electrode. Therefore, it is considered that this heat pattern resulted from the current
flowing towards the exit side of the wheels and to there being less time available for heat
abstraction from this area. This resulted in an increased rate of heat development near the
sheet surface.
(c)
Electrode Force - As in the case of mild steel, increasing the electrode force changed the
nugget shape from nearly spherical to a more eliptical form. This is considered to result from
the improved heat abstraction from the surface of the weld seam due to more effective
contact between the sheet and the electrode at higher electrode force levels. Although this
modification to weld formation can increase the overall welding range between weld
formation and weld splash, it did not increase the practical welding range between weld
formation and crack formation. This may be attributed to the fact that cracking is also
influenced by the stresses developed in the weld zone. Thus, with higher forces the surface
temperature may be reduced but the stress on the weld may be increased.
5.2.4.
Factors Limiting the Welding Range
When using continuous current the factors limiting the welding range are cracking in the weld seam and
overheating/breaking of the wire electrode. With interrupted current programmes the upper current limit
was set by the onset of weld splash.
Although the maximum current that could be passed when using continuous current was limited by
overheating/breaking of the electrode wire, the practical limit was generally set by the occurrence of weld
cracks.
Fracture of the wire occurred when a brazed-type joint was formed between the wire and the surface of the
weld seam and the resultant tension on the wire caused failure. An example of the bonding of the wire to
the surface of the weld in zinc - 5% Al coated steel is shown in Fig.40. It can be seen that a layer of brass
had formed in the copper wire and on the surface of the weld seam, some penetration of the brass into the
steel substrate was also evident, Fig.40. It is probable that any problems with wire breaks could be
overcome by using a larger wire.
However, before fracture or overheating of the
As in the case of narrow seam welding, the
penetration of liquid copper/brass phases. Any
through the low strength networks causing open
wire become a problem, "cracking" generally occurred.

cracks were always associated with i n t e r g r a n u l a r
stress applied to these regions would result in fracture
cracks.
The third factor which limited the available welding range was the occurrence of weld splash. This was
generally the limiting factor in the case of interrupted current programmes. Splash occurred through the
surface of the seam from the leading edge of the weld nugget as it emerged from the region of electrode
contact.
23
A comparison of the welding ranges obtained for both narrow seam welding and wire welding is shown in
Table 18. At low welding speeds, (2m/min), and using a continuous welding current waveform there was
no available welding range. This was related to the large amount of heat which is developed in the
electrode wire thereby, causing overheating and possible wire breaks. Although this problem could be
reduced by using larger wire dimensions, the results indicate that the narrow seam technique may be
more flexible at the very low welding speeds. It should be emphasised that the Soudronic wire welding
machine is designed specifically to operate at welding speeds of 4-8m/min and difficulties can therfore be
encountered in operating the machine at a speed of 2m/min.
At a welding speed of 6m/min, the available welding ranges for wire welding and narrow seam welding
were very similar whereas at 10m/min, larger welding ranges were attainable with the wire welding
technique than with narrow seam technique. The increased range is greater than would be expected from
the slightly higher force levels used in the wire welding trials.
With respect to the current levels used in wire welding, the current for continuous weld formation was on
average 20% higher than that required in the narrow seam technique, Table 19. This slight difference
can be accounted for in terms of the slightly higher forces used in wire welding. The contact width of the
electrode was similar for both techniques.
It is the aim in both instances to produce a constant resistance between the electrode and the sheet
surface. While narrow seam welding achieves this by creating a constant pick-up on the electrode, it
would be considered that the constant replacement of the electrode, as in the wire welding technique,
would result in a more consistent resistance path between the electrodes.
Another important point in the Soudronic technique is the built-in control of the welding speed and weld
position within precise limits using more accurate electronic control systems .
5.3.
Cracking in Seam Welds
It was concluded that cracking was a limiting factor when welding coated steels. In order to determine the
mechanism of cracking, detailed examination of welds made by narrow seam welding was carried out, it
being assumed that any conclusions drawn would be equally applicable to welds made by the Soudronic
wire welding process.
5.3.1.
Incidence of Cracking in Narrow Seam Welding
The weldability lobes obtained for narrow seam welding of coated steels showed that severe surface
cracking could occur with the hot dipped and electroplated zinc coated steels. These observations were
based on examination of the fracture edge of peel samples. To study this phenomenon, detailed
metallographic examinations were carried out on welds produced, in the various coated steels, at a range
of current settings at welding speeds of 2m/ min and 6m/min. Samples parallel to the weld seam were
taken and polished back to the weld fusion line. The results indicated that the various coated steels
examined could be classified into three groups based on their susceptability to cracking.
(a)
High Susceptability to Cracking

Both hot dipped and electroplated zinc coated steels exhibited severe surface cracking in
welds made using either AC or DC welding current. At high current levels, it was observed
that the cracks penetrated into the sheet for distances up to approx. 800-880um. The depth
of crack penetration in the electroplated steel was observed to be much less at 2m/min than
at the higher welding speed, typical crack depths of 50 to 150pm being noted.
(b)
Intermediate Susceptibility to Cracking

This group included iron-zinc alloy, zinc - 5% Al and lead-tin coated steels. With these steels,
no cracks were observed until the applied current was close to the splash limit. When
cracking occurred, the depth of penetration of the cracks was generally in the region of 50 to
100pm. However, at a welding speed of 6m/min, isolated large cracks were observed which
penetrated up to 400pm into the sheet thickness which corresponded to half of the sheet
thickness.
- 24-
(c)
Low Susceptibility to Cracking

This group which included aluminium and zinc - 55% Al coated steels, exhibited no
significant cracking in the samples examined.
Metallographic examination indicated that cracking was associated with intergranular penetration of a
copper or brass coloured phase along the grain boundaries. The distribution and appearance of these
cracks in the case of hot dipped zinc coated steel are shown in Fig.41. Plane sections revealed a large
number of the cracks and intergranular networks of brass in the heat-affected zone region, Fig. 11. (a).
The cracks were oriented in a direction which was e i t h e r p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the weld seam or
approximately at an angle of 45 to the weld seam. In severe cases, the cracks propagated across the full
width of the weld, see top of Fig.41(a). Longidudinal surface cracking could also be observed along the
centre of the weld, Fig.41(b). Sections polished into the edge of the weld showed that the brass had
penetrated well below the surface, Fig.41(c).
Electron probe micro analysis indicated that the intergranular network in both the hot dipped zinc coated
steel, Fig.42, and iron-zinc alloy coated steel, corresponded to a brass composition although the brass
differed in each case. This brass arose from a reaction between the coating and the copper electrode. In
the case of the lead-tin coated steel, the alloy phase formed was essentially copper with small amounts of
lead and tin. The cracks in the case of the Zn-5% Al coated steel were extremely fine and were filled with
a brass type alloy. In one instance, the fine networks had opened up and allowed liquid from the surface to
fill the resultant crevice. Solidification of this liquid resulted in a concentration of an aluminium rich
phase at the extremities of this back-filled region.
5.3.2.
Mechanism of Crack Formation
Intergranular penetration of copper into steel is well known, typical examples being brazing cracks and,
under certain conditions, hot shortness in mild steel' 9 " 15 '. Similar effects have been observed in spot
welding (16> and seam welding (17) of zinc and lead coated steels. For intergranular penetration to occur,
the copper or copper alloys must first be in a liquid form on the surface of the steel. It has been shown (17)
that in seam welding, the degree of penetration of the liquid phase is influenced by the amount of heat
generated, i.e. the welding c u r r e n t and also, the degree of stress applied to the weld seam. The
intergranular copper networks are generally orientated normal to the principal strain.
It has been suggested that intergranular attack occurs in three stages:i)
ii)
iii)
Rapid attack of the base metal grain boundaries by copper atoms

A decrease in the grain boundary cohesive strength resulting in the formation of hot cracks
in the strain field
The backfilling of these cracks by liquid metal providing favourable interfacial energies
exist
Grain boundary penetration occurs when the interfacial surface energies are favourable to grain
boundary wetting. The term wetting has been defined as "a phenomenon involving a solid and liquid in
such intimate contact t h a t the adhesive force between the two phases is greater than the cohesive force
within the liquid". A measure of the tendency for wetting is gained from the dihedral angle which is a
characteristic of a liquid phase when it meets two crystals of another phase, Fig.43. When the interfacial
energy of the liquid phase is less than one-half the grain boundary interfacial energy, the dihedral angle
is zero and the liquid phase tends to establish itself continuously along the grain boundary '12>. The
extent to which a liquid phase penetrates along a grain boundary increases as the dihedral angle
decreases' 9 '.
The dihedral angle between copper and mild steel attains a minimum value at the melting point of
copper' 10 '. Further, it has been shown that the solid solubility of copper in mild steel attains its lowest
value at 1100-1150C. These two factors combined can account for the many experimental observations
which have indicated that, the extent of penetration of liquid copper into mild steel is a maximum at a
temperature slightly above the melting point of copper. It has also been shown that steel in the austenite
condition is more susceptible to copper penetration' 1 L 12 '. With coated steels, alloy formation occurs
between the coating and the copper electrode wheel and this will alter the composition of the
25
interpenatrative network. However, the basic mechanisms outlined above will still apply under these
circumstances.
In the present work, the tendency for crack formation varied with the coating type. Cracking occurred at
lower welding currents in the case of the hot-dipped and electroplated zinc coated steel compared to the
other coatings, the highest propensity of cracks being observed with the thicker hot dipped coating. In the
case of iron-zinc alloy, zinc-5% Al and lead-tin coated steels, cracking occurred at much higher welding
currents, these in general being near the splash limit. No obvious cracking was observed when welding
the aluminium and zinc - 55% Al coated steels .
The exact mechanism of crack formation in the different steels is not known, however, a number of factors
which may contribute to the above results are discussed below. One of the factors which can account for
the "cracking order" outlined above is the extent of alloying which occurs between the coating and the
electrode and, the properties of the alloy so formed. During welding, the coating is picked-up by the
welding electrode and forms an alloy at the surface of the electrode. In addition, some copper diffuses from
the welding electrode to the surface of the sheet being welded and alloys with the coating. The exact
mechanism of transfer is, at this stage, not fully defined but the final outcome of the phenomena is that a
copper alloy is present on the surface of the weld.
In the case of zinc coatings, alloy formation with the copper electrode results in a series of complex brass
type alloys of relatively low melting point, e.g. 60 Cu/40Zn has a melting point of 900C compared to 1085
for pure copper. Consequently, intergranular liquid penetration can occur at lower temperatures than if
pure copper was on the surface of the weld. This, therefore, results in cracking occurring at relatively low
welding currents.
With lead-tin coated steel, the lead and copper does not alloy to any extent and the electron probe
microanalysis indicated that, the alloy formed contained only small amounts of lead and tin with copper
as the major constituent in the intergranular network. The melting point of this alloy would probably be
much higher than 60/40 brass and would approach that of pure copper. Thus in the case of lead-tin
coatings, higher surface temperatures can be tolerated before the surface alloy becomes liquid. This
results in a wider available current range. Although the melting temperature of the surface alloy must
play a part in the tendency for cracking, other factors must also be involved. In the case of the Zn-5% Al
and Zn-55%A1 coatings, obvious "brassing" was evident on the surface of welds produced towards the top
end of the welding range, however, there appeared to be little, if any, penetration of the bronze. The
absence of bronze penetration must in this case be related to the particular properties of the bronze
formed relative to the brass observed with other coating types or, to the presence of some penetration
barrier. One possible factor which may inhibit penetration is the presence of interfacial alloys between
the coating and the steel base. With electroplated zinc there is no alloy layer in the coating and with hot
dipped zinc and lead-tin coatings, the interfacial alloy occupies less than 5% of the total coating thickness.
Hence the thickness of the interfacial alloy is approximately 15% and 40% in the case of Zn-55% Al and
Aludip respectively. It is considered that further work is required to determine the influence of the
surface liquid alloy and the interfacial coating/steel alloy on intergranular penetration and crack
formation before final conclusions can be drawn regarding the mechanism of cracking in seam welds.
6.
MONITORING OF THE SEAM WELDING PROCESS
Any resistance welding process involves complex interactions between material characteristics and
thermal, mechanical and electro-magnetic phenomena. Whilst there exists a good understanding of the
interaction between these criteria for the spot welding process, very little effort has been devoted to
determining similar information for the seam welding process. For spot welding, many physical aspects
of the process of weld formation have been investigated in an attempt to determine which parameter
contains most information which can be related to weld quality.
In such work, an essential criterion which must be satisfied is that the parameters measured must reflect
as closely as possible the physical changes which take place during weld formation and growth. Of the
many parameters investigated in the case of spot welding, the following were considered to be most
applicable to the seam welding process:1.
2.
Welding current/voltage
Electrode force
26 -
3.
4.
Electrode displacement
Dynamic resistance
These parameters were therefore measured during the actual welding process using the techniques
summarised in Section 3.5.
6.1.
Welding Current
Welds were made at current levels corresponding to the minimum and maximum welding condition and
mid-way between these conditions as depicted in the appropriate weldability lobe. A typical current
recording is shown in Fig.44. Similar current profiles were obtained for all the welding configurations.
The signals obtained were observed to be extremely clean and were considered to be representative of
what would be expected in that, they show a modified sine wave corresponding with the use of phase shift
control. It was observed that, the current level was fairly consistent along the weld length. Other features
observed included:a)
An upslope effect of the current over the first 8-10 cycles of current flow, this effect being
more pronounced over the first 1-2 cycles.
b)
When using a dual speed and current programme there was a lag between the change in
current and the change in speed, this being due to the mechanical inertia of the welding
machine. This affect was overcome by delaying the point at which the current was changed
relative to when the speed was changed. When the speed was increased at a constant phase
shift setting, the amount of current flowing decreased because of the higher resistance path
between the welding electrodes.
6.2.
Voltage between the Welding Electrodes
While the voltage drop across the welding electrodes was measured in all cases, the main purpose of the
measurement was in its use to calculate dynamic resistance. However, some observations can be made
from the voltage measurement itself. . For example, the voltage traces recorded showed spikes, Fig.44,
possibly due to the effect of impedance or phase shift, and the height of the voltage peaks varied slightly
along the weld length. As expected in situations where there is an impendance component, the voltage
was slightly out of phase with the current and led the current.
6.3.
Electrode Force
The results indicated that the force acting through the electrode wheels increased gradually to the preset
value when the welding electrodes came into contact with the sheets being welded. It was noted that
when the wheels began to rotate, there was an increase in the electrode force. This initial increase in
force was found to correspond to the point of commencement of electrode rotation and not the onset of
current flow.
With AC welding, the electrode force trace exhibited a cyclical variation of 100Hz, i.e. a peak
corresponding to each half cycle of current, Fig.45. This effect was present even when passing current
with only electrode/electrode contact, i.e. with no sheets between the electrode wheels. As expected, in the
case of DC welding, a steady state condition of electrode force was obtained. It is considered that this
cyclical variation in load can be attributed to a variation in the electro-magnetic attraction induced
between the upper and lower welding arm as a consequence of the applied alternating current. Another
factor which causes load fluctuations is the pulsing effect of nugget growth due to the sinusoidal
characteristics of the
AC current waveform. Similar trends were observed with both high strength
steels and coated steels. The results indicated that, while the electrode force level necessary to produce a
satisfactory weld was influenced by material properties, the force p a t t e r n d u r i n g welding was
predominantly a function of machine and current characteristics. Any force which tends to separate the
electrode wheels will result in an increase in the force recorded in any machine where the welding head
cannot react quickly enough to the expansion forces. This effect would be more pronounced with a rigid
welding machine as was the case in the present investigation.
-27
6.4. Electrode Displacement

It has been established, in the case of spot welding, that a close linear relationship exists between weld
nugget size and the magnitude of displacement of the movable head of the electrode assembly in relation
to the fixed electrode. In order to develop an understanding of weld growth in seam welding, tests were
carried out during roller spot welding and seam welding using interrupted and continuous welding
current programmes. The former was included to give an intermediate stage between spot welding and
continuous seam welding.
It may be summarised that the amount of head movement at any welding speed depended on the welding
current and generally showed slight indentation by the welding electrodes at the minimum current
condition. A pronounced convexity of the weld seam was observed at the maximum current condition.
The maximum degree of expansion tended to decrease as the welding speed increased. These results can
be explained in terms of the number of welds made per centimetre of weld length, the manner in which
the weld formation occurs and, the characteristics of the head assembly of the welding machine used.
In the case of roller spot welding, a significant movement of the electrodes away from each other was
observed corresponding to each weld, Fig.46. This movement corresponded to the expansion of the weld
nugget during the heating cycle. This expansion continued until current flow ceased at which point, the
electrodes moved towards each other as a consequence of contraction effects associated with the cooling
cycle.
Similar trends were observed using a pulsation or interrupted current programme corresponding to 3
cycles on/ 2 cycles off, Fig.46. However, when using a 2 cycles on/ 2 cycles off current programme, the
amount of electrode displacement was minimal and did not follow the formation of each weld nugget.
This latter result was similar to that observed when using a continuous welding programme.
An interrupted current programme of 3 cycles on/ 2 cycles off produced a weld nugget every 5 cycles which
at a welding speed of 2m/min coresponds to three welds/cm. At this frequency of weld formation, the
welding head oscillated as each weld nugget was formed reflecting both the expansion and the
contraction. With an interrupted current programme of 2 cycles on/ 2 cycles off a weld nugget is produced
every 4 cycles, which, at a welding speed of 2m/min, corresponds to 3.75 welds/cm. At this frequency of
weld formation, very little movement was detected in the welding head. These results suggest that, this
frequency of weld formation was above the resonant frequency of the large mass associated with the
welding head and also, its inherent rigidity.
Electrode displacement traces obtained with a continuous current programme indicated that when the
welding current was initiated there was a corresponding movement on the electrode head assembly.
With a continuous current programme no movement of the electrode head was detected after the initial
period. With this current programme weld nuggets are formed at 30 welds/cm when welding at a speed
of 2m/min. In this case the weld is formed by an extension of the molten nugget rather than in the form of
discrete separate nugget formation, see Section 7. Under these conditions, the region under the electrode
wheels remains relatively constant with respect to the volume of liquid present. This will result in very
little movement of the welding head. Therefore, when using continuous current, the relatively smooth
electrode movement trace can be attributed to two factors:1)
2)
The basic stiffness of the welding head preventing oscillation at 100 Hz.
The fairly constant volume of liquid which forms under the electrode wheels once a steady
state is reached.
6.5.
Dynamic Resistance
Of the various physical parameters which have been used to study weld formation in resistance welding,
most attention has been given to the measurement of dynamic resistance. A relatively good correlation
has been obtained between weld size and dynamic resistance when welding uncoated mild steel to the
extent that a large number of monitoring and feedback control systems have been developed which allow
control of weld quality. In this context, the dynamic resistance curve has been found to be of real and
practical value in giving an understanding of the weld process. Numerous investigators have shown that
the dynamic resistance curve can be modified by changes in welding variables such as surface condition,
28 -
electrode force, fit-up, material type and most other external factors which influence weld quality.
However very little information exists in the case of seam welding.
The relationship between weld resistance and weld time follows a characteristic curve when spot welding
uncoated mild steel. The resistance decreases during the first one or two cycles of current flow and then
increases to a maximum after which it decreases in a gradual manner for the remainder of the weld
period. The initial drop in resistance is the result of the loss of contact resistance at the electrode/sheet
and sheet/sheet interfaces and the subsequent increase in resistance, can be attributed to the increase in
resistivity of the base material due to heating of the sheets being welded. Subsequent decreases in the
resistance are due to electrode indentation and the extent of weld growth.
In order to determine whether similar trends are obtained in seam welding, dynamic resistance
measurements were made corresponding to various stages in the formation of a continuous weld seam.
This extended from roller spot welding and interrupted c u r r e n t programmes, where discrete and
seperated weld nuggets are formed, to the case of a continuous weld seam based on overlapping weld
nuggets.
6.5.1.
Influence of Current Programme
(a)
Roller - Spot Welding. Roller spot welding at a speed of 2m/min resulted in resistance
curves which corresponded to individual welds and in this respect, the dynamic resistance
curves were similar to those obtained as for spot welding, Fig.47, i.e. a sudden increase to a
peak value followed by a gradual reduction in the resistance value. The absence of the
initial decrease, which has been postulated in previous work on spot welding, is considered to
result from the fact that such a drop in resistance occurs before the first half cycle current
peak, i.e. before the first calculated value of dynamic resistance. Increasing the welding
speed, to between 6/min and 10m/min resulted in dynamic resistance curves which showed
two or three peaks respectively, Figs. 48 and 49. These peaks corresponded to the two and
three separate heat regions developed at this welding condition, Fig.25.
(b)
Interrupted Current Programmes - The dynamic resistance curves obtained using a 3 cycles
on/ 2 cycles off current programme at different welding speeds and current levels are shown
in Fig. 50. As for roller spot welding, the flat regions corresponded to the current off period,
with the resistance value corresponding to the final value reached from the previous currenton period. The resistance during each current-on period increased to a peak value and then
decreased. In some circumstances, for example a t a low speed/high c u r r e n t welding
condition, the resistance was observed to decrease progressively with each half cycle of
current.
The peak values of resistance were observed to be similar at the different current levels and
welding speeds investigated. In addition, at any welding speed, the final resistance value
attained was observed to decrease as the current increased. The results showed that at the
minimum welding condition, the final resistance values attained were independent of
welding speed. However, at the maximum welding current, the final resistance value was
observed to increase significantly as the welding speed was increased.
(c)
Continuous Current Programme - With a continuous current programme, the dynamic

resistance curve exhibited an initial peak or peaks then dropped to a steady-state value,
Fig.51.
In order to understand the resistance curves obtained,
the steady-state level of resistance were determined.
6.5.2.
the factors affecting the peak and
Factors Influencing the Initial Peak
It was observed, that the initial resistance peak depended on steel thickness, welding current and welding
speed. For example, with a 0.6mm steel, the resistance dropped more rapidly from the peak value to the
steady state value (after 5 cycles of current) compared to a 1.2mm mild steel where the resistance drop
was spread over 10 cycles of current flow, Fig. 52. It can be seen from Fig.52, that a high peak resistance
resulted in a slightly lower level of current.
- 29 -
The steady state level of resistance decreased as the welding current was increased, thereby giving rise to
a more obvious peak. This peak was less obvious as the welding speed was increased which was
attributed to the fact that the resistance did not decrease to the same extent. At a welding speed of
2m/min, the maximum resistance was attained in the first peak whereas, at higher welding speeds, the
various secondary peaks were similar and equated to the initial peak resistance.
6.5.3.
Factors Influencing the Steady-State Condition
The steady state resistance level was observed to be influenced by the extent of weld formation, the
welding parameters used, and the process used. This finding is considered to be important because, if the
steady state resistance can be related to weld formation then it is possible that it could be used as a basis
for monitoring weld quality. The trends observed in the current investigation may be summarised as
follows:(a)
Welding current - as the welding current was increased from the continuous weld limit to the
splash limit, the steady state resistance value was observed to decrease progressively,
Fig.53. In addition, if the welding current was increased along the length of a weld seam by
approximately 100%, by means of upslope, the steady state resistance decreased by 50%.
It was noted that in addition to the current affecting the value of resistance measured, the
resistance itself also controlled the current level drawn from the transformer this being
explained in terms of the interactive effects of Ohms Law.
(b)
Welding Speed - It was observed that when the welding speed was increased from 2m/min to
6m/min, a t the same phase shift setting when welding a 0.75mm mild steel, the steady state
resistance increased by 25% and the current level dropped by 10%. This results in a lower
heat input and therefore, in a smaller weld and a smaller current path. Consequently, the
resistance in the circuit is increased while the amount of current flowing is decreased.
It was observed that, as the welding speed was increased, the steady state resistance level at
the minimum current which resulted in a continuous weld seam decreased slightly. At the
maximum permissible current, i.e. corresponding to the splash level, it was observed that,
as the welding speed was increased the steady state resistance also increased, Fig. 54.
(c)
Electrode Force - As the electrode force was increased, the steady state resistance was
observed to decrease independent of welding current, see Table 20.
(d)
Steel Thickness - The influence of steel thickness was such that, at welding currents
corresponding to continuous weld formation, the steady state level of resistance was
independent of sheet thickness between 0.7mm and 1.4mm. At the maximum current, i.e.
corresponding to the splash level, the steady s t a t e resistance increased as the sheet
thickness was increased.
I
(e)
Steel Composition/Resistivity - Steel composition/resistivity had little influence on the

steady state resistance at either the minimum or the maximum welding currents, see Fig.54
and Table 21.
(0
Narrow vs. Wide Seam - The steady-state resistance level was much higher in the case of
narrow seam welding compared to wide seam welding, over the entire c u r r e n t range
investigated, Table 22. The increase in the steady-state resistance, with narrow compared to
wide seam welding was on average, 55% for AC welding and 88% for DC welding at the
minimum welding current. This is considered to result from differences in tread width, i.e.
the narrow seam has a smaller effective area for current flow and consequently, a higher
resistance.
(g)
AC vs. DC Current - The steady-state resistance was lower in the case of DC welding
compared to AC welding, Table 22. This feature was more obvious in wide seam welding.
With DC welding, the steady-state resistance showed more obvious fluctuations along the
length of the seam, Fig.51. These fluctuations were more pronounced as the degree of
current ripple increased. This effect may be due to the higher sampling rates which were
30
used when measuring dynamic resistance in the case of DC welding. Therefore the curves
obtained may reflect more accurately the changes in resistance.
7.
METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF WELD FORMATION
7.1.
Uncoated Steels
Metallographic examination of selected welds was carried out in order to give an understanding of weld
nugget formation and its growth. In addition, the factors limiting the maximum welding speed were
considered.
It is general practice to use a nital etch to delineate the structure of resistance welds. Whilst this is true
of spot welds, examination of seam welds in the c u r r e n t investigation indicated that, although
directionality of the columner structures in the weld region could be delineated, the structure of the weld
nugget itself was not clearly defined, Fig.55(a). This was considered to be due partly to differences in the
thermal cycles between spot and seam welding and, because a nital etch is primarily used to reveal
transformation products rather than solidification structures. At high magnifications, Fig. 55(b) it can
be seen that the weld structure consisted of AC (ferrite with aligned carbides) and FC (ferrite with carbide
aggregates) structures. These structures are similar to those obtained in spot welds produced in low
carbon mild steel*18*.
In order to determine the structures associated with weld growth, it was considered necessary to
delineate the weld nugget more clearly and therefore, tests were carried out using a number of etchants.
The most suitable etchant was found to be a saturated solution of picric acid which gave a clearly defined
weld nugget and showed the general solidification structure. Consequently, a picric acid etch was used
for most of the work carried out.
Metallographic examination was concentrated on investigating the following:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Weld nugget structures

Weld formation at the start of the weld
Distribution of current flow in the weld zone
Influence of welding/material parameters on weld formation
7.1.1.
Weld Nugget Structures
The structures developed in the weld nugget were determined from examination of transverse sections
taken from welds chosen to highlight particular effects. A particular feature which was revealed was the
presence of concentric bands within the weld structure, Fig. 56(a). Such bands were only pronounced in
welds made using an AC welding current particularly at high levels of current phase shift, i.e. low heat
potentiometer settings. A typical weld structure obtained when using a DC welding current, is
illustrated in Fig.56(b). In this case, the directionality of the solidification structure continued
uninterrupted from the perimeter to the centre of the weld nugget.
Because of the apparent relationship between the formation of these "bands" and the welding conditions
used to make the weld seam , it was considered that a detailed study of "band" formation would give an
insight into the pattern of weld nugget formation.
The general characteristics of these bands was revealed by etching to various depths and using
defocussing optical techniques in order to highlight the various features associated with the bands. Light
etching of the samples revealed heavy dark lines which it is considered corresponded to the initial
columner grain boundaries. These grain boundaries contained non-metallic inclusions, which were
shown by SEM studies to be rich in manganese and sulphur. Deep-etching the samples revealed dark
bands in the weld nugget which were made up of diffuse linear features. The bands were separated from
each other by light etching regions, Fig.56. At a higher magnification, with a fully open light aperture,
the carbide structure of the weld was revealed, Fig.57. The bands which were easily seen at low
magnification were only evident at high magnification if a small light aperture setting was used and the
sample defocused slightly. It can be seen from Fig. 57, that, the diffuse linear structure observed at low
magnifications corresponded to lines of dark circular areas which, were oriented along the the same
crystallographic plane within grain boundaries delineated by the dark-etching streaks. Detailed S.E.M.
examination revealed that the circular areas corresponded to very fine etch-pits. It is considered that
- 31
these lines of etch pits were probably associated with a form of coring which occurred during the normal
process of dendritic solidification growth in the molten weld pool.
Pronounced banding was observed, in welds made in the 0.6mm mild steel, at all phase shift levels, i.e.
firing angles between a maximum of 108 and 0 (corresponding to current conduction of 40% and 100% of
the full half wave). In the case of the 1.2mm thick mild steel, welds made with full wave conduction
were virtually free of banding. Decreasing the length of current conduction resulted in a progressive
development of banding until at a heat setting corresponding to 40% conduction banding was quite
pronounced. In order to understand further, the conditions under which these bands were formed, the
structure of weld nuggets produced using interrupted current programmes were determined and
compared to weld nuggets produced by spot welding. In the case of a 0.6mm thick mild steel welded using
a current programme of 2 cycles on/ 1 cycle off, a coarse banded structure was observed, Fig.58. In this
figure, the light etching region corresponds to the period in which a rapid cooling rate prevailed, i.e. when
no current flowed during the off period. It was observed that weld bands were readily produced in spot
welds by using a dual pulse welding schedule. For example, a weld made with 6 cycles of "high current"
(6.5kA) followed by a further 6 cycles at a "low current" (4kA) contained well developed bands as
compared to the continuous structure obtained with a single impulse weld, Fig.59.
The influence of steel composition on the banding phenomenon was examined by producing welds in dual
phase and rephosphorised steels. In the case of the dual phase steel, the coring within the weld bands was
very pronounced, probably due to the higher alloy content. Welds made in a rephosphorised steel, when
etched in Oberhoffers reagent, contained light etching streaks within the weld bands which were
indicative of segregation of phosphorus within these regions.
From these results, it can be concluded that the banding was the result of differences in the solute
distribution/concentration resulting from fluctuations in the weld cooling rate which in turn, were related
to the cyclical nature of the AC welding current. Further, it can be concluded that, the presence of the
bands indicated that welding current passed through the liquid nugget as it solidified and the number of
weld bands indicated the number of half cycles of current over which the weld solidified. Knowing the
welding speed, the actual distance over which the weld solidified, can be easily calculated.
It was considered that an examination of the pattern of bands should allow a better understanding of weld
formation by indicating the number of weld cycles and hence the time over which the weld pool remained
molten. Transverse longitudinal and planar sections of narrow seam welds were therefore produced using
a welding current chosen from the middle of the available current range at welding speeds of 2, 6 and
16m/min as indicated in the appropriate weldability lobes. Examination of longitudinal and planar
sections, Fig. 60, indicated that the bands, as shown in the transverse section, corresponded to steps in the
solidification front of the chevron-shaped molten pool. It was evident that, the shape of the molten weld
pool became more elongated as the welding speed was increased from 2 to 6m/min. Examination of these
sections at higher magnification indicated t h a t the solidification p a t t e r n was such as to result in
columnar growth of the dendrites. This type of growth pattern predominated up to the final stages of
solidification. The last portion to solidify was observed to be made up of small equiaxed grains. At a
welding speed of 6m/min, overlapping of the weld nuggets had occurred whereas, at a welding speed of
16m/min the individual weld nuggets were separated although, heat spread along the weld had created a
continuous weld. It may be noted that, wedge shaped weld nuggets have previously been observed in high
speed welding of 0.2mm tinplate and in this case, the wedge shape was attributed to the spread of heat
along the length of the weld seam* 1 ).
It was noted that, although welds produced using a DC welding current generally showed no evidence of
"bands", in some instances, very fine arrests in the solidification pattern were evident, particularly in the
planar sections. The latter also showed that the solidification pattern in DC current welds also resulted
in a chevron shaped molten weld pool. The fine arrests in solidification which occurred in the DC current
welds were considered to result from the AC current ripple which was superimposed on the DC waveform
as a natural characteristic of the haxaphase rectifier used to develop the current. The extent of this was
more pronounced when phase shifted waveforms were used i.e. a low potentiometer setting to obtain low
welding currents.
7.1.2.
Weld Start Position
As previously shown, the dynamic resistance curve exhibited a peak at the start of the weld and then
decreased within a few cycles of weld current flow to a steady-state value. To examine the conditions
32
appertaining to the first few cycles of welding, welds were produced with 1 cycle of current flow, 2 cycles
of current flow etc. up to 25 cycles of current flow in the 1.2mm mild steel at a welding speed of 2m/min.
A current level immediately below the splash limit was selected and both narrow and wide seam welds
were produced.
Metallographie examination of welds indicated that, no weld or bonding had occurred after 1 cycle of
current flow and that weld development commenced during the 2nd, 3rd and 4th cycles of current flow as
shown in Fig. 61. After 2 cycles of current flow, some areas of solid phase bonding were evident whereas,
at 3 cycles of current flow, a high temperature "mushy" region had developed. The development of a full
weld nugget occurred after 4 cycles of current flow. It was noted that as the number of cycles increased,
the trailing edge of the weld nugget became more tapered and the length of the high temperature
"mushy" zone increased, Fig. 62. In addition, the extent of the region exhibiting some solid phase bonding
increased.
It was concluded that:(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
No bonding occurred during the first full cycle of weld current flow.
Solid phase bonds occurred over the whole contact area (~8mm) between one and two cycles of
current flow,
At three cycles of current flow, a high temperature "mushy" zone had formed,
A large weld nugget was formed between three and four cycles,
A high temperature "mushy" zone was formed behind the weld nugget after aproximately
ten cycles and the length of this region was on average 0.6mm.
A region of solid phase bonding existed behind the weld nuggefmushy region, the length of
which increased until approximately ten cycles of welding current had flowed after which,
the length of this zone was approximately 3mm.
A bond was formed over the entire contact area (~8mm) during the initial few cycles of
welding current thereafter, each half cycle of weld current formed on average a length of
approximately 0.33mm of weld at a welding speed of 2m/min.
Although no weld nugget was formed at the initial weld site during the first few cycles of
current flow, in the final weld seam this region ended up with the largest weld nugget. This
was due to the heat generated in this area as a result of shunting of the welding current back
through the partly welded areas.
It can be concluded that the initial high value of resistance measured is due to the fact that no bond had
been formed, and therefore, there was no available low resistance path for current flow. The reduction in
the resistance after the initial peak had been reached, can be attributed to the increase in the length of
the weld nugget coupled with the increase in the length of the mushy zone and solid phase region behind
the weld nugget. It was noted that the length of the mushy zone and solid phase region increased until
approximately ten cycles of current flow which corresponded to the number of cycles over which the
dynamic resistance decreased, Fig. 52(b).
The formation of secondary resistance peaks appeared to be related to shunting of the current through the
initial path as indicated by the high volume of liquid metal formed at this position. This continued until a
stage was reached when the length of the current path became too great thereby, causing some of the
current to pass through the region behind the original weld nugget. It is considered therefore, that the
secondary resistance peak corresponded to a low heat region behind the original weld nugget.
As the welding speed increased, the initial resistance peak fell to a steady-state value after fewer cycles
of current flow. This can be attributed to the fact that, in terms of shunting, the distance over which the
current passes is more important than the number of cycles of current flow per se. For example, at a
welding speed of 2m/min, a 5mm weld length corresponded to fifteen half cycles whereas at 10m/min, a
5mm length corresponded to three half cycles of current flow. Consequently, it is to be expected that the
number of cycles over which the resistance falls will decrease as the welding speed is increased.
Although no weld nugget was formed with the 1.2mm thick steel until after three or four cycles of current
flow, with the 0.6mm thick mild steel and using a current set below the maximum, a large weld nugget
was formed after one cycle of current flow. This may account to some extent why the steady-state
resistance was reached sooner with the thinner steel. The observation that a larger number of cycles was
required to form a weld nugget in the thicker steel may be due to the fact that with the greater mass of the
steel, the amount of heat abstration was larger. In addition, the greater spread of current which occurs in
33
the thicker steel, must influence weld formation. Typical heat patterns observed in the transverse and
longitudinal direction after 1 cycle of current flow are shown for the 1.2 and 0.6mm thick steel in Fig.63.
The width of contact of the electrodes was similar in both instances, however, the width of the heataffected region at the faying surfaces was approximately 25% greater with the thicker steel.
Similar trends were noted for wide seam welds in 1.2mm thick steel, i.e no weld nugget was formed until
the fourth cycle of welding current. It was also noted that the length of the weld nugget formed was less
in the case of wide seam welding as compared to narrow seam welding, i.e. 4.3mm compared to 7.2mm.
7.1.3.
Distribution of Current Flow in the Weld Zone
The limiting speed in seam welding can be related to the increased rate of weld growth which occurs
through the sheet thickness as the welding speed is increased thereby, resulting in weld splash through
the surface of the weld seam. Previous work (5) indicated that the welding current flowed more towards
the exit side of the welding electrodes as the welding speed was increased. This could account for the
increased weld growth in the vertical or through thickness direction. In order to improve the
understanding of current flow in seam welding, the heat pattern between the welding electrode was
examined by switching off the current flow during the welding operation. Metallographic sections were
then taken from regions corresponding to the part of the weld where the current had been switched off.
Welds were produced in 1.2mm mild steel using a welding current chosen immediately below the splash
limit. The heat patterns developed between the electrode wheels at welding speeds of 2,6 and 10m/min are
shown in Fig. 64. It can be seen that, as the welding speed was increased, the welding current path moved
from the entry side at the electrode/sheet interface to the exit side at the sheet/sheet interface. Also, the
amount of indentation and the arc of contact of the welding electrode decreased as the welding speed was
increased. The distance between nugget formation and the point of exit from the arc of contact of the
welding electrode was observed to decrease as the welding speed increased thereby, giving less time for
heat abstraction.
The shift in the current path towards the exit side as the welding speed is increased is likely to be
influenced by shunting effects. Examination of sections taken from welds produced with one cycle of
current flow at welding speeds of 2, 6 and 10m/min showed that the current tended to flow from the entry
side to the exit side. This effect was more pronounced as the welding speed was increased. It has been
highlighted in Section 7.2, that four cycles of welding current were required to produce a weld nugget, at
a welding speed of 2m/min, even at welding currents immediately below splash. It is considered that the
shift in the current path towards the exit side of the welding electrodes, was due to the shunting effects
through the region of low resistance created during the first few half cycles. At low welding speeds, the
distance between half cycle peaks was small, i.e. 0.33mm at a welding speed of 2m/min. However, at a
speed of 10m/min, the distance between half cycle peaks is much longer, i.e. 1.67mm, and therefore the
flow of current towards the exit side was more pronounced at the higher speeds.
The small individual heat-affected regions observed near the surface of welds made at a speed of 6m/min,
Fig.64, were spaced at distances corresponding to each half cycle peak of current flow. The presence of
individual half cycle pulses near the entry side suggested that a large proportion of the current entered
the weld zone towards the entry side of the welding electrodes. This may be attributed to the fact that,
the temperature between the welding electrode and the sheet surface increased from the entry to the exit
side of the welding electrodes and also, the effective force was higher near the entry side. Both these
factors act to reduce the resistance near the entry side at the electrode/sheet interface.
It may be summarised that in 1.2mm thick mild steel, the highest current concentration entered the weld
seams nearer the entry side and because of shunting effects passed through the faying surface towards
the exit side. This effect became more pronounced as the welding speed was increased.
In the case of welds in 0.6mm mild steel, examination of the heat pattern generated between the welding
electrodes showed no evidence to suggest that current flowed from the entry side at the electrode/sheet
interface towards the exit side at the sheet/sheet interface at welding speeds up to 14m/min. However, at
this speed the current was observed to flow towards the exit side. The concentration of current at the
faying surface caused weld formation at an earlier stage, at a thickness of 0.6mm than at 1.2mm and
therefore, the extent to which the current flowed towards the exit side of the welding electrode, was much
reduced in the case of the thinner steel . However, even with the thinner steel, the distance over which
34
shunting of the current occurred increased as the welding speed was increased. At high welding speeds
~14m/min and above, the individual weld nuggets separated and the flow towards the exit side became
more pronounced.
7.1.4.
Influence of Welding/Material Parameters
It was observed that.in general, weld splash occurred through the surface of the weld seam, and tended to
be a limiting factor in terms of welding speed. Therefore, the effect of the different welding and material
parameters on the aspect ratio, i.e. the ratio of nugget penetration to weld width, was investigated.
Account was also taken of the number of weld bands to give a measure of solidification conditions/distance
in this evaluation.
7.1.4.1.
Narrow Seam Welds
The effect of increasing the welding current was determined from welds produced in a 0.6mm mild steel
at a welding speed of 6m/min using an AC welding current. It was observed that as the welding current
was increased, the aspect ratio of the weld nugget decreased only slightly. However, the size of the weld
nugget and the distance over which it solidified increased progressively as indicated by the number of
bands in the weld nugget, Fig.65. At the minimum current level used, it was calculated that the weld
nugget had solidified over a length of approximately 2mm while, at the maximum current level, the weld
nugget solidified over a length of approximately 15mm.
As the welding speed was increased from 2m/min to 12m/min at a constant electrode force and weld
current, the aspect ratio of the weld nugget increased progressively from 0.24 to 0.88, see Fig.66. This can
be attributed to the different lengths over which the weld nugget solidified, for example, at a welding
speed of 2m/min, the nugget solidified over a length of approximately 2mm whereas at higher speeds, the
solidification distance was much larger, i.e. 5 to 7mm.
Electrode force is an important parameter in controlling the heat input during welding and its effect, on
weld geometry, was examined using a 1.2mm mild steel narrow seam welded with an AC current at
6m/min. When the electrode force was increased by 50%, i.e. from 4kN to 6kN, the aspect ratio of the
weld nugget was decreased by approximately 25%, Fig.67. Therefore, increasing the electrode force had a
similar effect on nugget geometry as reducing the welding speed.
In terms of thickness alone, a comparison of Figs. 65 and 67 indicated that an increase in steel thickness
of 100%, i.e. from 0.6mm to 1.2mm, resulted in an increase of 70% in the nugget aspect ratio, i.e. from 0.5
to 0.86.
Both the heat input and the rate of heating during welding are markedly influenced by the resistivity of
the base steel. From a comparison of welds made in a 1.2mm mild steel (low resistivity) and a dual phase
steel (high resistivity), it was noted that a higher aspect ratio, i.e. 1.15 compared to 0.84, Fig.68, was
obtained with the dual phase steel when using the same welding conditions.
The nugget geometry, as defined by the aspect ratio, was observed to be similar for welds produced using
either an AC or DC welding current in a 1.2mm mild steel narrow seam welded at 6m/min see Fig.69. It
can also be seen that, although the aspect ratios were similar, weld splash occurred at a smaller weld
nugget size in DC welding. With an AC current, growth of the weld nugget caused severe bulging before
eventually breaking through the sheet surface. With DC welding the weld nugget broke through the
surface when the weld size was relatively small i.e. before pronounced bulging was noted. This effect was
also observed in a 0.6mm mild steel welded with DC current at a speed of 16m/min, Fig.70. A "high
temperature tunnel" was created at the centre of the contact width in the case of DC welding. It is
considered that this high temperture region would possess a lower strength and is therefore, less able to
contain the molten nugget. Consequently, weld splash through the surface would occur earlier with DC
current in most situations.
7.1.4.2.
Wide Seam Welds
The bands observed in narow seam welds were also visible in wide seam welds produced at a welding
speed of 2m/min. However, at a welding speed of 6m/min, the solidification structure did not exhibit
bands or any pronounced directionality. Increasing the welding speed also resulted in an increase in the
aspect ratio which in wide seam welding was generally in the range 0.1 to 0.3.
- 35
Increasing the welding current at a welding speed of 2m/min, resulted in an increase in the number of
weld bands, with up to twenty three bands being observed. The latter, it was calculated, corresponded to
a solidification distance of approximately 8mm along the weld seam.
As in the case of narrow seam welding, the aspect ratio and the solidification structure of the weld
nuggets were similar in welds produced with either an AC or DC welding current.
It was observed that the maximum welding current was limited by the onset of liquid expulsion through
the surface of the weld seam for both AC and DC currents. In welds made using an AC current,
pronounced bulging occurred before weld splash whereas, in the case of welds made with a DC current,
splash occurred before pronounced bulging of the weld seam.
7.1.4.3.
Mash Welds
Examination of transverse sections indicated that, as the welding speed increased, the weld nugget
rotated from the horizontal plane to a position lying along the inclined weld interface, Fig.71. These
results indicated that at low welding speeds, melting was concentrated at the mid-thickness position and
was therefore contained by the surrounding solid metal and the solid phase bonds which formed at the
edges of the faying surface. On the other hand, at high welding speeds, i.e. >14m/min, melting occurred
along the inclined interface. Therefore, at these speeds the area of solid phase bonding available to
contain the molten liquid at its point of formation was less. This allowed weld splash to occur more easily
at the outer edges of the faying surfaces. The effect of this was to cause splash to occur at relatively lower
welding currents thereby, leading to a reduction in the available welding current range at high welding
speeds.
From previous work <19) on low speed mash welding, it was postulated that the weld nugget was developed
at the mid-thickness of the section because plastic deformation or mash-down occurred prior to nugget
development. To confirm this and, to examine the mechanism of weld formation at high welding speeds, a
series of transverse sections were taken from the weld region corresponding to weld formation under the
electrode wheels. The results, Fig.72, showed that significant plastic deformation or mash-down occurred
before the first evidence of melting.
Examination of longitudinal sections of welds made using an AC current at welding speeds of less than
14m/min, showed that it was possible to eliminate the weld interface, whereas at speeds in excess of
14m/min, evidence of the original interface was noted at the area corresponding to the low/zero current
region of each half cycle of current. In order to produce a continuous weld at a welding speed of 15m/min,
it can be calculated that the heat developed during each half cycle of current flow must form a bond over a
length of 2.5mm along the weld seam. However, the high welding currents necessary to enable adequate
heat development along this length results in high peak currents which give rise to weld splash before the
heat has effectively spread along the necessary length.
Surface defects were observed at high welding speeds with AC current. These were similar to "comma"
defects previously observed with high speed welding of tinplate. These defects have been attributed^ 2 * to
melting near the surface of the seam which extends beyond the region of the arc of contact between the
electrode and the sheets being welded. In the case of DC current, it was possible to achieve continuous
weld formation along the entire length of the weld seam at speeds up to 22m/ min.
The solidification structure of welds in 0.6mm mild steel depended on the type of current used. With
current levels close to the splash limit, the solidification structure of the nugget was diffuse in the case of
AC current but exhibited a well defined outline with directional solidification in the case of DC current,
Fig.73.
In general, it can be concluded that if either the welding speed or welding current was increased, the
volume of molten metal formed outside the electrode arc of contact was also increased. Increased welding
speed or reduced electrode force increased the rate of nugget growth in the vertical direction through the
sheet thickness. If the bulk resistivity of the steel was increased an increase in the rate of nugget growth
in the vertical direction was obtained. Compared to narrow seam welding, wide seam welding resulted in
a greater volume of molten metal outside the electrode arc of contact. Further, the temperature gradient
between the weld surface and the molten weld nugget was lower for DC welding. This caused liquid
metal expulsion to occur in preference to the growth of a large weld nugget.
36-
7.2.
Coated Steels
In addition to examining the factors influencing weld cracking (see Section 5.3.), it was necessary to
examine welds with a view of determining the relevance of the coating to weld formation. This work was
confined to an examination of welds made by narrow seam welding techniques since it was asssumed that
weld formation was similar for both this process and the wire welding process. It has been shown that,
the the majority of the current entered the weld zone near the entry side of the electrode and as the
welding speed increased, a greater proportion of the current flowed towards the exit side of the electrode.
Flow of current towards the exit side of the electrodes was considered to be related the number of cycles
(i.e. the time) required to form the first weld and the distance travelled during this weld time at the
different welding speeds. For example, when three cycles of current were required to form the first weld,
the seam travelled forward 2mm and 10mm during this time at welding speeds of 2 and 10 m/min
respectively. Therefore, at high welding speeds, the weld formation would be initiated more towards the
exit side of the electrode arc of contact and consequently, the current would flow more towards this side.
Examination of welds produced by stopping the current flow after 1 cycle, 2 cycles, 3 cycles etc. showed
that, a higher number of cycles of current flow was required to form a weld in the case of coated steels as
compared to mild steel These welds were produced at a speed of 10m/min using current levels selected
immediately below the splash limit. It was observed that, in the case of mild steel a weld was formed after
1 cycle of current flow, Fig.74.(a), whereas with electrolytic-zinc, iron-zinc alloy, aluminium and lead-tin
coated steels, 2 cycles of current flow were necessary to form the weld, Fig. 74(b). In the case of the hot
dipped zinc coated steel, a weld was formed after 3 cycles of current flow, Fig.74(c). This effect is to be
expected in coated steels because of the lower contact resistance of these materials which reduces the
heating effect for a given current level. In addition, a finite time is required to remove the coating from
the weld interface. Consequently, during the first few cycles of current flow, the coating is squeezed out
from the faying surface interface and weld formation occurs after the majority of the coating is dispersed
from the interface. Since this requires a finite time, the onset of weld formation is delayed. Similar
effects have been observed in spot welding (16,22).
Because a higher number of current cycles are required to form the initial weld in coated steels, it would
be expected that the current would flow more towards the exit side of the weld zone in the case of the
coated steels as compared to mild steel. This was confirmed from an examination of longitudinal sections
taken from the region of weld formation under the electrode wheels (Figs. 75 and 76). However, there was
little evidence to suggest that current flow occurred towards the exit side of the weld zone in the case of
hot dipped zinc coated steel, Fig.77. In this case, part of the current flowed towards the exit side and part
through current paths created ahead of the weld. This could result in a pulse-type effect along the length
of the weld, i.e. the current would flow through the nugget towards the exit side A, then change to the
path created near the entry side B. In the case of the iron-zinc alloy, the heat pattern under the electrode
wheels was observed to be similar to that noted with mild steel. This may be attributed to the surface
characteristics of the coating, i.e. high surface resistance and melting point relative to most of the other
coatings.
8.
GENERAL MODEL OF WELD FORMATION
In order to improve the general understanding of the seam welding process and; to determine the factors
which limit the maximum welding speed attainable, it is desirable to develop a model of weld formation
and weld growth. In addition, the factors controlling the incidence of weld splash need to be evaluated
since results obtained in the current study suggest that surface splash is a limiting factor.
8.1.
Uncoated Mild Steel
Important observations made in the present investigation may be summarised as follows:(1)

(2)
(3)
The available welding current range decreased as the welding speed increased.
The relatively earlier onset of splash, observed as the welding speed was increased, resulted
from a corresponding increase in the rate of nugget growth towards the sheet surface.
The rate of growth of the weld nugget towards the sheet surface increased with increasing
sheet thickness, electrical resistivity and low electrode force levels.
37
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
As would be expected, increasing the welding current resulted in larger weld nuggets which
solidied over a significantly longer distance.
The dynamic resistance exhibited a peak at the start of the weld and then attained a steadystate condition.
Banding within the solidified nugget suggested that the welding current passed through the
molten nugget during its solidification.
The welding current flows more towards the exit side of the arc of contact between the sheet
and the welding electrode in the thicker steels and at the higher welding speeds.
The arc of contact between the welding electrode and the steel decreased as the welding
speed was increased.
The development of a satisfactory weld model must take into account these factors as well as results from
previous investigations. Heat generation in welding is controlled by the relationship,
Heat input = I2Rt
(4)
Account must be taken therefore of the current, resistance and time when drawing up any model. The
magnitudes of the current and resistance developed during welding are related by Ohm's Law, i.e. a high
resistance reduces the current flow and vice-versa. With respect to resistance changes during weld
formation, these form only a small proportion of the overall resistance of the secondary circuit and thus
the corresponding changes in the secondary current are relatively small. Nevertheless, these small
changes in resistance have a very pronounced effect on heat generation and weld formation.
8.1.1.
Stages of Weld Formation
The distribution of the resistance in the weld zone, and the corresponding current paths control the
m a n n e r in which the weld is formed. Information on weld development can be g a i n e d from a
metallographic examination of welds in conjunction with an evaluation of the dynamic resistance
characteristics developed during the welding operation.
Previous workUO) 0 n the measurement of the dynamic resistance during spot welding has shown that the
final shape of the dynamic resistance curve depends on the relative contribution of a number of factors
which are operative during the welding process. For example .breakdown of surface asperities and films
results in a decrease in the resistance whereas, the increase in temperature results in an increase in the
resistivity of the base steel . The dynamic resistance curves obtained in the current investigation were
charcterised by an initial peak followed by a steady-state condition and can be defined in four stages in
terms of the development of the weld nugget.as indicated in Fig.78.
Stage 1 Growth - Initial Resistance Peak
With the 1.2mm thick mild steel, the initial resistance peak was reached after 2,3 or 4 half cycles,
depending on the welding conditions. Metallographic examination showed t h a t no weld nugget was
formed until between the 3rd and 4th cycle of welding current. Thus, during the first few half cycles of
current flow, the increase in resistance due to the temperature effect on the resistivity of the steel
outweighed the reduction in resistance at the faying surface due to the flattening of surface asperities and
the breakdown of surface films.
With a 0.6mm mild steel, the initial peak was reached after the first or second half cycle of current flow.
Metallographic examination indicated that a weld nugget was formed within the first cycle of current
flow. The relatively larger amount of heat abstraction which occurs, via the welding electrodes, resulted
in this case in less heating of the bulk steel and under these conditions the increase in resistance was
more than counteracted by the reduction in resistance caused by the lower resistance path created during
the early stages of weld formation. The overall effect in the case of 0.6mm mild steel was to cause an
earlier drop in the resistance value.
Stage 2 Growth - Region of Resistance Drop
After the initial peak in resistance, the resistance falls steadily over the next few cycles of current flow,
the number of which depends on the steel thickness and the welding conditions used. In the case of the
1.2mm mild steel welded at a speed of 2m/min, the resistance fell over 8 cycles of current flow. During
- 38 -
this phase, the effect of current shunting must outweigh the increase in resistance arising from the
changes in resistance due to the increase in temperature.
Evidence which confirms that current shunting had occurred was obtained from an examination of the
bands observed in the structure of the final weld nugget which, showed the number of half cycles of
current which had passed through the molten nugget during its solidification. Evidence of shunting was
also inferred from the fact that no weld was produced during the first few cycles of c u r r e n t flow.
Approximately 4 cycles of current flow were necessary to develop a weld nugget. However, in the final
weld seam, the weld start region exhibited the largest weld nugget. Metallographic examination also
showed that as the time during which current flow increased, the region behind the weld nugget
developed a "mushy" zone behind which a region of solid phase bonding only had formed. The length of
these regions was found to increase until approximately 10 cycles of current flow after which no further
growth occurred. These regions present a larger path for current flow which has a lower resistance than
the molten nugget. Thus the reduction in resistance after the initial peak is considered to be due to the
presence of a larger current path resulting from the shunting of current through the previously formed
liquid/solid weld nugget and the area of mushy/solid phase located behind the molten nugget.
At high welding speeds, the fall in resistance occurred over a short period of time which can be attributed
to two factors. Firstly, the extent of shunting of the current is controlled by the distance over which the
current has to travel. At the higher welding speeds, the distance between each half cycle peak is large.
Consequently, at higher welding speeds, the resistance falls over a smaller number of cycles. Secondly, at
high welding speeds, the value of the steady/state resistance is higher than that measured at low welding
speeds consequently, the steady state resistance is attained in a short time period. This is due to the fact
that the weld is formed nearer the exit side of the arc of contact of the welding electrode thereby, giving a
shorter current path.
A more rapid drop in resistance occurred with the 0.6mm mild steel which can be attributed to the faster
rate of formation of the molten weld and the earlier onset of the steady state condition.
Stage 3 Growth - Secondary Resistance Peak
The third stage of weld formation consists of the development of a small secondary resistance peak, which
is considered to result from changes in the available shunt paths. At the early stages of welding, the
current flow tends to follow the low resistance paths created as a result of the breakdown of the high
contact resistance at the faying surfaces. The current continues to spread over this region until the
distance over which the current has to flow becomes too large. At this stage, some of the current then
flows in the region behind the weld nugget. This results in a reduction in the length of the current path
thereby, resulting in a slight increase in resistance.
Stage 4 Growth - Steady/State Condition
A steady-state value is finally attained during which the majority of the current enters the sheet in areas
near the entry side of the arc of contact between the sheet and the welding electrode. This results from the
lower temperature and higher effective electrode pressure at this position giving a lower resistance path,
Fig.79. At this stage, the distribution of current through the weld zone reaches an equilibrium condition.
The magnitude of the steady state resistance is influenced by the precise distribution pattern of the
current, as is the mode of weld formation and the available welding range.
8.1.2.
Current Distribution-Weld Zone
The distribution of the current through the sheets depends on the various resistance paths offered to the
flow of current between the welding electrodes, see Fig.79. During welding, these resistances act in
parallel and influence the distribution of current flow accordingly. The number of paths can be split up
into six regions. Prior to the sheets entering the gap between the welding electrodes, there is no intimate
contact between the sheets thereby preventing the passage of current between the sheets, see region A,
Fig.79. As the sheets enter the electrode gap, the sheets are forced together but no bonding occurs. This
results in a very high resistance path (B). The next region (C) exhibits solid phase bonding. In this region,
two counteracting effects are operative, firstly, a reduction in resistance arising from the larger amounts
of bonding which occurs and secondly, an increase in resistance due to the increase in temperature in this
zone. Moving further towards the exit side of the arc of contact, zone (D), a mushy zone exists where the
steel is between its liquidus and solidus temperature. This zone will exhibit a higher resistance path than
39 -
the preceeding solid phase region. The formation of the liquid zone (E) results in a step-wise increase in
resistance. In the solidified zone corresponding to the weld nugget, i.e. zone(F), the resistance is again
lowered and continues to fall as the temperature of the welded seam falls. Although the inherent
resistance of this region may be low, the distance the current would have to flow to pass through this
region gives a much higher effective resistance to current flow.
From an examination of the resistance paths in the weld area, it is considered that the majority of the
welding current will pass through the region of solid phase bonding thereby, extending the weld nugget
already formed, Fig. 80. However, part of the welding current is known to pass through the area of higher
resistance offered by the molten nugget. The passage of an alternating current through this region will
modify the solidification rate, thereby, influencing the solute size/distribution such as to result in the
structural banding observed in the solidified weld nugget.
At low welding speed.although a small number of cycles of current flow are required to produce the first
weld nugget, the relative movement of this region is small and therefore, the molten zone extends towards
the entry side of the arc of contact. In this situation, the majority of the welding current will pass through
the faying surface towards the entry side of the welding electrode. There is sufficient time available to
form the weld and, to allow sufficient heat abstraction through the welding electrodes to ensure complete
solidification of the molten liquid nugget so formed before it exits from the electrode arc of contact.
At high welding speeds, when a larger number of cycles of current flow is required to form the first weld
nugget, there is a tendency for the original nugget to be displaced towards the exit side of the electrodes.
The low resistance paths at the faying surface under these circumstances are developed near the exit side
of the electrode arc of contact. However, the majority of the current still enters the sheet surface towards
the entry side of the electrode arc of contact but flows through the faying surface towards the exit side of
the electrode arc of contact. In this case, the current is concentrated over a shorter length and there is less
time available for heat abstraction through the electrodes. Therefore, the molten nugget grows more
rapidly towards the sheet surface. Consequently, the available current range between weld formation
and nugget expulsion through the surface of the sheet is reduced.
Similar conditions apply to mash welding where at the higher welding speeds, the welding current tends
to flow towards the exit side of the electrode contact arc and this, coupled with the short contact time
between the electrodes and the sheet surface, results in a shallow temperature gradient between the
surface and the weld centre. At both low and high welding speeds the majority of the heat is developed at
the point of highest resistance, i.e. the faying surface. However, at low welding speeds there is sufficient
time available between weld formation and exit from the electrodes to enable significant heat abstraction
from the surface of the weld through the electrodes. This promotes weld nugget formation at the midthickness of the section. At high welding speeds, the amount of heat abstraction through the electrodes is
reduced and this results in liquid formation along the inclined faying surface up to the edge of the overlap.
This gives rise to the early onset of weld splash.
8.1.3.
Factors Influencing the Available Welding Range
High welding speeds promote growth of the weld nugget through the sheet thickness and reduces the
available welding range. Other factors which encourage nugget growth in the vertical direction
exacerbate this situation, i.e. the available in current range between weld formation and surface splash
is reduced with thicker steels and steels with a high resistivity.
Increasing the electrode force extends the arc of electrode contact which extends the length of the current
path and increases the time available for heat abstraction and the avialable welding current range.
With larger currents, a greater amount of melting occurs but there is a limited volume of liquid metal
which can be solidified in the time in which the electrodes are in contact with the sheet. At the splash
limit, the amount of heat abstraction is insufficient to solidify the nugget before it exits from between the
electrodes and consequently, the molten weld nugget can erupt through the surface of the seam.
The reduced arc of contact at the higher speed is related to the fact that less heat is generated towards the
entry side. The work done by the electrodes in deforming the steel is concentrated towards the entry side
of the arc of contact and, the reduction in temperature and consequent increase in strength, results in a
reduced level of weld indentation for the same applied force, Fig.81.
40
Similar considerations can be applied to mash seam welding although allowances must be made for the
rotation effects which occur in this case. Examination of transverse sections indicated that as the welding
speed increased, the weld nugget rotated from the horizontal plane to a position lying along the inclined
weld interface. These results indicated that at low welding speeds, liquid formation was concentrated at
the mid-thickness position and was therefore contained by the surrounding solid metal and the solid
phase bonds which formed at the edges of the faying surface. On the other hand, at high welding speeds,
i.e. > 14m/min, melting occurred along the inclined interface. Therefore, at these speeds the area of solid
phase bonding available to contain the molten liquid at the point of formation is less, thereby allowing
weld splash to occur more easily at the outer edges of the faying surfaces. The effect of this is to allow
splash to occur at relatively lower welding currents, thereby, reducing the welding current range at high
welding speeds.
The higher welding speeds achieved in mash welding with DC current may be explained in terms of weld
growth characteristics in that, the weld nugget formed more towards the entry side of the electrode
contact area. As shown in Section 7.1.4.3, this difference was evidenced by the fact that with DC welding,
a more well defined weld nugget was produced, rotation of the weld nugget occurred at higher welding
speeds than with AC current and the minimum which was evident in the splash limit occurred at higher
welding speeds in DC compared to AC current. These findings can be explained by the fact that the weld
was formed more towards the entry side of the electrode contact area when using a DC current.
Consequently, weld formation and cooling of the weld nugget is more likely to occur in the area of
electrode contact. This results in a greater heat abstraction rate thereby giving a more directional
solidification structure, and allowing a higher welding speed to be atttained before the minimum in weld
splash occurs.
The reason for the difference in current flow pattern is probably related to differences in the heat spread
behind the weld with AC and DC current. With AC current, the heat spread is confined to a smaller area
during the low/zero current region of the waveform. This will result in less bonding behind the nugget and
consequently, a higher resistance in this region. Therefore, as the current increases, less of the current
will flow through this region and a higher proportion will flow towards the exit side of the electrodes.
With DC current the continuous nature of the current waveform will result in a more consistent heat
spread towards the entry side and a higher proportion of the current will therefore flow in this region.
8.2.
Weld Formation in Coated Steels
Results obtained on the welding of various types of coated steel have indicated pronounced differences in
welding behaviour, as defined in terms of weld growth and optimum welding conditions, between
uncoated and coated steels. Any generalised model of weld formation needs therefore to take into account
the differences observed and it is essential to determine how each coating type influences the
distribution of current flow in the weld area.
Compared to mild steel, all the coated steels examined required much higher welding currents for weld
formation, i.e. of the order of 50% to 100% higher in the case of narrow seam welding. Differences were
also observed in the current flow pattern and the solidification structure observed in the weld nugget.
The effect of the coating on the model proposed for weld formation is to change the various resistance
paths available to the current passing through the weld area. In general, the presence of the coatings
reduces the contact resistance. This is in part due to the low resistivity of the coating in the majority of
instances and, the ease with which the coating deforms under the action of the applied electrode force
giving a much larger contact area for current flow. During the welding operation, melting of the coating
extends beyond the weld zone. The electrode pressure also forces the coating from the weld zone to the
edges of the weld zone.
Because of the low melting points of the coatings, melting can occur at the extremities of the weld zone
and complete a bridge between the two sheets being welded. This can increase substantially the area
available for current flow. Shunting of the current through these bridges can also take place which in
turn, reduces the current density. Therefore, with coated steels a much higher current level is required to
achieve the necessary current density for weld formation.
This wider current path at the faying surface results in the need for a higher welding current to achieve
the necessary current density at the faying surface. However, the contact area of the electrode on the
sheet surface will be similar or only slightly greater than for mild steel. Therefore, the higher current
necessary to form a weld at the faying surface in coated steels results in a higher current density at the
41
sheet surface and consequently, higher surface temperatures with coated steels than with uncoated mild
steels. Thus the balance of the proportion of the heat generated at the surface compared to that at the
faying surface is increased with coated steels and consequently the welding current range is reduced.
With respect to the nugget aspect ratio in coated steels, the flow of current towards the exit side will
increase the aspect ratio whereas, the increased width of current flow will tend to decrease the aspect
ratio. These effects cancel each other out to some extent and metallographic examination showed similar
nugget aspect ratios in coated and uncoated steels.
The effect of different coatings will depend on how they change the relative distribution of the resistance
and current paths. Factors likely to influence this are:(1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
The melting point of the coating, which will determine the distance adjacent to the weld over
which the coating will melt and also how easily it flows from the weld zone.
The amount of coating in the weld area which in turn can depend on coating thickness.
The resistivity of the coating.
The presence of different phases within the coating.
Whether the coating forms "bridges" behind the nugget, i.e. towards the entry side, which
will present an alternative current path and may result in "intermittent" type weld
formation.
In addition to affecting the current flow in the longitudinal direction, the surface coatings can also
influence the current flow in the transverse direction. Spreading of the coatings to the edge of the weld
zone creates a bridge through which current can flow thereby, effectively increasing the width of the
current path. It may be noted that even in the molten state, the resistivity of zinc and aluminium are
significantly lower than that of mild steel at the same temperature. The resistivity of lead is slightly
higher than that of mild, however, the mere presence of a path will allow current to flow through.
Lead has the lowest melting point but the highest resistivity, aluminium the highest melting point and
its lowest resistivity. Therefore, with a lead-tin coating, a larger current path exists compared to that
obtained with aluminium. However, the resistivity in this area will be higher than with the aluminium
coating. Thus there may be counteracting effects caused by each coating and the overall effect will
depend on the relative balance between such factors. It was not possible to determine the relative
contribution of these various factors within the framework of the present investigation and further work
is necessary before a complete understanding of weld formation can be derived for coated steel.
8.3.
Guidelines for Increasing Welding Speed
From the proposed model, it is possible to indicate factors which can be controlled to allow an increase in
the maximum welding speed attainable. These may be summarised as follows:(i)
Encouraging weld formation to occur more towards the entry end of the electrode arc of
contact. It has been suggested'2' that a two stage process would be beneficial, i.e. a low heat
weld to produce a bond followed by a high heat to form a weld of sufficient strength. By this
means the previously formed bond prevents excess shunting towards the exit side of the
electrode arc of contact.
(ii)
A similar effect may be achieved by the use of larger electrode wheel diameters. This would
increase the arc of electrode contact without increasing the indentation.
(iii)
Reducing the likelihood of eruption or splash through the weld seam as the weld exits from
between the electrodes. This can be achieved by:(a) Some means of cooling the surface of the weld seam between the electrodes and on exit
from the electrode, e.g. water cooling.
(b) Application of force to the surface of the seam as it exits from the electrodes by using an
electrode extension device similar to that suggested for high speed can-making machines <2'.
-42 -
(iv)
Any increase in speed above approximately 15m/min is limited in the case of 50Hz
alternating current by separation of the weld nuggets. In such situations DC or square
wave welding currents can prove beneficial in giving some further increase in speed.
Alternatively, a higher frequency alternating current may be used.
Another method of increasing the maximum welding speed is to use narower seam welds.
The results presented in Section 4.4. showed that higher welding speeds could be achieved with narrow
seam compared to wide seam welding configurations. This was attributed to the greater volume of liquid
produced in wide seam welding and the inability of the electrodes to remove sufficient heat from the weld
zone to enable solidification of the increased volume of weld metal before it exits from the electrode
contact area. Therefore, the use of narrower weld seams may enable higher seam welding speeds.
In most wide seam welding operations, the electrode tread width generally specified is equal to 5 V t ,
where t is the sheet thickness in mm. It is general practice to recommend welding conditions which result
in a weld width equal to the electrode tread width. The weld width is generally allowed to fall, as a result
of electrode wear, to a minimum value equal to 80% of the electrode tread width. The V t weld size
concept originated from standards set for spot welding, which in turn, were based on rivet dimensions.
With respect to spot welds, Janota <23>, has investigated the relationship between weld size, sheet
thickness and the criteria governing the mode of fracture durng tensile-shear testing. This work
indicated that the transition from shear to plug type failure was a function of joint geometry. It has also
been shown( 24 >that the type of failure also depends on the testing procedure and the corresponding stress
systems. Therefore, it is considered that 5 V t is not an absolute value and, in practice, acceptable welds
can be achieved in many applications using smaller weld sizes. For example, in narrow seam welding of
automotive fuel tanks, the weld widths are generally between 2 and 3 V t while in tinplate cans, the weld
widths can be as low as l V t . The weld, in both these instances, must be capable of withstanding quite
high internal pressures. In coil joining applications for steel processing lines, weld widths of 2.5 to 3.5Vt
are typical. In this case the welds are subjected to quite high tensile stresses as the weld in the
transverse direction is processed at high speed and, sometimes, high temperatures, e.g. hot dip coating
lines.
The minimum width of weld seam that can be tolerated will obviously depend on the end application and
the type and level of stress encountered. Where the stress is tensile-shear, weld widths in the range 2 to
3 V t result in failure in the parent metal rather than through the weld. In this situation increasing the
weld width does not increase the effective strength of the end product. Although the minimum weld
width required may depend on the exact stress regime encountered by the end product, the present width
of 5 v t in the case of wide seam welding is considered excessive. In many applications the weld width
could be significantly reduced with no adverse affects on the product quality, while higher welding speeds
could be attained. It should be stated however, that closer control of the welding process would be
required both from the viewpoint of the narrower welding range at higher speeds and also from the fact
that the tolerance on the weld width would be more critical.
9.
CONCLUSIONS
9.1.
Uncoated Mild Steel
9 1.1
In all variants of seam welding, as the welding speed was increased, the necessary current
for weld formation increased progressively. The width of the weldability lobe decreased with
increasing speed due to the earlier onset of splash.
9.1.2.
The maximum attainable welding speed depended on the welding configuration. With AC
current speeds of up to. 14 to 16 m/min were attained for narrow and mash seam welding.
However, with wide seam welding, the maximum welding speed was 6 to 8 m/min.
9.1.3.
Factors which limited the maximum welding speed for seam welding of mild steel using an
AC current were weld splash and nugget separation. Weld splash occurred through the
surface of the weld seam in narrow and wide seam welding whereas, in mash seam welding,
splash occurred at the edge of the faying surfaces.
-43
9.1.4
The influence of DC current compared to AC current depended on the factor which limited
the maximum welding speed. In situations where the welding speed was limited by weld
splash through the surface of the weld seam, DC current generally resulted in a decrease in
the maximum welding speed. If weld nugget separation was the limiting factor, then DC
results in an increase in the maximum welding speed attainable. Welding with DC current
required less current than that for AC welding.
9.1.5.
Other factors which limited the welding speed were:(i) Low electrode force levels
(ii) Interrupted current programmes
(iii)Steels with high resistivity
9.1.6.
With respect to thickness tolerances, it was shown that with a nominal thickness of 1.1mm,
it would be possible to accommodate the permitted thickness variation specified in standards
of 0.100mm with one welding condition. It was also shown that coating oil levels in the
range 0.5 to 4g/m 2 had little effect on weld formation or the maximum welding speed
achieved with a 1.2mm thick mild steel.
9.1.7
The maximum welding speed which could be achieved in roller-spot welding was similar to
that for continuous seam welding.
9.1.8.
Minimum indentation welds could be produced over a wide range of welding currents and
speeds. The limiting factor for welding c u r r e n t was bulging or convexity of the nonindentation side. The limiting factor concerning speed was rippling of the surface.
9.2.
Coated Steels
9.2.1.
The maximum welding speeds attainable when welding coated steels were found to be less
than those obtained with mild steel of similar thickness using either narrow seam or wire
welding.
9.2.2.
At low welding speeds of 2m/min combined with a continuous c u r r e n t p r o g r a m m e ,

overheating of the electrode wire occurred in wire welding. At a welding speed of 6m/min,
the available welding ranges for wire welding and narrow seam welding were very similar,
whereas at 10m/min, larger welding ranges could be achieved using the wire welding
technique.
9.2.3.
The narrower welding ranges obtained with coated steels could be attributed to the higher
currents necessary for weld formation coupled with the relatively earlier onset of weld
splash or cracking formation depending on coating type.
9.2.4
Cracking encountered in coated steels was attributed to i n t e r g r a n u l a r penetration of

copper/brass/bronze phases.
The susceptability of the coatings investigated to weld cracking was as follows:(a)High susceptability to cracking - hot dipped zinc and electroplated zinc
(b)Intermediate susceptability to cracking - iron zinc alloy, zinc - 5% aluminium and lead-tin
(c)Low susceptability to cracking - aluminium and zinc - 55% aluminium
Cracking can be minimised by the use of an interrupted current programme.
9.3.
Monitoring of the Seam Welding Process
9.3.1.
The welding current exhibited a slight upslope over the initial period of weld formation and
subsequently, remained fairly consistent along the length of the weld seam.
-44
9.3.2.
While the electrode force level necessary to produce a satisfactory weld was influenced by
material parameters, the force pattern during welding was predominantly a function of
machine characteristics and current waveform.
9.3.3.
The electrode movement measured in roller-spot welding was similar to that observed from
spot welds, i.e. the electrode movement followed the expansion and contraction of the weld
nugget. With continuous current, the electrode movement exhibited a slight movement at
the start of the weld seam and then reached a steady-state level along the remainder of the
weld seam.
9.3.4.
With a continuous current programme, the dynamic resistance exhibited an initial peak and
then dropped to a steady state value along the remainder of the seam. Fluctuations in this
value were observed when weld splash occurred. In some instances subsidiary resistance
peaks were observed.
9.3.5.
The initial peak resistance was influenced by steel thickness, welding current and welding
speed whereas the. steady-state level of resistance was influenced by the welding parameters
used, the welding process and the extent of weld formation.
9.4.
Weld Formation
9.4.1.
Four stages of weld growth have been identified relative to the dynamic resistance
characteristic developed in the weld zone. These stages may be summarised as:
Stage 1. An initial rise in resistance due to the effect of temperature on the resistivity of the
steel outweighing the decrease in resistance arising from deformation of the surface
asperties-localised solid phase bonding occurs in this period.
Stage 2. A drop in resistance due to shunting of the current through the area of solid phase
bonding - melting occurs leading to the development of the first weld nugget.
Stage 3. A secondary resistance peak due to changes in the available shunt path - this
corresponds to the formation of the second and third weld nuggets.
Stage 4. Steady-state condition - corresponds to a balance between the heat input and heat
abstraction thereby allowing the continuous development of the weld seam.
9.4.2.
A model has been developed for weld formation and growth based on various current paths
developed during the welding process. These current paths were determined by the
distribution of resistance in the weld zone and its surrounding area.
9.4.3.
As the welding speed is increased, the current flow tends to concentrate towards the exit side
of the welding electrodes. Under these conditions, the molten weld nugget extends beyond
the arc of contact between the welding electrodes and the sheet being welded. This increaes
the likelihood of splash.
9.4.4
Factors which encourage current flow towards the exit side of the electrode arc of contact
area:
(a) Increased welding speeds
(b) Increased steel thickness levels
(c) The presence of a surface coating
Other factors which encourage nugget growth towards the seam surface are:(a) Low electrode force levels
(b) High resistivity steels
9.4.5.
From the model developed, an increase in the maximum welding speed may be achieved by:-
-45
(a) Encouraging weld formation towards the entry side of the electrode arc of contact,
possibly by using a two stage process.
(b)Reducing the weld nugget aspect ratio by increasing the electrode force and/or the use of
larger diameter electrodes.
(c)Increasing the ability of the process to retain the molten nugget within the material in
order to delay the onset of splash, by improved cooling and in some situations, by the
application of a force as the seam exits from the arc of contact by means of an electrode
extension system.
(d)In applications where the welding speed is limited to 14 to 16m/min by nugget separation
in the case of AC current, then DC current can be beneficial in increasing the welding speed
attainable.
It should also be noted that the maximum welding speed may be increased in many instances
by reducing the width of the weld seam to the minimum width compatable with the
requirements of the end product.
10.
REFERENCES
1.
Williams, N.T., Thomas D.E., and Wood K., Metal Construction 1977, 9 (4), 157-160 and (5)
202-208
2.
Waddell, W., Thomas D.E., and Williams N.T., Metal Construction 1986,18 (3) 156-161
3.
Lheureux, G.E., Bellotte, E.J., Welding and Metal Fabrication, October 1964, pp 393-397
4.
Ganowski F.J., Schweissen Und Schneiden, No. 11, November 1967
5.
Yamamoto T., and Okuda T., IIW Doc. No. 111-504-74
6.
Westgate S., Welding Institute, Private Communication
7.
Torii.K., IIW Doc. 111-409-71
8.
Oldroyd, P.S., and Williams N.T., Welding and Metal Fabrication, March 1980, pp. 97-105
9.
Smith, CS., Trans, AIME, 175,(1948),ppl5-51
10.
Salter, W.J.M., JISI, May 1966, pp.478-488
11.
Savage, W.F., Nippes, E.P., and . Mushala., .M.C., Welding Journal, May 1978, pp.l45s152s
13.
Bredzs, N., and Schwartzbart, H., Welding Journal, August 1959, pp.305s-324s.
14.
Savage, W.F.,Nipes, E.F., and Stanton, R.P., Welding Journal, January 1978, pp.9s-16s.
15.
Nicholson, A., Murray, J.P., JISI October 1965, pp.1007-1018
16.
Williams, N.T., Sheet Metal Industries Conference on Welding of Sheet Steel and Coil,
Welding Institute, Kenilworth 1972.
17.
Torii.K., Radono, Y., and Tamura, T., IIW Doc. 111-409-71
18.
Williams, N.T., and Jones T.B., BSC Report No. FR65-7281, September 1982.
19.
Funk, J., and Begeman, M.L., Welding Journal, June 1956, pp.265s-274s.
20.
Dickenson, D.W., Welding Journal, 1980, pp.l70s-176s.
-46
21.
Yamamoto, T., and Okuda T., Journal of Japan Welding Society, 1979, pp.39-44.
22.
Kelly, J., and Knowlson., P.M., Welding Journal, Research Supplement, 1967, 46,(3), 113s125s
23.
Janota, M., IIW Doc. Ill 455-72
24.
Williams, N.T., and Jones, T.B., Metal Construction, October 1979, pp.541-546.
TABLE 1 (a)
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF STEELS FOR NARROW/WIDE/MASH SEAM WELDING
Chemical Analysis (Wt.%)
Steel
Type
Thickness
(mm)
Batch No.
Mild
1.2
Steel
Mn
Al.
Sol
Al.
Tot.
Si
Cr
Ni
Mo
Cu
Nb
Ti
0.027
0.008
0.005
0.31
<0.01
<0.01
0.001
0.0031
0.034
0.005
<0.005
0.012
<0.01
<0.01
1.2
1A
0.060
0.020
0.005
0.22
0.046
0.064
0.001
0.0082
0.026
0.008
<0.005
0.025
<0.01
<0.01
1.2
Mash
0.036
0.012
0.005
0.28
0.068
0.068
0.005
0.0053
0.040
0.012
0.01
0.017
<0.01
<0.01
0.95
0.034
0.007
0.007
0.29
<0.01
<0.01
0.001
0.0032
0.040
0.005
<0.005
0.023
<0.01
<0.01
0.75
0.056
0.016
0.005
0.28
0.065
0.082
0.001
0.0065
0.039
0.005
<0.005
0.029
<0.01
<0.01
0.6
Narrow/
mash
0.05
0.012
0.010
0.27
0.079
0.075
0.015
0.0054
0.010
0.011
<0.01
0.019
<0.01
<0.01
TABLE 1(b)
DETAILS OF STEELS USED TO DETERMINE THE EFFECT OF STEEL TOLERANCE ON WELDABILITY
Chemical Analysis W t . %
Steel
No.
Thickness mm
Average of
20 Readings
Mn
Al.
Tot.
Al.
Sol.
Si
Ni
Mo
Cu
Nb
Ti
0.99
0.044
0.023
0.010
0.28
0.037
0.036
0.018
0.0080
0.013
<0.01
0.136
<0.01
.001
1.0
0.044
0.014
0.012
0.26
0.048
0.046
0.009
0.0043
0.013
<0.01
0.014
<0.01
.001
1.06
0.050
0.021
0.012
0.27
0.060
0.063
0.012
0.0041
0.012
<0.01
0.016
<0.01
.001
1.08
0.046
0.008
0.008
0.29
0.049
0.051
0.014
0.0052
0.011
<0.01
0.014
<0.01
.001
1.17
0.055
0.016
0.005
0.22
0.056
0.050
0.001
0.0075
0.011
<0.01
0.026
<0.01
.001
1.18
0.049
0.012
0.006
0.27
0.042
0.039
0.020
0.0075
0.011
<0.01
0.013
<0.01
.001
1.19
0.040
0.015
0.009
0.25
0.052
0.055
0.011
0.0059
0.016
<0.01
0.014
<0.01
.001
1.20
0.046
0.009
0.005
0.27
0.004
0.003
0.001
0.0055
0.009
<0.01
0.024
<0.01
.001
00
TABLE 1 (c)
SURFACE CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS USED TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTS OF STEEL TOLERANCE ON WELD ABILITY
Surface Classification
S(o)
Ra
Steel No.
Top
L
Top
T
Bot
T
Bot
L
Top
L
Top
T
Bot
T
Bot
L
1.06
1.12
1.14
1.09
248
274
282
320
1.27
1.25
1.41
1.47
273
214
197
195
1.05
1.00
1.12
1.10
148
214
217
264
1.64
1.53
1.35
1.36
119
134
220
250
1.59
1.74
1.66
1.55
228
169
219
205
1.43
1.49
1.49
1.58
203
195
242
223
1.09
1.16
0.85
0.85
258
210
232
188
1.19
1.25
1.64
1.60
267
245
274
239
co
TABLE 2
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF HIGH STRENGTH STEELS EXAMINED
Chemical Analysis (Wt. %)
Thickness
mm
Mn
Al
Sol
Al
Tot
Si
Cr
Ni
Mo
Cu
Nb
Ti
0.55
0.076
0.022
0.096
0.45
0.043
0.057
0.013
0.0067
0.010
0.012
<0.005
0.018
<0.01
<0.01
0.7
0.079
0.016
0.092
0.47
0.061
0.062
0.012
0.0068
0.010
0.013
<0.005
0.017
<0.001
<0.01
1.2
0.043
0.016
0.094
0.52
0.045
0.049
0.012
0.0065
0.013
0.016
<0.005
0.029
<0.01
<0.01
Niobium
1.4
0.056
0.022
0.028
0.42
0.029
0.038
0.024
0.0082
0.031
0.016
C0.005
0.039
0.090
<0.01
Dual Phase
0.75
0.107
0.005
0.012
1.23
0.030
0.031
0.52
0.0075
0.42
0.019
<0.005
0.036
<0.01
<0.01
1.2
0.108
0.005
0.011
1.24
0.035
0.040
1.07
0.0073
0.42
0.017
<0.005
0.035
<0.01
<0.01
1.2
0.010
0.018
0.013
0.13
0.048
0.048
0.023
0.0056
0.013
0.013
0.01
0.015
<0.01
0.13
Steel Type
Rephosphorised
Titanium
CTI
TABLE 3 (a)
BASE STEEL ANALYSIS OF COATED STEELS EXAMINED
Chemical Analysis (Wt. %)
Coati ngType
C
Mn
Al
Sol
Al
Tot
Si
Cr
Ni
Mo
Cu
Nb
Ti
Lead-Tin
0.055
0.014
0.007
0.25
0.042
0.044
0.022
0.0080
0.027
0.006
0.001
0.016
<0.01
<0.01
Aluminium
0.064
0.015
0.007
0.27
0.083
0.13
0.001
0.0075
0.015
0.014
0.001
0.029
<0.01
<0.01
Hot Dipped Galvanised
0.048
0.015
0.008
0.26
0.062
0.066
0.003
0.0051
0.038
0.015
0.001
0.012
<0.01
<0.01
Electro-zinc
0.055
0.016
0.006
0.22
0.035
0.041
0.025
0.0104
0.007
0.032
0.001
0.037
<0.01
<0.01
Iron-zinc alloy
0.009
0.007
0.008
0.25
0.011
0.013
0.009
0.0084
0.008
0.017
0.001
0.019
<0.01
<0.01
Zinc-5% Al
0.058
0.014
0.012
0.30
0.037
0.038
0.008
0.121
0.015
0.017
0.001
0.023
<0.01
<0.01
Zinc-55% Al
0.048
0.014
0.015
0.25
0.045
0.045
0.005
0.0078
0.012
0.009
0.001
0.020
<0.01
<0.01
TABLE 3(b)
DETAILS OF COATINGS ON THE COATED STEELS EXAMINED
Coating
Type
Steel
Thickness
mm
Average Coating W e i g h t
g/m2
Coating
Thickness
pm
Top
Bottom
Total
Top
Bottom
Coating Analysis
Pb
Sn
Si
Fe
Zn
Terne
0.75
95
73
168
70
14.6
10.5
Aluminium
0.78
47
61
108
13
20
<0.01
80.2
6.0
10.8
Hot
Dipped
Galvanised
0.85
167
177
344
20
23
0.1
0.6
"
0.3
98.9
Electrolytic
Zinc
0.78
38
39
77
<0.01
<0.01
0.2
99.8
Iron-Zinc
0.88
103
84
187
16
14
<0.01
0.15
7.4
92.4
Zinc-5%
0.60
127
125
252
28
28
<0.01
4.8
0.4
0.4
94.4
Zinc-55%
M
0.70
89
83
172
22
24
<0.01
50.2
1.4
6.4
42.0
Ui
ro
- 53
TABLE 4
COMPARISON OF MAXIMUM WELDING SPEEDS* FOR AC AND DC POWER SUPPLIES WITH
NAROW. WIDE AND MASH SEAM WELDING
Narrow Seam
Mild Steel
Thickness
(mm)
Mash Seam
Wide Seam
AC
AC
(m/min)
DC
(m/min)
AC
(m/min)
DC
(m/min)
AC
(m/min)
DC
(m/min)
0.60
16
20
14
18
0.75
16
0.95
16
1.2
10
14
The maximum welding speed generaly have available welding ranges >750A
TABLE 5
COMPARISON OF MINIMUM CURRENT REQUIREMENTS FOR AC AND DC POWER SUPPLIES
WITH NARROW. WIDE AND MASH SEAM WELDING
Narrow Seam
Mild Steel
Thickness
(mm)
AC (kA)
Wide Seam
DC (kA)
AC(kA)
Mash Seam
DC(kA)
AC(kA)
DC(kA)
2
m/
min
6
m/
min
2
m/
min
6
m/
min
2
m/
min
6
m/
min
2
m/
min
6
m/
min
2
m/
min
6
m/
min
2
m/
min
6
m/
min
0.60
5.25
6.25
4.0
4.25
6.75
6.75
5.0
6.0
0.75
4.75
6.5
4.5
5.25
9.5
12.75
7.0
10.25
0.95
5.5
7.25
5.0
5.5
8.5
13.0
7.25
9.25
1.2
6.5
9.25
4.5
6.75
10.25
14.25
8.5
12.25
11.5
12.25
-54
TABLE 6
COMPARISON OF THE AVAILABLE WELDING CURRENT RANGES FOR AC AND DC POWER
SUPPLIES WITH NAROW. WIDE AND MASH SEAM WELDING
Narrow Seam
Mild Steel
Thickness
(mm)
AC (kA)
- Wide Seam
DC (kA)
2
m/
min
2
6
6
m/
m/
m/
min min min
0.60
8.25
6.75
6.0
0.75
7.5
4.0
0.95
7.0
1.2
7.0
AC(kA)
Mash Seam
DC(kA)
AC(kA)
DC(kA)
2
m/
min
6
m/
min
2
m/
min
6
m/
min
2
m/
min
6
m/
min
2
6
m/
m/
min min
3.0
2.75
1.25
4.75
3.0
4.5
0.75
7.5
1.25
5.5
0.25
4.0
425
1.25
8.25
1.25
2.5
1.25
2.5
2.75
0.5
5.75
1.25
3.5
0.25
7.0
6.0
- 55
TABLE 7
EFFECT OF STEEL VARIABLES - METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
Steel
No.
Thickness
mm
Welding
Current
kA
Measured
Plug Width
mm (Vernier
Calipers)
Metallographic
Examination ofTensile
Test Welds
(mm)
Nugget
Width
Solid
Phase
Width
Total
0.99
13.7
4.9
3.7
0.9
4.6
1.0
13.95
4.8
3.5
1.0
4.5
1.06
I3.95
3.5
3.5
0.3
3.8
1.08
13.85
4.6
3.5
0.7
4.2
1.17
13.95
4.8
2.9
1.4
4.3
1.18
13.3
3.5
1.6
1.3
2.9
1.19
13.15
4.7
2.3
1.8
4.1
1.20
13.95
3.0
3.5
3.5
56
TABLE 8
RESISTIVITY VALUES DETERMINED FOR THE STEEL TYPES USED
Steel Type
Mild
Steel
RePhosphorised
Titanium
Treated
Niobium
Treated
Dual
Phase
Typical
Resistivity
12.5
15
17.5
22.5
30
pQcm
N.B.
The actual value of resistivity depends on the composition

and processing history
TABLE 9
EFFECT OF INCREASING ELECTRODE FORCE ON MAXIMUM WELDING SPEED FOR
1.2/1.4mm THICK STEEL (NARROW SEAM)
Maximum Welding Speed * m/min
Thickness
mm
Electrode
Force kN
1.2
1.4
4.5
1.2
1.4
6.75
Mild
Steel
RePhosphorised
10
Niobium
Treated
Dual
Phase
4
0
16
8
10
Maximum speed taken as welding speed at which there is at least 750A

between current for continuous weld and weld splash.
-57 -
TABLE 10
COMPARISON OF MAXIMUM WELDING SPEEDS FOR STEELS OF DIFFERENT COMPOSITION
AND THICKNESS - NARROW SEAM/CONTINUOUS AC CURRENT
Maximum Welding Speed * m/min

Thickness
mm
Electrode
Force kN
0.55
2.5
0.6
0.7
Rephosphorised
Niobium
Treated
Dual
Phase
16
16
3.0
0.75
Mild
Steel
14
12
16
1.2
4.0
1.4
4.5
10
8
0/8 +
Maximum speed taken as welding speed at which there is at least 750A

between current for continuous weld and weld splash.
+ Interface failures-first figure relates to maximum speed, for suitable

current range between continuous plug failure and splash, second
figure relates to maximum speed for suitable current range between
stuck weld and splash
58
TABLE 11
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM WELDING CURRENTS FOR 1.2/1.4mm THICK MILD AND
HIGH STRENGTH STEELS
Welding
Speed
m/min
Current
Parameter
Mild Steel
Rephosph
orised
Niobium
Treated
Dual
Phase
Minimum
6.5 (6.0)
8.1 (7.0)
9.9(5.9)
6.5(6.0)
Maximum
13.5
12.9
10.4
11.0
7(7.5)
4.8(5.9)
0.5 (4.5)
4.5 (5.0)
Minimum
9.25(9.0)
8.7 (8.3)
9.9 (9.4)
9.0 (8.0)
Maximum
11.75
11.0
10.3
9.6
2.5(2.75)
2.3 (2.7)
0.4(0.9)
0.6(1.6)
Range
Secondary Current kA
Steel Type
Range
N.B. Minimum current refers to current for continuous weld plug, figures in
brackets refer to current for stuck weld. Maximum current refers to current
giving weld splash.
59
TABLE 12
EFFECT OF ELECTRODE FORCE 'ON MAXIMUM WELDING SPEEDS
ATTAINABLE
Maximum Welding Speed m/min

Steel
Thickness
mm
Narrow Seam
Electrode
Force
AC
3.0
0.75
4.5
DC
Electrode
Force
AC
DC
3.5
14
5.25
10
16
6.0
1.2
Wide Seam
4.0
10
2.4
6.0
16
10
4.8
8.0
16
14
7.2
TABLE 13
MAXIMUM WELDING SPEEDS FOR UNCOATED AND COATED STEELS
Maximum Welding Speed m/min and Factors Limiting Maximum Speed

AC or DC
Current
AC
DC
N.B.
0.75mm
Mild
Steel
0.78mm
A
Coated
0.75mm
Terne
Lead-Tin
0.85mm
Hot
Dipped
Galvanised
0.78mm
Electroplated
Zinc
0.88mm
Iron-zinc
0.6mm
Galfan
Zn5% M
0.7mm
Zaiutite
Zinc55% A
16
10
6*
12
14
10
Cracking
Cracking
S+
Opening
up
S+
Opening
up
S+
Opening
up
S+
Opening
up
1. Maximum welding speed based on welding range of at least 750A

2. S refers to weld splash
3. * with HDG although there was a range of 1500A at 5m/min there the range was only 500A
at 2 and 4 m/min.
4. Cracking refes to brass filled cracks observed at the edge of the weld plug after tensile
testing
05
O
TABLE 14
COMPARISON OF MINIMUM AC CURRENT REQUIREMENT FOR MILD STEEL AND COATED STEELS
Minimum Current for Continuous Weld Plug

Welding
Speed m/min
f
Percentage Increase ^
( C o m p a r e d t o Mild Steely
0.75mm
Mild
Steel
0.78mm
M
Coated
0.75mm
Terne
(Pb/Sn)
0.85mm
Hot Dipped
Galvanised
0.78mm
Electroplated
Zinc
4.75
10.75
(125)
9.75
(105)
9.25
(95)
0.88mm
Iron-Zinc
0.6mm
Galfan
Zn-5%
0.7 mm
Zalutite
Zn-55%
A
7.75
(65)
11.0
(130)
9.0
(90)
10.75
(125)
6.0
10.5
(75)
10.5
(75)
10.5
(75)
8.5
(40)
11.0
(85)
10.5
(75)
10.5
(75)
6.5
10.5
(60)
13.0
(100)
11.75
(80)
9.5
(45)
11.25
(75)
11.0
(70)
10.75
(65)
7.25
11.0
(50)
13.5
(85)
12.75
(75)
11.0
(50)
12.5
(70)
11.0
(50)
10.75
(50)
10
7.75
11.5
(50)
13.75
(75)
14.5
(85)
12.5
(60)
13.5
(75)
11.5
(50)
11.5
(50)
Average
Increase in
Current
compared t o
mild steel
kA
4.4
5.65
5.3
3.4
5.5
4.15
4.3
70
90
80
50
80
65
75
O)
TABLE 15
COMPARISON OF AC WELDING CURRENT GIVING RISE TO SPLASH/PITTING FOR MILD STEEL AND
COATED STELS
Current Giving Rise t o Pitting or Splash-AC Current

( ) - Percentage Change
Welding Speed
m/min
0.75mm 0.78mm 0.75mm

Mild
A
Terne
Steel
Coated (Pb/Sn)
0.85mm
Hot
Dipped
Galvanised
0.78mm
0.88mm
ElectroIronplated
Zinc
Zinc
0.6mm
Galfan
Zn-5%
A
0.7mm
Zaiutite
Zn-55%
A
12.25
12.75
(5)
13.5
(10)
12.25
(0)
10.75
(-10)
13.0
(5)
10.0
(-20)
12.0
(-5)
11.0
12.0
(10)
14.75
(35)
13.5
(25)
11.0
(0)
13.0
(20)
11.5
(5)
12.5
(15)
10.5
12.0
(15)
14.5
(40)
14.5
(40)
12.0
(15)
13.5
(30)
12.25
(15)
13.0
(25)
10.0
11.75
(20)
13.5
(35)
15.0
(50)
13.0
(30)
13.5
(35)
12.25
(25)
13.0
(30)
10
10.0
12.25
(25)
13.75
(40)
15.5
(55)
13.25
(35)
14.5
(45)
13.0
(30)
12.5
(25)
Average increase
in current
compared to mild
steel
kA
1.4
3.25
3.4
1.25
2.75
1.0
1.85
15
30
35
15
25
10
20
TABLE 16
DECREASE IN WELDING CURRENT FOR CONTINUOUS PLUG FORMATION WHEN USING DC COMPARED
TO AC CURRENT
Decrease in Minimum Current w h e n using DC compared t o AC Current kA (%)

Welding Speed
m/min
0.75mm
Mild
Steel
0.78mm
A
Coated
0.75mm
Terne
(Pb/Sn)
0.85mm
Hot Dipped
Galvanised
0.78mm
Electroplated
Zinc
0.88mm
Iron-Zinc
0.6mm
Galfan
Zn-5%
A
0.7mm
Zalutite
Zn-55%
A*
0.25
(5)
3.25
(30)
3.0
(30)
2.25
(10)
2.0
(25)
5.0
(45)
2.5
(30)
1.5
(15)
3.75
(35)
3.75
(35)
3.0
(30)
1.75
(20)
4.75
(45)
3.25
(30)
2.25
(25)
1.25
(20)
3.25
(30)
5.57
(45)
4.25
(35)
1.75
(20)
4.5
(40)
3.5
(30)
2.5
(25)
2.75
(20)
3.25
(30)
5.25
(40)
2.75
(25)
2.0
(20)
10
1.75
(25)
5.25
(40)
1.1
3.5
4.2
3.1
2.2
4.95
3.0
2.1
15
30
35
25
25
40
30
20
Average
Decrease
kA
in Current
w i t h DC
%
compared t o AC
N.B. DC Welding of Zalutite failed to produce continuous plugs, comparison based on stuck welds
Ol
CO
TABLE 17
GENERAL RESULTS FROM SOUDRONIC WELDING TRIALS
Current Level kA
Steel
Elect
Steel
Thick-
-rode
Conii uous Current
Coating
Continuous Current
ness
Force
Continuous Current
Pulse Current 1 on/1 off
2m/min
6m/min
mm
daN
lOm/min
4.8 m/min
Stuck
Hot Dipped
0.85
400
Coot.
9.5
Brau
Cracki
12.5
Uu<
Stuck
Coat
Brau
Crack
Mu*
Stuck
Co lit.
Brau
Cracki
Mai.'
Stuck
Co nt.
Brau
12.5 1
13.0
13.75
14.5
14.25
15.75
14.25
15.75
16.75
16.751
14.0
18.0
18.0
13.0
15.0
Galvanised
Electroplated
Crack*
Max.*
18.0
18.03
17.0
17.03 +
CD
0.71
400
10.5
12.5
12.5
12.51
11.75
12.5
13.5
15.25 3
13.0
13.5
15.0
16.253
14.0
15.5
18.0
18.03
Iron Zinc
0.88
400
11.0
12.25
12.25"
12.0
13.0
15.0
14.5
15.252
13.0
14.25
16.0
16.0
16.0 2
13.5
15.5
17.03
Zn5%Al
0.60
350
12.5
13.0
13.01
13.0
14.0
14.5
15.5
16.251
13.5
14.0
15.0
16.5 2
14.0
15.5
18.0 2
Zn55% Al
0.70
400
10.5
12.251
12.5
14.5
15.5
16.5 1
13.0
15.0
16.5
18.01
14.0
16.5
17.03
Al
0.78
400
10.5
13.5
13.5
10.5
13.5
14.5
15.25*
12.5
14.25
16.0
17.0 2
13.0
15.5
17.5s
Pb (Sn)
0.75
400
9.5
13.5
11.5
13.5
16.75
17.5 3
13.0
14.75
16.75
17.01
14.0
15.5
18.03
Zinc
1
2
3
Too Hot for Wire

Wire Broke
Splash
12.25
+ Pulsed Current 2 cycles on/2 cycles off

Welding Speed 3.3 m/min
TABLE 18
COMPARISON OF AVAILABLE WELDING RANGE. NARROW SEAM VS. WIRE WELD
Welding
speed
m/min
Welding
Technique
Hot Dipped
Galvanised
Electroplated
Zinc
Iron-Zinc
Zn-55% A
Zn-55%
A
Pb (Sn)
Narrow Seam
Wire Weld
0.5
0
2.75
0
2
0
1
0
'1.25
0
2
0
3.75
1.25
Narrow Seam
Wire Weld
1.5
0.50
0.5
1.0
2.25
1.5
1.25
1.5
2.25
2.0
1.5
1.75
1.5
3.25
10
Narrow Seam
Wire Weld
0
1.0
0.25
1.5
1.0
1.75
1.5
2.5
1.0
3.0
0.75
2.75
0
2.0
N.B. Wire Welds produced with approx. 15-33% higher force
en
oi
TABLE 19
COMPARISON OF MINIMUM CURRENTS FOR CONTINUOUS WELD FORMATION NARROW SEAM VS. WIRE WELD
Minimum Current for Continuous Weld Formation kA

Nv
Coating
\
Type
WeldingX
Technique^v
Hot Dipped
Galvanised
Electroplated Zinc
6m/
min
10m/
min
6m/
min
10m/
min
6m/
min
Narrow Seam
11.75
14.5
9.5
12.5
Soudronic
13.75
15.75
12.5
17
32
Percentage Increase
in current w i t h wire
welding
IronZinc
Zn-5% A f
Zn-55% A
10m/
min
6m/
min
10m/
min
6m/
min
10m/
min
6m/
min
10m/
min
6m/
min
10m/
min
11.25
13.5
11.0
11.5
10.75
11.5
10.5
11.5
13.0
13.75
13.5
13.0
14.25
14.0
14.0
14.5
15.0
13.5
14.25
13.5
14.75
16
27
22
35
30
29
24
N.B. Wire Weld produced with approx. 15-33% higher force levels
Pb(Sn)
TABLE 20
THE EFFECT OF ELECTRODE FORCE ON THE RESITANCE AT THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM WELDING CONDITIONS AT 6m/min
Mild Steel
Thickness mm
Narowor
Wide Seam
AC or DC
Current
0.75
Wide
AC
Narrow
1.2
Wide
Narrow
Minmimum
or Maximum
Welding
Condition
Dynamic Resistance Level pQ

Standard
Force
-50%
Standard
Force
Standard
Force
+ 50%
Min
Max
125
115
105
95
DC
Min
Max
90
90
80
70
AC
Min
Max
195
135
DC
Min
Max
180
165
140
110
AC
Min
Max
135
135
110
105
100
90
DC
Min
Max
110
110
85
80
75
70
AC
Min
Max
170
165
DC
Min
Max
165
150
130
125
Standard
Force
+ 100%
130
100
125
100
-68
TABLE 21
DYNAMIC RESISTANCE LEVEL AT MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM WELDING CURRENTS FOR
1.2/1.4mm THICK STEELS OF DIFFERENT RESISTIVITY
Welding
Speed m/min
Dynamic Resistance Level nii

Steel Type
Current
Parameter
Mild Steel
RePhosphorised
Niobium
Treated
Dual
Phase
Minimum
Maximum
Range
200 (230)
135
65 (95)
180(220)
150
20 (70)
200 (230)
128
72(102)
200(220)
120
80(100)
Minimum
Maximm
Range
175(195)
160
15(35)
190(210)
164
26 (46)
168(180)
152
16(28)
172(180)
160
12(20)
Dynamic resistance at minimum current refes to value at continuous weld plug

formation, the figure in brackets refers to the dynamic resistance at the
formation of a stuck weld.
69
TABLE 22
COMPARISON OF RESISTANCE LEVEL FOR AC vs. DC
AND NARROW V3. WIDE SEAM AT A WELDING SPEED OF 6m/min
Dynamic Resistance y
Mild Steel
Thickness
mm
0.75
0.95
1.2
AC or
Narrow or
DC
Wide Seam Current
Electrode
Force kN
Minimum Maximum
Current
Current
Condition Condition
Wide
AC
3.5
125
115
Wide
DC
3.5
90
90
Narrow
AC
3.0
195
135
Narrow
DC
3.0
180
165
Wide
AC
4.0
130
120
Wide
DC
4.0
100
90
Narrow
AC
3.5
200
155
Narrow
DC
3^5
170
155
Wide
AC
4.8
110
105
Wide
DC
4.8
85
80
Narrow
AC
4.0
170
165
Narrow
DC
4.0
165
150
70-
PEAK CURRENT
AVG CURRENT ( + PULSES)
/
/
/
11-1/2 CYCLE l \
21 I CYCLE
Irms'
to
t-t0
FIG.1
SCHEMATIC CURRENT V S . TIME CYCLE
low
cycle
ripple
DC
waveform
FIG.2
WAVEFORM OF SECONDARY VOLTAGE IN A RECTIFIED
WELDING SYSTEM
71 -
Wide
V
O
cz^
FIG.3
BASIC TYPES OF RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING
Narrow
Mash
Wire
-72
.Wire feed
gm
g
FIG. 4
PRINCIPLE OF THE SOUDRQNIC PROCESS
co
FIG.5
KUKA NARROW SEAM WELDING MACHINE TOGETHER WITH BRITISH FEDERAL DC
POWER PACK, INSTRUMENTATION RACK, MICROCOMPUTER AND PLOTTERS
- 74-
FIG.6
SOUDRONIC WELDING MACHINE MODEL Rdk 100 TEuP
SPLASH LIMIT
<
J
friz;
(X
ce
CONTINUOUS WELD
O
z
ai
II
a
w
WELDING SPEED(m/min)
FIG.7
TYPICAL WELDABILITY LOBE OBTAINED WHEN SEAM WELDING MILD STEEL.
v]
O)
FIG-8
WELDABILITY LOBES FOR NARROW SEAM WELDING OF MILD STEEL WITH a.c. CURRENT
WELDABILITY LOBES FOR NARROW SEAM WELDING OF MILD STEEL WITH d. c. CURRENT,
03
upper 1imit(spla sh)
<
^^
f-
00
cc
IX
Q
J
FIG.10
WELDABILITY LOBES FOR WIDE SEAM WELDING OF MILD STEEL WITH a .c. CURRENT.
init(continuoua
weld)
CD
"'inj
FIG.ll
WBLDABILITY LOBES FOR WIDE SEAH WELDING OF HTLD STEEL WTTH d.c. CURRENT
upper limit (splash)
imit (continuous weld)
00
O
A COMPARISON OF WELDABILITY LOBES FOR THK HASH SEAH WELDING QF
Q.6 AND 1.2mm. THICK
STKKL
16.0 .
15.0
14.0
13.0
CO
12.0
T)
11.0
A
A
H
A
10.0
"o"
Splash
4 /t weld
Continuous plug
Stuck weld
_i_
1.0
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.12
Steel thickness ititi
1.14
FIG.13
EFFECT OF STEEL TOLERANCE ON WELDING RANGE
1.16
1.18
1.20
- 82-
Steel
Thickness
Nugget
Width
Max.Plug
Width
nm
nm
mm
1.0
3.5
4.6
1.06
3.5
3.5
1.19
2.3
4.45
FIG.14
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WELD NUGGET WIDTH AND WELD PLUG WIDTH
upper
linit(splash)
lower lBt(continuous weld)
00
co
juv
VVVVCT OF T F T.FVKT. OF g . f p ^ m OTT. ON THF WK1.DABILITY T.ORKS (WIDE SEAM A.C.)
84
OflMMI
WUIM
CMTIMMS CU
ITUCK
CLJ
l u a i m rMcc-i.niii
10
12
CLO Jr>E E O ( . / . ! I
14
11
(a)
10
VLAM
racMuacu wiciac
a CMTIMIMJ CU
i n o icu
(b)
IO
12
curri 'Mct-I.mm
.i
ii
en.0 3 P ( t o ( . / . i . i
12
io
irmi*
Q PMMtMCCO
IULCINC
CONTINUOUS CLO
, I T U IL
ICLCCTMOC rCE -i.ii
I
IO
'ELO
12
II
5 -E E 0 I . / . I . I
(C)
FIG.16
L 0 B E S F 0R
5nUn
^
P?""
< a >' 0 - 7 """ (b) and 1.2mm t*\~L
THICK REPHOSPHORI SED STEELS
-85-
16
J6
14
12
IO
SPLSSM
O rRONOUNCED BULGING
CONTINUOUS ELO
a STUCK VELO
(ELECTRODE FORCE-3.OkNI
10
12
14
IB
16
WELD S P E E D ! . / . I n )
(a)
18
16
14
12
10
SPLASH
O rRONOUNCEO BULGING
CONTINUOUS VELO
O STUCK ELO
lELECTROOE
10
12
14
F O R CE - i . O k N l
16
16
WELD SPE E O(/lnl

(b)
FIG.17
WELDABILITY
LOBES
F OR
0.75mm
PHASE
(a)
and
STEELS
1.2mm
(b)
THICK
DUAL
86 -
16
14
12
10
SPLOSH
CONTINUOUS VELD
a STUCK ELO
[ELECTRODE FORCE-4.SkN)
8
10
WELD
12
IS
18
SPE E D!/.Ini
(a)
18
16
14
12
ID
5PLPSH
O PRONOUNCE D BULGING
CONTINUOUS E LO
STUCK E LD
(ELECTRODE
10
WELD
12
F O R CE - 6 . ? S k N l
16
SPE E D(/Ini
(b)
FIG.18
WELDABILITY LOBES FOR 1.4mm THICK HIOBIUM TREATED STEEL
AT DIFFERENT FORCE LEVELS, (a) 4.5 kN, (b) 6.75 kN
18
SPEED IM/MJN)
=2
=4
=6
A
IH
=8
= 10
IELECTR0DE FORCE M. OkN
E
e
CO
ZD
_1
0_
_i
LlJ
10
11
12
WELD CURRENT!kR)
FIG.19
WELD GROWTH CURVES FOR 1 .2mmREPH0SPH0RI SED STEEL

NRRR0W SERM fl.C.)
13
in
88
,
^
'
:"'
&V*
Tensile test specimen
FIG.20
INDIVIDUAL SPOT WELDS PRODUCED WHEN USING
PULSATION WELDING AT A WELDING SPEED OF 6m/min
89
10
<
p
0>
U 6
3
-O
iH
0,5
nnxmud (SPLBSM/cRflcn I N C )
LI OU I 0
A uiumul
O STJCK rfE LO
(ELECTRODE FOUCE ! Ok Klj

10
ELO
12
14
16
16
20
22
SPE E D l / . ' n j
(a)
10
Sa
P
C
01
u
u?
3
I6
nRXIrtUMiSPLBSH/CRfll I N U
LI OU I O
niNinun
D I I U I K irfE LO
(ELtCrHOOE FIIRCE -J.OnMj

2
IO
WELQ
12
I*
Ib
16
5PE E 0 l - V m . n l
(b)
FIG.21
WELDABILITY LOBES FOR MASH SEAM WELDS I N 0.6mm MI LD STEEL
(a)
AC c u r r e n t
T&l DC c u r r e n t
20
22
<
JA
H
zu
W
CC
CD
O
a.
o
J
FIG.22
TH E EFFECT OF ELECTRODE FORCE ON THE WELDABILITY OF 1.2nn. MILD STEEL(WIDE SEAM
a.c.
91
JPCOI.H/HJN)
=2
=4
(ELECTRODE FORCE-2. UN.)
12
10
14
WELD CURRENTIkfll
(a)
(ELECTRODE F0RCE-7.2kN;
12
14
16
18
VELO CURRENT(kB)
(b)
FIG.23
EFFECT OF ELECTRODE FORCE ON WELD GROWTH CURVES,
MILD STEEL, WIDE SEAM, AC CURRENT
92
16
14
12
10
ROLLER SPOT WELDIN G

7c?cI..0N-5to240FF
(SPEED D E P E N D E N T !
..i.;n/n]N2flFF-iH7BiNSnrr
a SPLASH
* 4 V T ELO
CON TIN UOUS VELO
O STUCK ELO
(ELECTRODE FOItCC-t.OkN)
8
10
VELD
12
14
J6
18
SPEED(/Ini
FIG.24
WELDABILITY LOBE FOR ROLLER-SPOT WELDING OF 1.2m m
MILD STEEL (WIDE SEAM A.C.)
>K
I' 'I
7/"/"/////"/"i|||l"|
100
110
120
I' I'MIIIU'I
'M |M Mil
130
140
''y\k,'
|H|il|
150
ID H I
160
|MI'HIiiini
II
170
110
IftO
llnilillllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllililll
FIG.25
DIFFERENT HEAT PATTERNS AS THE WELDING SPEED INCREASED
WITH ROLLER-SPOT WELDING; WELDING CURRENT 7 CYCLES ON-TIME
uppar liBit(splash).
20
<
J
*
E-
z
w
os
ae.
CO
CO
o
o
-j
FIG.26
WELDABILITY LOBES FOR NON MARKING WELDS IN 1.2m. MILD STEEL AT THREE FORCE LEVELS.
- 94-
(a)
(b)
FIG. 2.7
CROSS SECTIONS FROM NON-MARKING WELDS (a) SATISFACTORY WELD WITH NO
INDENTATION ON THE NON-MARKING SIDE (b) HIGH HEAT WELD SHOWING EXCESSIVE
BULGING ON THE NARROW TREAD SIDE AND SLIGHT BULGING ON THE NON-MARKING SIDE
()
(b)
(c)
(d)
CD
X
Ol
-.
-^
rr^
1
BURN THROUGH
S HEET S EPARATION
S TART OF SURFACB BURNIW
CONTINUOUS
S TUCK WELD
5
WELD S PEED (n/nln)
WELD S P E E D d i / n i n )
FIG ?fl
WELDABILITY LOBES FOR THE NARROW S EAN WELDING OF LEAD / TIN
COATED S TEEL
(i) u.c.2 CYCLES ON, 2 CYCLES OFF
(b) a.c.3 CYCLES ON. 1 CYCLE OFF
(c) m.c. CONTINUOUS
(d) d.c. CONTINUOUS CURRENT
CURRENT
(ELECTRODE FORCE=3.0kN)
WELD
16-
(*)
.c.
CURRE NT
16
(b)
d.c.
CURRE NT
BURN THROUGH
14
12
oJ
10
10
A STBRT OF SURFACE BURNING

CONTINUOUS HELO
O STUCK ELD
(ELECTRODE FORCE-3.OkN)
LU
10
12
WELD SPE E DlWmln)
VLDRBJLITT LOBE FOR 0.8mm RL.CORTEO STEEL NRRROW 5ERM
CD
CD
SPLASH /PITTING
CONTINUOUS WELD
Y U D OPENINC UP
16
(*)
a.c.
CURRE NT
(b)
d.c.
CURRE NT
D TRPNSVESSE CROCKING
A PRONOUNCED BRASSING
0 "H UCK KELD
14
12
12
10
10
(ELECTRODE FORCE -SiSkrO
CD
cr
io
WELD SPE E D(n/min)
F IG .30
WELDHBIL f TT L0BE5F0R 0.85mm H OT DIP GflLV STEEL NARROW SEAM
16
(*)
.c.
CUR
E
R NT
10
(bl
d.c.
CURRE NT
SPLASH/PITTINE
C O N T I N U O U S
K
E LD
VE LD OPE NING UP
12
12
T R A N S VE
T F O N O U N CE
S T U C K
( E L E C T R O D E
R SE
KE
C R A C K I N G
B R A S S I N G
L D
F O R CE
J N . )
CD
CO
10
a:
(t:
10
WELD SPE E D ( m / m i n ) .
F I G 31,
WELDPBILITT L0BE5F0R 0.78mm E.Z.CORTEO STEEL NRRROW SEflM
ie
<)
a.c.
CURR
E NT
16
(bl
d.c.
C U R RE N T
SF , LflSH/PrTTJN&
CONTINUOUS HE LD
0 STUCK WE LD
14
14
12
12
(ELECTRODE FORCE -J. 5VU\
CD
CD
10
ce
ce
UJ
F I G .32
WELOflBILITY
LOBESFOR
10
12
10
WELD SPEED(m/mn)
0.88mm
I.Z.COATED
STEEL
NRRRQW SERM
16
(*)
a.c.
CURRE NT
16
Ib)
d.c.
CURHtNf
SPLASH/PITTING.
CONTINUOUS VELD
A WELD OPEN INS UP
A PRONOUNCED BRASSING.
O STUCK WELD.
14
(ELECTRODE f0RCE25kN).
12
12
10
10
O
O
ai
ai
3
FI G .33
10
12
14
WELD SPEED(m/min)
WELDABILITY LOBE FOR 0.6mm ZINC-5 7. ALUMINIUM COATED STEEL NARROW SEAM.
16
( d . c . ) CURRENT
( . c . ) CURRE NT
1
5PLRSM/PITTING
CONTIGUOUS WE LD
A "RONOUNCE O BR^S'INC
14
14
O STUC WELD
(ELECTRODE F0KCE 3.0kN)
12
12
10
10
UJ
te
ai
o
_i
tu
S
FIG.
34.
WELDABILITY LOBES F OR 0 . 7 n n . 30 'L
10
VELD
SPEED (m/m In.)
ZINC-ALUHINIUH COATED STEEL HARROW SEAM.
-102
FIG.35
PEELED SURFACE ON LOW TEMPERATURE WELD IN GALVANISED STEEL
SHOWS FRACTURE THROUGH THE ZINC ALONG THE EDGE OF THE WELD
FIG. 36
PEEL TESTED SPECIMEN IN ELECTROPLATED ZINC SHOWING CRACKS
ALONG THE EDGE OF THE WELD PLUG
continuous
Ion 1 off
16
16
14
12
O
CO
10
te
en
Z)
. MRXJMUM
CRACKING
BRRSSJNG
CONTINUOUS KELD
0 STUCK WELD
lELECTROOC F0RCE = *. OkNI
10
HELD
4.8
SPEEDIm/min)
FIG.37
WELDRBILJTT
LOBE
FR 0.75 mm IERNE
CARTED
STEEL ( 5 U 0 R D N I C
WELDING
-104
continuous
2on 2gff ion iivt
16
16
14
12
IO
PK I MUH
A innen INL
COU I IMU DU5 ULLO
O ITUlt tftLO
i u t e n o i r o m i c i ni
m
HELO
33
4-8
S PE E O U / m . n l
(a)
continuous
1on
1off
16
16
14
12
nnxiHun
A
CROCA INI.
D iRtmiNi,
cflNiiNunus t m
0 5 luin tuo
KLUUtODE. FflItCL! ai NI
2
fa
ELO
5
SPE E D I / ,
in
(b)
FIG.38
WELDABILITY LOBES FOR WIRE WELDING ZINC COATED STEELS

(a) 0.85mm HDG (b) 0.88mm IZ coated steel
4.6
-105-
Coating Type
Lead-tin
mîm^^sm
-
1*''. -T
". '
-'i
!**
., --..."T-'
;*
*?*&%&
'
Aluminium
Hot dipped
zinc
Ironzinc
alloy
Zinc 5%A1
FIG.39
EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT SOLIDIFICATION STRUCTURES WITH DIFFERENT COATED STEELS
WIRE WELDING
~~
-106
(a)
'Sh^.-y;
(b)
FIG.40
EXAMPLE WHERE BOND FORMED BETWEEN ELECTRODE WIRE AND SHEET
SURFACE AT HIGH HEAT IM PUT
107
(a)
(b)
x250
x25
(c)
FIG.41
EXAMPLES OF BRASS PENETRATION IN HOT-DIPPED ZINC WELD
(a) and (b) PLANAR SECTIONS, (c) LONGITUDINAL SECTION
o
00
Zn
Cu
FIG.42
HOT DIPPED ZINC
ELECTRON PROBE IMAGES SHOWING THAT INTERGRANULAR NETWORK

CONSISTS OF Cu and Zn
109
GRAIN A
Grain
Boundary
Liquid
GRAIN B
B = DIHEDRAL ANGLE
WHEN -25J < i
ass
AND THE LIQUID PHASE

RUNS ALONG THE GRAIN
BOUNDARY
WHERE STRESSES PRESENT LIQUID CAN PENETRATE

AT DIHEDRAL ANGLES ABOVE ZERO
FIG. 43
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF FACTORS AFFECTING GRAIN BOUNDARY WETTING
us
I ! ! I! I ! 11 !
mm
ml
Current
\l\l\
I V
3.3m/min
\ \ \
li
"I
i
10 m/min.
60% Phase Shift
40% Phase Shift
1 '
',
i i I u s H M s 11 u n
; 1 ; ] 11.; i ; ;|
l 1
v- 151 M^ .iJ\ ,iWl .,,V\ ,.: A/1 ...ig\ fi\ ,.J^ N\,. 4 iJ\ Ai\ N .i JJ; ^ /I ? ^ ?^ ^ ^ ^ * \ \ \ \
i ' ., ii 'ui I*: m i! Li
\i' H !
A i i: i.' i! iii i i
; ni IA| ; t ii | ii v! ili \\ V -ii I ^VU"i!a.1-i it;.-,* I v i\h *4. i :i\i\\
j j l i i I l i l i M I M M I i I M i j j | i ! ; i ii
V o l t a g e : ' j! ;j'. j 'j
'
\ \
II
i 'i i
1
'
ill! Ws
hi!
J\ ,{', j; Jj: .,, .
M I IA; \A: 'VU M
IA: VI.
J ;
I:
'I.
FIG.44
CURRENT MID VOLTAGE TRACSS FORMILD STEEL, DUAL CURRENT/SPEED PROGRAMME, MAXIMUM
"
CURRENT CONDITION
10 T
7.5
tu
o
oc
o
IU
Electrode Force - DC Current
Electrode Force - AC Current
O
ce
t
C_l
J
_J
J
1.0
2.0
WELD TJMEISECDNDS]
FIG.45
THE EFFECT OF AC AND DC CURRENT ON ELECTRODE FORCE
3.0
1.2mm Mild Steel

Wide Seam Welding
Welding Speech 2-4m/min
Current
Programme
7 cycles on
24
"
off
(Roller spot)
3 cycles on
2
"
off
Z3
0_
2 cycles on
2
"
off
-1^-
NJ
UJ
.
continuous
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
WELD TIMEISECONDS)
FIG.46
THE EFFECT OF CURRENT PULSATION ON ELECTRODE MOVEMENT
2.5
3.0
10 T
7.5
5.0
Dynamic
Resistance
iT
iT
iT-
Electrode
Force
Z3
CL-
UJ
ta
cr
CO
Electrode
lovement
2.5Current programme 7 cycles on/24 cycles off
0.5
1.0
WELD
1.5
2.0
2.5
T1MESEC0NDS)
FIG. 47
DYNAMIC RESISTANCE, ELECTRODE FORCE AND ELECTRODE MOVEMENT TRACES FOR ROLLER-SPOT WELDING AT 2m/min
10 T
Dynamic Resistance
V-JV
7.5-
Electrode Force
5.0
jwr.^-ifl^liry^w**-Wr^~*#*~
#*r
IP*
*****
Electrode Movement
E)
t3
2.5Current Programme 7 cycles ory^ cycles off
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
WELD TIME(SECONDS)
FIG.48
DYNAMIC RESISTANCE, ELECTRODE FORCE AND ELECTRODE MOVEMENT TRACES FOR ROLLER-SPOT WELDING AT 6m/min.
10
Dynamic Resistance
7.5-
W^^^f'^W^V^HW^^
Electrode Force
5.0
Z2
WMp^^
Electrode Movement
IU
en
(X
2.5
Current Programme 7 cycles on/5 cycles off
0.5
1.0
WELD
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
TIMEfSECONDS)
FIG.49
DYNAMIC RESISTANCE, ELECTRODE FORCE AND ELECTRODE MOVEMENT TRACES FOR ROLLER-SPOT WELDING AT 10m/min.
116
Minimum
Current
Maximum
Current
Mid-Range
Current
2m/min.
J4-f-JWH^
TJ
4m/min.
lUi
uu
mm b-wh
6m/min.
r\ Ui
fUU
fl
ru
FIG.50
DYNAMIC RESISTANCE CURVES FOR AN INTERRUPTED CURRENT
PROGRAMME OF 3 CYCLES ON/2 CYCLES OFF SHOWING THE
EFFECT OF WELDING SPEED AND WELDING CURRENT
ELECTRODE FDRCE=4.8kN
200 ,
1.2mm Mild Steel

Wide Seam Welding
Welding Speed 6m/min
350.
UJ
u
z
(X
(
w
100 .
Dynamic Resistance - AC current
**\^/SXM
or
^y
*Yrv~WrtrVHrv*f^*fYlf^t*Vf~~w~'yrT*'
vrrrrfr*yrrY'ifTyrH*"H~MtT^^^
Dynamic Resistance - DC current
50
2.0
1-0
WELD TIME I SECONDS)

FIG.51
DTNRMJC RESJSTRNCE FOR R.C.RND D.C.WELDS ON 1.2mm MJLD STEEL(6m/mln)
3.0
-118 -
Dynamic Resistance
FIG.52
DYNAMIC RESISTANCE AND CURRENT WAVEFORM TRACES AT THE START
OF THE WELD, NARROW SEAM, 2m/min (a) 0.6mm THICK MILD STEEL
(b) 1.2mm THICK MILD STEEL
0.6MM
MILD STEEL
250
c
3.
0.55MM.
t
1.2MM.
REPHOSPHORISED STEEL
DUfL PHfSE STEEL
225
ui
>
200
UI
O
z
CE
175
UI
OC
r
cc
2
>-
150
CD
125
100
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5
5.0
10.0
12.5
WELDIN6 CURRENT (left)

FIG.53
THE EFFECT OF INCREASING WELDING CURRENT ON THE STEADY

STTE DYNfMIC RESISTANCE LEVEL FOR RNGE OF STEELSC2M/MIN)
J5.0
MILD STEEL
REPHOSPHORISED STEEL
DUL PHfSE STEEL
220
2
UJ
oc
u
200
X
<r
r
Q
2
(C
180
1 6 0 ..
UJ
>
O
2
cr
140
K)
O
UJ
120
DTNRM1C RE SISTANCE
i:
<r
2
BT M1NIHUH CURRE NT
>D
100
DTNRMK
RE SISTANCE
R7 HRXJMUM CURRE NT
10
15
10
WELDING SPEED
15
10
15
<M/MIN)
FIG.54
THE EFFECT OF STEEL COMPOSITION ND SPEED ON THE DYNAMIC RESISTRNCE

AT MINIMUM RND MAXIMUM CURRENT FOR 0.7/0.75nn THICK STEELS
20
121
(a)
x 42.5
Transverse
(b)
x 200
Transverse
FIG. 55
(a)
TYPICAL WELD STRUCTURE REVEALED BY NITAL ETCH

Low magnification (b) high magnification showing AC/FC
structures (0.75mm mild steel, narrow seam, 6m/min)
122
(a)
x 42.5
Transverse
(b)
x 42.5
Transverse
FIG. 56
EFFECT OF CURRENT WAVEFORM ON KELP NUCOUT FORMATION

(a) AC current, (b) DC current (0.75mm mild steel,
narrow seams, 6m/min)
-123
x425
Transverse
(a)
(b)
x425
FIG.57
EFFECT OF LIGHT APERTURE AND FOCUS ON REVELATION OF WELD BANDS
(a)Light aperture fully open - showing dark streaks and carbide distribution
(b)Light aperture reduced - showing etch pits along same crystallographic
planes with boundaries delineated by dark streaks
Transverse
124
.i.
FIG.58
EFFECT OF USING A CURRENT PROGRAMME OF
2 CYCLES ON/1 CYCLE OFF ON BAND FORMATION
125
(a)
P m . ' * * * * * * * * ' t<Hl-1SSF+
UVQut/i
(b)
FIG.59
PRODUCTION OF BANDS IN SPOT WELDS
(a) 6 cycles of weld current, 6.5 kA
(b) 6 cycles of weld current, 6.5 kA
plus 6 cycles of weld current, 4 kA
Welding
Speed
Transverse
Longitudinal
Planar
2m/min.
W>
6m/min.
O)
16m/min.
FIG.6 0
INFLUENCE OF SPEED ON NUGGET GEOMETRY
(0.6mm MILD STEEL, NARROW SEAM, AC CURRENT x 25)
v?--'-*. .-
2 Cycles
Some solid phase bonds
3 Cycles
High temp.mushy region - some melting
4 Cycles
Large weld nugget formed
FIG-61
NUGGET DEVELOPMENT FROM 2 TO 4 CYCLES OF WELDING CURRENT IN 1.2mm MILD STEEL AT 2m/min
(NB No bonding at 1 cycle of weld current)
128
No.of cycles
11
17
(1) The
(2) The
the
(3) The
FIG.62
SHOWING CHANGES IN THE WELD ZONE DURING
THE FIRST FEW CYCLES OF WELDING CURRENT
trailing edge of the nugget becomes more tapered
length of the high temperature region, just below
liquidus, increases
length and effectiveness of the solid phase region increases
Longitudinal
Transverse
1 . 2mm
12.4kA
Ni
(O
0 . 6mm
8.5kA
FIG.63
COMPARISON OF HEAT PATTERNS, WITH ONE CYCLE OF WELD CURRENT, BETWEEN
1.2 AND 0.6mm THICK MILD STEEL (10m/min.)"
130-
Welding speed
m/min.
10
FIG.64
HEAT PATTERN UNDER ELECTRODES AT WELDING SPEEDS OF 2, 6 AND
10 m/min. 1.2mm MILD STEEL, JUST BELOW MAXIMUM CURRENT LEVEL
131
Welding
Current
kA
No.
of
Bands
Nugget
Aspect
Ratio
6.4
0.50
8.0
0.53
9.0
0.53
10.0
0.50
11.4
12
0.49
12.3
15
0.47
FIG.65
THE EFFECT OF WELDING CURRENT ON NUGGET GEOMETRY
(0.6mm MILD STEEL, NARROW SEAM AC CURRENT, 6m/min,
2.5kN - TRANSVERSE SECTIONS, x25)
-132-
welding Welding No.of

Speed
Current Bands
kA
Nugget
Aspect
Ratio
9.1
0.24
9.8
0.42
9.0
0.54
8.7
0.64
10
8.7
0.65
12
9.5
FIG.66
THE EFFECT OF WELDING SPEED ON NUGGET GEOMETRY (0.6mm MILD STEEL
NARROW SEAM, AC CURRENT 2.5kN.- TRANSVERSE SECTIONS, x 25)
0.88
133-
Nugget
Aspect Ratio
0.85
0.61
0.82
':^^>V-a!,'^'ÂîA'jl^î*
0.91
0.68
5iSSv>b^>:
:^î^
4kN Electrode Force
6kN Electrode Force
FIG.7
THE EFFECT OF ELECTRODE FORCE ON NUGGET GEOMETRY (1.2mm MILD
STEEL, NARROW SEAM, AC CURRENT, 6m/min TRANSVERSE SECTIONS, x25)
-134
Nugget
Aspect Ratio
Mild Steel
0.85
1.2
0.82
1.1
Dual Phase Steel
FIG.68
EFFECT OF STEEL RESISTIVITY ON NUGGET GEOMETRY (1.2mm, NARROW
SEAM, AC CURRENT, 6m/min, 4kN - TRANSVERSE SECTIONS x 25)
135
Nugget
Aspect Ratio
0.85
0.81
0.82
0.87
0.91
0.86
AC Current
DC Current
FIG.6 9
! ^ C T l..tC
D<D C
NARROW SEAM, 6m/mm,
E
CURRENT 0N N
"GGET GEOMETRY (1.2mm MILD STEEL.

4kN - TRANSVERSE SECTIONS, x 25)
136
Transverse
x25
FIG.70
"HGH TEMPERATURE TUNNEL" EFFECT OBSERVED IN DC WELDING
(0.6mm MILD STEEL, NARROW SEAM, 16m/min., 2.5 kN)
137
Welding Speed
10
14
18
FIG.71
ROTATION OF WELD NUGGET FROM HORIZONTAL TO A POSITION ALONG
THE INCLINED INTERFACE OCCURRED AS THE WELDING SPEED WAS INCREASED
2 m/min.
14 m/min
18 m/min
a t -;>*?
co
00
I
FIG.72
TRANSVERSE SECT IONS T AKEN FROM T HE REGION OF WELD FORMAT ION SHOWING T HAT
OCCURS BEFORE ANY LIQUID IS FORMED AT LOW AND HIGH WELDING SPEEDS
'MASH-DOWN'
139
AC C u r r e n t
Welding Speed
m/rain
DC C u r r e n t
10
14
22
FIG.73
COMPARISON OF NUGGET FORMATION WITH AC &
SEAM WELDING
DC CURRENT IN MASH
140
(a)
Mild steel - 1 cycle of current
(b)
Lead (Sn) - 2 cycles of current
(c)
Hot dipped zinc - 3 cycles of current
FIG.74
INITIAL WELD FORMED AFTER 1 CYCLE WITH MILD STEEL,
2 CYCLES WITH Pb(Sn) COATINGS AND 3 CYCLES WITH HOT
DIPPED ZINC COATED STEEL
-141Welding Speed
m/min
10
FIG.75
LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS SHOWING HEAT PATTERN IN THE REGION
OF WELD FORMATION AT 2, 6 AND 10 m/min, FOR MILD STEEL
-142
Welding Speed
m/min
10
FIG.76
LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS SHOWING HEAT PATTERN IN THE REGION
OF WELD FORMATION AT 2, 6 AND 10 m/min, FOR ELECTROPLATED
ZINC COATED STEEL
143
Welding Speed
m/min
10
FIG.77
LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS SHOWING HEAT PATTERN IN THE REGION OF
WELD FORMATION AT 2, 6 AND 10 m/min, FOR HOT DIPPED ZINC COATED STEEL
144
Stage 4
Start of
weld -
Steady state resistance
01
t,
Time
FIG.78
FOUR STAGES OF WELD DEVELOPMENT AS INDICATED BY
THE DYNAMIC RESISTANCE
145
Increase in resistance at electrode/sheet

interface due to:
1) Lower effective pressure towards exit side
2) Increased temp, towards exit side
increase
(F)
JO)
(C)
(B)
(A)
Solid
phase"
Solidified nugget
High resistance Low resist High resistance

due to molten
ance due to [due to absence
nugget
solid phase pf bonds
bonds
Decreasing resistance
due to overall lower
ing of temperature
Decrease in
resistance
due to more
bonding
Increase in
resistance
due to
higher
^ temperature
Stepwise increase
in resistance due
to liquid formation
FIG.79
RESISTANCE PATHS BETWEEN WELDING ELECTRODE S
146
Low welding speed
(a)
Nea r current peak during i cycle
Exit
side
Relative intensity of
current flow along
electrode arc of
contact
Less heating from current

giving increa sed solidifica tion
rate andthe forma tion of one band
Heat spread still

occurs in the
horizontal direction
Near current minimum during i cycle

Number of bands in solidified nugget indicates the number
of half cycles of current which flowed through the molten
nugget from its formation at A to its final solidification a t B
FIG.80
CURRENT FLOW BETWEEN WELDING ELECTRODES
147
Entry
side
Temperature in this
region lower resulting
in less indentation
Relative intensity
of current flow
No bonds
At high welding speed nugget formed towards

exit side this results in:1) Concentration of current over shorter distance at exit side
2) Less time for heat abstraction by electrodes
3) Consequently faster growth of the nugget in the vertical
direction resulting in a narrow welding range
4) The lower temperature at the entry side results in less indentation
FIG.81
EFFECT OF WELDING SPEED ON CURRENT FLOW

Seam Welding

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EUR. ih .

Commission of the European Communities

technical steel research

Properties and service performance

HIGH SPEED RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

Blow-up from microfiche original

Commission of the European Communities

Properties and service performance

HIGH SPEED RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

N.T. WILLIAMS, W. WADDELL

ECSC-EEC-EAEC, Brussels Luxembourg, 1988

HIGH SPEED RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING OF UNCOATED AND COATED STEELS

Basic Principles of Seam Welding

Influence of Steel Quality

WELDABILITY OF COATED STEELS

Narrow Seam Welding

MONITORING OF THE SEAM WELDING PROCESS

METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF WELD FORMATION

GENERAL MODEL OF WELD FORMATION

Uncoated Mild Steel

Guidelines for Increasing Welding Speed

Chemical Analysis of Mild Steels used in the Investigation

Schematic Current vs Time Cycle

SOUDAGE A RESISTANCE EN LIGNE CONTINUE A GRANDE VITESSE D'ACIERS

L'effet du courant continu compar celui du courant alternatif dpend

Principes fondamentaux du soudage en ligne continue

Influence de la qualit de l'acier

SOUDABILITE DES ACIERS REVETUS

Soudage recouvrement troit

CONTROLE DE LA SOUDURE EN LIGNE CONTINUE

ETUDE M E T A L L O G R A P H I Q U E DE LA FORMATION DE SOUDURE

Aciers non revtus

MODELE GENERAL DE LA FORMATION DE SOUDURE

Acier doux non revtu

Principes d'augmentation d e la vitesse d e soudage

LISTE DES TABLEAUX

Analyse chimique des aciers utiliss dans l'tude

LISTE DES FIGURES

Schma du cycle courant/temps

Surface caille de soudure basse temprature dans de l'acier

Diagramme de chaleur sous les lectrodes des vitesses de soudage

Schnellwiderstandsnahtschweien der unbeschichteten

als entweder das . Schmal- oder Quetschnahtschweien zur Folge

-XXV- Hohe Ribildungsempfindlichkeit - feuerverzinkte

Ribildung ist das Ergebnis von intergranularer Durchdringung der

Anhand des vorgeschlagenen Modells hat man gefolgert, da die

Umfang der Untersuchung

Grundlegende Prinzipien des Nahtschweiens

Ziele der Untersuchung

Schweibarkeit der beschichteten Sthle

berwachung des NahtSchweiverfahrens

Metallographisehe Untersuchung der

Einflu der Schwei-/Werkstoffparameter

Allgemeines Modell der Schweinahtbildung

Richtlinien fr eine erhhte Schweigeschwindigkeit

-xixxAufstellung der Tabellen

Chemische Analyse der in der Untersuchung eingesetzten Weichsthle

Aufstellung der Abbildungen

Schematische Darstellung des Stromes gegen den Zeitzyklus

Schweibarkeitsdiagramme fr den elektroplattierten Zinkstahl

60. Einflu der Geschwindigkeit auf die Linsenform

HIGH SPEED RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING OF UNCOATED AND COATED STEELS

Basic Principles of Seam Welding

where S = welding speed m/min